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The Journal of Positive Psychology
Vol. 4, No. 5, September 2009, 396–407
Executive coaching enhances goal attainment, resilience and
workplace well-being: a randomised controlled study
Anthony M. Grant
*
, Linley Curtayne and Geraldine Burton
Coaching Psychology Unit, School of Psychology, University of Sydney, Sydney, NSW, Australia
(Received December 2008; final version received June 2009)
In a randomised controlled study, 41 executives in a public health agency received 360-degree feedback,
a half-day leadership workshop, and four individual coaching sessions over 10 weeks. The coaching used a
cognitive-behavioural solution-focused approach. Quantitative and qualitative measures were taken. This is the
first published randomised controlled study in which coaching was conducted by professional executive coaches
external to the organisation. Compared to controls, coaching enhanced goal attainment, increased resilience and
workplace well-being and reduced depression and stress. Qualitative responses indicated participants found
coaching helped increase self-confidence and personal insight, build management skills and helped participants
deal with organisational change. Findings indicate that short-term coaching can be effective, and that evidence-
based executive coaching can be valuable as an applied positive psychology in helping people deal with
the uncertainly and challenges inherent in organisational change. Practical impactions are discussed and
recommendations are made for the effective measurement of coaching outcomes.
Keywords: executive coaching; well-being; positive psychology; resilience
Introduction
The use of executive coaching in organisations has
grown significantly in the past 10 years, and is now
viewed as a mainstream means of enhancing perfor-
mance. Executive coaching can be understood as a
helping relationship formed between a client who has
managerial or supervisory authority and responsibility
in an organisation, and a coach who uses a range of
cognitive and behavioural techniques in order to help
the client achieve a mutually defined set of goals with
the aim of improving his or her professional perfor-
mance and well-being and the effectiveness of the
organisation (adapted from Kilburg, 1996).
As the use of executive coaching has increased,
the peer-reviewed knowledge has also grown. In the
62 years between 1937 and 1999 there were only a total
of 93 articles related to coaching cited in the
database PsycINFO. In contrast, between 2000 and
2008 there were over 400 articles cited. Most of this
literature is discussion articles and opinion or social
commentary pieces rather than empirical research.
Indeed, a literature search in September 2008 found
only 42 empirical studies which examined the
impact of executive coaching interventions. Of these 42
citations, 28 used a case study methodology or retros-
pective survey approaches, 11 used a within-subjects
(pre-post) design, and 3 used a between-subjects
quasi-experimental design. The literature search failed
to reveal any randomised controlled outcome studies
which examined the impact of executive coaching
conducted by professional executive coaches.
Can executive coaching be effective?
Although limited in quantity, the existing literature
such as it is suggests that executive coaching may well
be an effective means of creating purposeful, positive
individual change. Early research, using qualitative
single subject case studies, reported that coaching
could be effective in helping clients develop construc-
tive leadership styles (e.g., Diedrich, 1996; Kiel,
Rimmer, Williams, & Doyle, 1996; Tobias, 1996).
Hall, Otazo, and Hollenbeck (1999) interviewed 75
executives to explore their perceptions of the effectives
of coaching. These retrospective qualitative interviews
suggested that coaching can both improve business
results and contribute to executive development.
Whilst such qualitative approaches can reveal a
rich and detailed picture, the lack of standardised
quantitative measures limits meaningful comparisons
between different studies. Further, a retrospective
approach to evaluation, where participants are asked
their views once the intervention is completed, is open
to a number of biases including recall errors and
*Corresponding author. Email: anthonyg@psych.usyd.edu.au
ISSN 1743–9760 print/ISSN 1743–9779 online
ß 2009 Taylor & Francis
DOI: 10.1080/17439760902992456
http://www.informaworld.com
Downloaded By: [Grant, Anthony M.] At: 12:52 11 August 2009
demand characteristics. Overcoming the limitations
of retrospective reports by using a within-subjects
(pre-post) design, Conway (2000) employed a standar-
dised commercial 360-degree feedback assessment
to examine whether executive coaching would help
participants develop a more accurate understanding
of their leadership style. Conway found that executive
coaching did not improve the accuracy of participants’
self perceptions of their leadership skills. However,
Kampa-Kokesch’s (2002) within-subjects study of
50 executives found that executive coaching resulted
in improved leadership styles as measured by the
Multi-factor Leadership Questionnaire (Bass &
Avolio, 2000). Other studies have also reported success
in enhancing in leadership style and improving man-
agerial style flexibility and problem solving (e.g., Jones,
Rafferty, & Griffin, 2006; Styhre, 2008).
Coaching, goal attainment and mental health:
past research
Given the stresses inherent in the contemporary
workplace and the emphasis on performance and
well-being within many organisations, it is surprising
that few studies have examined the impact of
professional executive coaching on goal attainment
and well-being. Using a quasi-experimental design,
Gyllensten and Palmer (2005) found that coaching
reduced stress as measured by the Depression, Anxiety
and Stress Scale (DASS; Lovibond & Lovibond, 1995).
Libri and Kemp (2006) reported on a within-subject,
ABAB single case design, finding that executive
coaching improved core-self evaluations and self-
reported goal attainment. Using a within-subjects
design, Bowles and Picano (2006) found that coaching
enhanced the quality of life for district recruiting
managers in the US Army. More recently in a similar
US Army setting, but using a between-subjects design,
Bowles, Cunningham, De La Rosa, and Picano (2007)
found that coaching was particularly effective for
middle management (compared to executive managers)
although both groups demonstrated growth on some
dimensions of leadership competencies and achieve-
ment of self-set goals.
In addition to the above workplace-based research,
a number of studies have found that life coaching
in non-work settings can reduce anxiety, stress or
depression, enhance hope, well-being and resilience
and facilitate goal attainment (e.g., Grant, 2003;
Green, Oades, & Grant, 2006; Green, Grant, &
Rynsaardt, 2007; Spence & Grant, 2007). Thus, overall
there is emerging evidence that coaching can be
an effective positive individual change methodology.
The present paper seeks to add to the literature by
reporting on a randomised controlled outcome study
which investigated the impact of professional executive
coaching on executives’ goal attainment, resilience and
workplace well-being. To the authors’ best knowledge,
this is the first published randomised controlled
outcome study of executive coaching where the
coaching has been conducted by professional executive
coaches external to the organisation, rather than by
peers or managers acting as in-house coaches.
Central aspects of executive coaching
Although the theoretical frameworks used in executive
coaching vary considerably, ranging from the cognitive
through to psychodynamic and the solution-focused
(see Peltier, 2001), there are a common set of principles
underpinning the executive coaching process. These
principles sit at the heart of the applied positive
psychological enterprise and include collaboration
and accountability, awareness raising, responsibility,
commitment, action planning and action. That is,
regardless of theoretical formulation, the coaching
relationship is one in which the coach and coachee
form a collaborative working alliance, set mutually
defined goals and devise specific action steps which
lead to goal attainment (Kemp, 2008). The coachee’s
responsibility is to enact such plans, the coach’s role
is to help keep the coachee on track, helping them
to monitor and evaluate progress over time as well as
providing an intellectual foil for brainstorming and
self-reflection.
Executive coaching may thus be effective through
at least three underlying cognitive and behavioural
mechanisms. Firstly, having a supportive relationship
in which to confidentially discuss personal and profes-
sional issues has been shown to relieve stress and
anxiety (Myers, 1999). Secondly, the process of setting
self-concordant and personally valued goals, and then
purposefully working towards achieving them, can
enhance well-being and build self-efficacy (Sheldon &
Houser-Marko, 2001). Thirdly, systemically engaging
in such processes along with being supported in
dealing with any setbacks can build resilience and
enhance self-regulation (Baumeister, Gailliot, DeWall,
& Oaten, 2006). As a result of the above, coachees may
well experience a greater sense of personal confidence,
job satisfaction and well-being as well as being better
equipped to deal with change and workplace stressors.
Context of the present study
The present study was conducted in a large-scale
public health agency in Australia. The agency covers a
geographical region of approximately 40,000 square
kilometres with 17,000 employees. The annual budget
is AU$1.5 billion (US$1.17 billion). The agency had
been undergoing a period of significant change and
organisational restructuring.
The Journal of Positive Psychology 397
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As in many areas in the Western world, the
Australian public health sector is under intense scru-
tiny and pressure both internally and externally.
This pressure comes from the media, government
and consumer groups who seek to identify financial
mismanagement, ethical conflicts, clinical errors and
anything less than optimal performance. This scrutiny
is occurring in a setting of budget cuts, understaffing,
stretched resources and increasing demand for services.
The Australian health sector has undergone consider-
able changes with significant pressures on executives
and senior managers. It is these issues that make this
a useful context in which to examine the impact of
executive coaching as an applied positive psychology.
The aim of the Leadership Development Program
was to develop the leadership and management capa-
bility of executives and senior managers. The program
was based on individual 360-degree feedback, and one
half-day leadership training workshop followed by
individual executive coaching. The coaching sessions
were delivered by two experienced professional exec-
utive coaches who were external to the organisation.
It was hypothesised that participation in the coaching
program would be associated with increased goal
attainment, increased resilience, decreases in depres-
sion, anxiety and stress, and increases in workplace
well-being. It was also hypothesised that participation
in the training workshop alone would not be associated
with the above changes.
Method
Participants
Participants were executives and senior managers from
the nursing sector of a major Australian public
health service agency who took part in a Leadership
Development Program as part of their professional
development. Participants’ roles were at Director and
Senior Managerial level. Fifty individuals attended the
workshop. However, due to unexpected changes in
work demands, organisational restructuring or sick
leave, nine individuals were not able to compete all
questionnaires or attend all coaching sessions within
the specified timeframe. Data from these individuals
has been dropped from the analysis. Forty-one
individuals completed all the questionaries and coach-
ing sessions within the specified 8–10-week timeframe
(38 females and 3 males, mean age 49.84 years).
Design and procedure
The study used a randomised controlled waitlist design
with measures at Time 1, Time 2 (10 weeks) and Time 3
(20 weeks). All participants attended a one-half day
training workshop and completed the initial (Time 1)
measures prior to the commencement of the workshop.
Following completion of the measures, participants
were randomly assigned to either Group 1 or Group 2.
Both quantitative and qualitative measures were used.
Table 1 outlines the research design of the study.
Initially, a between-subjects design was used, with
Group 1 being the Coaching Group and Group 2
acting as a Waitlist Control Group. Once the executive
coaching for Group 1 had finished, post-coaching
measures for Groups 1 and 2 were taken (Time 2).
A within-subjects design was then employed with
Group 2 receiving executive coaching. Final measures
were taken at Time 3. All participants completed
measures at Time 1 and Time 2. Only Group 2
participants completed measures at Time 3.
Overview of the Leadership Program
The Leadership Development Program focused on
enhancing and developing leadership capability, with
the aim of equipping participants to better lead
themselves, their staff and their organisations more
effectively though a period of substantial organisa-
tional change. Specifically, the program aimed to help
participants to:
(1) Manage and develop staff at a time of limited
financial and staffing resources;
(2) Develop their leadership skills to meet the
current and future needs of health care service
delivery;
(3) Meet the challenges inherent in a period of
substantial organisational change;
(4) Develop leadership credibility, professional
identity and individual career opportunities.
The program consisted of 360-degree feedback on
participants’ existing leadership styles, one half-day
leadership education and training workshop, and
four individual executive coaching sessions over an
8–10 week period.
The 360-degree feedback process
The 360-degree feedback process was designed to
raise participants’ awareness of their current leadership
styles, and to help them further develop constructive
leadership styles. The Human Synergistics Life Styles
Table 1. Experimental design of study.
Time 1 Time 2 Time 3
Baseline 10 weeks 20 weeks
Group 1 Training workshop
Begin coaching
Complete
coaching
No measures
taken
Group 2 Training workshop
Begin waitlist
Begin
coaching
Complete
coaching
398 A.M. Grant et al.
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Inventory (LSI; Lafferty, 1989) was used for the
360-degree feedback. The LSI is a widely used assess-
ment inventory which measures 12 thinking styles and
behaviours, combining these into three key clusters.
The constructive cluster consists of achievement,
self-actualising, humanistic-encouraging and affilia-
tive facets. The passive-defensive cluster consists of
approval-seeking, conventional thinking, dependant
and avoidance facets. Finally, the aggressive-defensive
cluster consists of oppositional, power-seeking, com-
petitive and perfectionistic facets.
In terms of leadership behaviours, the constructive
cluster is synonymous with transformational leader-
ship styles, emphasising the importance of articulating
a clear sense of mission and purpose, being intellec-
tually stimulating, providing timely and encouraging
feedback, and coaching and mentoring. Because a
leader who displays constructive and transformational
leadership behaviours is able to enhance transitions
by empowering and motivating staff (McDaniel &
Stumpf, 1993), the participants in the program were
encouraged to focus on selecting goals for coaching
that aligned with facets of the constructive cluster
of the LSI. In line with best practice for 360-degree
assessment procedures (Rogers, Rogers, & Metlay,
2002), participants rated themselves and were also
rated by a minimum of five others: peers, direct reports
and their own manager.
The Leadership Training Workshop
The half-day interactive leadership development work-
shop prepared participants to begin the development
coaching process by providing a detailed overview
of all components of the program. The workshop
included information about constructive and transfor-
mational leadership styles, an introduction to the LSI
framework and feedback process, the development of
strategies for gaining maximum benefit from the
coaching process, and the development of strategies
to deal with the difficulties of organisational change.
The workshop incorporated group interactions and
discussions and goal-setting. Specific reference was
made to issues related to readiness to change to
prepare participants for their role as coachees.
The executive coaching sessions
The coaching sessions were underpinned by a cogni-
tive-behavioural, solution-focused framework (Grant,
2003). This approach posits that goal attainment can
be usefully facilitated by understanding the reciprocal
relationships between one’s thoughts, feelings, beha-
viour and the environment, and structuring these to
best support goal achievement. Incorporating a solu-
tion-focused perspective into a cognitive-behavioural
approach helps orientate the coaching towards the
development of personal strengths and solution-
construction rather towards than problem analysis.
This approach to coaching helps individuals
achieve their goals by: (1) identifying desired outcomes,
(2) delineating specific goals, (3) enhancing motivation
by identifying personal strengths and building self-
efficacy, (4) identifying resources and formulating
action plans, (5) monitoring and evaluation progress,
and (6) modifying action steps (based on evaluation of
progress). As shown in Figure 1, the monitor-evaluate-
modify steps form a change cycle of self-regulated
change (Carver & Scheier, 1998) and this is central to
the coaching process. After initial goal setting, the
coach’s role is to help coachees move through the self-
regulation cycle, by helping them develop action plans,
and monitor and evaluate their progress between each
coaching session.
To enhance the goal directed nature of the coaching
program, the GROW model (Whitmore, 1992) was
used to structure each coaching session. When using
the GROW model the session starts by setting a goal
for the coaching session. Coach and coachee then
explore the current reality, before developing options
for action and concluding with specific action steps
that help define the way forward. An outline of the
GROW model is provided in Table 2.
There were four coaching sessions in total, and
these were held over an 8–10 week period. There was
some additional telephone follow-up between sessions.
Coaching sessions were scheduled at 2–3 week inter-
vals. The initial coaching session included a debrief on
the 360-degree feedback, the setting of specific goals
based on the feedback, and the development of
between-session action steps to be undertaken by the
coachee. As such feedback can be emotionally disturb-
ing (Rogers et al., 2002), in line with best practice,
participants were contacted within 48 hours after
the initial session in order to monitor their reactions
Set the Goal
Develop an
Action Plan
Act
Monitor
Evaluate
Modify
(if necessary)
Celebrate
Success
Figure 1. Generic model of self-regulation.
The Journal of Positive Psychology 399
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to the feedback. The coaching was conducted by
two experienced professional executive coaches with
a combined total of more than 38 years of coaching
and organisational change experience. Both coaches
held tertiary qualifications in Coaching Psychology.
Measures
Both quantitative and qualitative measures were used.
Quantitative measures
Goal Attainment Scaling (GAS). Following consulta-
tion with stakeholders and participants, a list of seven
personalised statements based on the aims of the
program were developed. From this list, participants
were asked to select two statements that best repre-
sented the two goals that they wished to focus on
during the program. The seven statements were:
(1) To increase my understanding of constructive
leadership.
(2) To gain greater self-awareness, self-confidence
and resilience in my role as a leader.
(3) To improve my leadership and communication
styles.
(4) To identify my own learning needs and develop
a meaningful Professional Development Plan.
(5) To gain greater clarity regarding my own career
direction.
(6) To explore more positive strategies for mana-
ging the challenges I face at work.
(7) To expand my knowledge of resources avail-
able to support me in my leadership role and in
my professional development.
Participants then rated their goal/s for perceived
difficulty on a 4-point scale (1 ¼ very easy,to4¼ very
difficult). They also responded to the question ‘up to
today, how successful have you been in achieving this
goal,’ and rated their goal attainment on a scale from
0% (no attainment) to 100% (complete attainment).
Goal attainment scores were calculated by multiplying
the difficulty rating by the degree of success.
Participants also rated the length of time they have
been trying to achieve their goals. Such goal attain-
ment scales have been used in prior coaching outcome
studies (for discussion on GAS see Spence, 2007).
Resilience. Resilience was assessed with an 18-item
version of the Cognitive Hardiness Scale (Nowack,
1990). This scale, based on Kobasa’s (1979) work,
assess the individual’s sense of personal control, their
propensity to rise to meet challenges, and their
commitment to action. The measure is scored on a
5-point Likert-type scale. Nowack (1990) reports an
internal consistency of 0.83.
Depression, anxiety and stress. The Depression
Anxiety and Stress Scale (Lovibond & Lovibond,
1995) was used as a measure of psychopathology. The
DASS-21 is comprised of three sub-scales measuring
depression, anxiety and stress. Because it is designed to
be used with both clinical and non-clinical populations
it is a useful assessment tool for coaching. Internal
consistency and test-retest reliability have been found
to be good (r ¼ 0.71 to 0.81; Brown, Chorpita,
Korotitsch, & Barlow, 1997).
Workplace Well-being. Workplace well-being was
measured with the Workplace Well-being Index
which has been found to be a reliable and valid
measure (WWBI; Page, 2005). The 16-item WWBI
assesses the degree of wellbeing and satisfaction that
individuals gain from their work using ‘very
Table 2. The GROW model.
Acronym Description Example questions
Goal Coachee is asked to identify what they
want to achieve in the session.
Determines the focus of the session.
What do you want to get out of this session?
What would be the best use of our time?
How would you like to feel after this session?
Reality Raises awareness of current situation.
Examines how current reality is
impacting on the goals.
How have things gone since our last session?
What worked? What did not work?
What did you learn?
Options Identify and assess possible options.
Encourages solution-focused and
action-orientated thinking and
brainstorming.
What options are there? What could be done?
What’s the most important thing to do next?
What else could you do?
Way forward Helps the coachee define the next steps. Which options are most effective?
Develop specific action plan. What exactly will you do?
Fosters motivation to maintain
momentum.
How can you overcome any barriers?
Source: Whitmore (1992); Greene and Grant (2003).
400 A.M. Grant et al.
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dissatisfied’ (0) and ‘very satisfied’ (10) as the scale
anchors. The Workplace Well-being Index includes 15
domain-specific items such as ‘How satisfied are you
with how meaningful your work is?,’ ‘How satisfied are
you with your working conditions?,’ ‘How satisfied are
you with the recognition you receive for good work?,’
and one question assessing global workplace satisfac-
tion ‘How satisfied are you with your job as a whole?’
Cronbach’s alpha for this study was 0.91.
Qualitative measures
In order to gather data on participants’ experience of
the program participants were asked to respond to the
following questions:
. What specific positive benefits (if any) did you
gain from participating in this program?
. What specific positive outcomes (if any) have
flowed into your workplace?
The use of an open-question methodology is an
important point in this study because it allowed the
participants themselves to determine which issues they
considered to be of most benefit.
Results
It was hypothesised that participation in the coaching
program would be associated with increased goal
attainment, increased resilience, decreases in depres-
sion, anxiety and stress, and increases in workplace
well-being. It was also hypothesised that participation
in the training workshop alone would not be associated
with the above changes. Means and standard devia-
tions for all variables are shown in Table 3.
Data was analysed using a 2 2 repeated measures
ANOVA consisting of one between-subjects factor
(group) and one within-subjects factor (time) to
analyse the data for Time 1 and Time 2. Paired
sample t-tests were used to analyse the data for Time 2
and Time 3 for Group 2, and for planned contrasts.
A significance level of 0.05 was set for all tests.
Goal attainment
A repeated measures ANOVA for goal attainment
showed a significant time (Time 1, Time 2) by group
(Group 1, Group 2) interaction effect, F(1, 39) ¼ 26.26,
p50.001, indicating that Group 1 had higher goal
attainment scores at the completion of coaching at
Time 2, compared to Group 2 who did not receive
coaching at that time. Planned contrasts indicated that
goal attainment scores for Group 2 did not differ
significantly from Time 1 to Time 2, t(20) ¼ 1.38, ns.
However, goal attainment scores for Group 2
significantly increased, t(20) ¼ 4.92, p50.001, once
they had completed coaching at Time 3 (Figure 2).
Resilience
A repeated measures ANOVA for the Cognitive
Hardiness Scale showed a significant time (Time 1,
Time 2) by group (Group 1, Group 2) interaction
effect, F(1, 39) ¼ 6.75, p50.05, indicating that Group 1
had higher scores at the completion of coaching at
Time 2, compared to Group 2 who did not receive
coaching at that time. Planned contrasts indicated
that scores for Group 2 did not differ significantly
from Time 1 to Time 2, t(20) ¼ 0.59, ns. However,
scores for Group 2 significantly increased, t(20) ¼ 3.10,
p50.01, once they had completed coaching at Time 3
(Figure 3).
Depression
A repeated measures ANOVA for depression showed a
significant time (Time 1, Time 2) by group (Group 1,
Group 2) interaction effect, F
(1, 39) ¼ 4.42, p50.05,
indicating that Group 1 had lower depression scores at
the completion of coaching at Time 2, compared to
Group 2 who did not receive coaching at that time.
Planned contrasts indicated that depression scores for
Group 2 did not differ significantly from Time 1 to
Time 2, t(20) ¼ 0.96, ns. Depression scores for Group 2
did not significantly decrease, t(20) ¼ 1.46, ns, once
they had completed coaching at Time 3.
Anxiety
A repeated measures ANOVA for anxiety did not
show a significant time (Time 1, Time 2) by group
(Group 1, Group 2) interaction effect, F(1, 39) ¼ 0.047;
ns, indicating that Group 1 did not have lower anxiety
scores at the completion of coaching at Time 2,
compared to Group 2 who did not receive coaching
at that time. Planned contrasts indicated that anxiety
100
120
140
160
180
200
220
Time 1
Goal Attainmnet
Group 1
Group 2
Time 2 Time 3
Figure 2. Goal attainment for groups across time.
The Journal of Positive Psychology 401
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scores for Group 2 did not differ significantly from
Time 1 to Time 2, t(20) ¼ 0.20, ns. Anxiety scores for
Group 2 did not significantly decrease, t(20) ¼ 1.18, ns,
once they had completed coaching at Time 3.
Stress
A repeated measures ANOVA for stress did not show a
significant time (Time 1, Time 2) by group (Group 1,
Group 2) interaction effect, F(1, 39) ¼ 0.679; ns,
indicating that Group 1 did not have lower stress
scores at the completion of coaching at Time 2,
compared to Group 2 who did not receive coaching
at that time. Planned contrasts indicated that stress
scores for Group 2 did not differ significantly from
Time 1 to Time 2, t(20) ¼ 0.08, ns. However, a one-
tailed t-test indicated that stress scores for Group 2 had
significantly decreased, t(20) ¼ 1.95, p50.05, once they
had completed coaching at Time 3.
Workplace well-being
A repeated measures ANOVA for workplace well-
being showed a significant time (Time 1, Time 2)
by group (Group 1, Group 2) interaction effect,
F(1, 39) ¼ 3.39, p50.05, indicating that Group 1 had
higher workplace well-being scores at the completion
of coaching at Time 2, compared to Group 2 who did
Table 3. Means and standard deviations for all variables.
Time 1 Time 2 Time 3
M SD M SD M SD
GAS
Group 1 128.00
a
52.87 199.50
a
49.99 ––
Group 2 148.00
a
46.00 138.09
a,b
51.14 202.85
b
47.34
Resilience
Group 1 62.25
d
6.49 66.95
d
6.74 ––
Group 2 64.90
d
5.70 64.00
c,d
8.53 68.42
c
6.24
Depression
Group 1 5.00
d
8.14 2.00
d
3.37 ––
Group 2 3.23
d
3.06 5.42
d
9.31 2.28 3.36
Anxiety
Group 1 2.40 4.13 2.50 3.83 ––
Group 2 3.33 4.57 4.00 9.12 1.52 2.89
Stress
Group 1 10.40 10.39 8.10 8.49 ––
Group 2 9.90 7.75 10.09
e
9.08 5.80
e
5.86
WWB
Group 1 102.66
d
25.58 113.95
d
24.11 ––
Group 2 104.80
d
22.26 104.61
c,d
31.62 115.42
c
25.39
GAS ¼ Goal Attainment Scaling; WWB ¼ Workplace Well-being.
Notes: Subscript a denotes statistically significant interaction effect; p50.001. Subscript b
denotes statistically significant difference; p50.001. Subscript c denotes statistically significant
difference; p50.01. Subscript d denotes statistically significant interaction effect; p50.05.
Subscript e denotes statistically significant difference; p50.05 (one tailed test).
60
62
64
66
68
70
Time 1
Resilience
Group 1
Group 2
Time 2 Time 3
Figure 3. Resilience for groups across time.
95
100
105
110
115
120
Time 1
Workplace Well-being
Group 1
Group 2
Time 2 Time 3
Figure 4. Workplace well-being for groups across time.
402 A.M. Grant et al.
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not receive coaching at that time. Planned contrasts
indicated that workplace well-being scores for Group 2
did not differ significantly from Time 1 to Time 2,
t(20) ¼ 0.38, ns. However, workplace well-being scores
for Group 2 significantly increased, t(20) ¼ 3.13,
p50.01, once they had completed coaching at Time 3
(Figure 4).
A correlational analysis was conducted to explore
the relationships between workplace well-being, resi-
lience, and depression, anxiety and stress. Results are
presented in Table 4.
Qualitative data
Participant’s responses were systematically classi-
fied and grouped according to thematic content.
As recommended by Spector (1984), the validity of
the emerging categories was established by asking the
questions. Do the categories fit and work? Are they
clearly indicated by the data? Reliability was estab-
lished by looking for inconsistencies in the responses.
Thirty-nine of the 41 participants wrote qualitative
comments (95% response rate). Comments differed in
length from one or two point-form sentences to two
pages of detailed narrative. The following categories
emerged and are ordered below in terms of the
frequency with which they were mentioned by the
participants (note: some participants made more than
one response):
(1) Increased confidence: 25 responses
(2) Helped build applied management skills: 24
responses
(3) Better able to deal with organisational change/
stress: 23 responses
(4) Gained personal or professional insights: 14
responses
(5) Helped me find ways to develop my career: 12
responses
Representative comments from the above categories
are presented below. As can be seen, some responses fit
into a number of different categories:
(1) Increased confidence
I learnt that I had acquired (and demonstrated
to others) many of the transformational
leadership skills that I had admired in others.
I had not recognised that in myself. The
360-degree feedback was very insightful and
I will be working hard to improve in areas
I need to. This has given me extra confidence
and insight and the tools to strengthen my
relations and profile with my line managers and
my profile within the organisation.
Mainly around self-confidence, but also just
lifting myself out of a large rut ...It gave me
back my confidence, and got me out of my
self-doubt.
(2) Helped build applied management skills
I have started to meet/confer with my team
more, and deal with them more 1 : 1 based on
their needs and performance development ...
I was able to do some ‘silent coaching’ with my
staff and without them being aware of it, got
them to solve problems rather than me telling
them what to do.
It quite possibly saved my team! I was able to
go into executive meetings with much more
confidence, encouraging and supporting my
team and presenting a strong, dynamic proac-
tive profile. It was leading by example.
(3) Better able to deal with organisational change/
stress
At the beginning of the program there was a
high degree of uncertainty about the restruc-
ture of the hospital management positions. The
program provided an important opportunity
for me to reflect and determine how to deal
with future directions ...I feel more confident
and have gained insight, which will assist in
service development and embracing change
that will benefit our service delivery.
I set up a Team Planning day in which we
looked at the effect of organisational change
on us and the staff in the hospital. Then we
did some team building to create systems and
processes that will ensure staff are supported
and that our approaches are consistent with
each other. Thank you so much for this
opportunity, it feels like a huge gift.
It has been a life changing experience for me
and has energised me to keep up the good
fight ...I developed more self-confidence and
greater stress tolerance and better ability to
lead with integrity.
(4) Gained personal or professional insights
I found I had greater understanding of my
motivators and ability to see things from a
different perspective. It helped me find a level
Table 4. Correlational relationships.
Resilience Depression Anxiety Stress
WWB 0.343* 0.390* 0.284 0.557**
Resilience – 0.306* 0.076 0.403**
Depression – – 0.671** 0.832**
Anxiety – – – 0.663**
WWB ¼ Workplace Well-being.
**Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level.
*Correlation is significant at the 0.05 level.
The Journal of Positive Psychology 403
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of acceptance of my own ability/achievements
and a plan to move forward.
I am able to coach my team better as I have
more personal insight. I am less competitive
and more constructive and have less guilt and
more confidence. I am able to be more inno-
vative as I am more confident.
(5) Helped me find ways to develop my career
Ability to reflect on my own skills ...I gained
increased confidence in my own abilities and
personal and professional growth. I feel more
valued in my position and career through
personal awareness of my strengths that I had
previously devalued.
Discussion
It appears that the coaching program was indeed
successful in helping participants reach their goals. The
participants chose two goals from seven broad pre-
determined goals that were aligned with the organisa-
tion’s leadership development and organisational
change objectives. The finding that goal attainment
was enhanced is consistent with past research into
coaching (e.g., Grant, 2003; Green et al., 2006;
Gyllensten & Palmer, 2005; Smither, London, Flautt,
Vargas, & Kucine, 2003).
Goal selection for workplace coaching is not a
straightforward process. Forcing employees to under-
take specific goals may alienate them and create
resentment, and this may be particularly problematic
in a time of major organisational change (Twiname,
Humphries, & Kearins, 2006). On one hand, it is
important that goals align with the organisation’s
imperatives so as to create the required change.
On the other hand, it is important that the coachee
has a choice in defining the goals. This is because
commitment to self-set goals tends to be higher than
commitment to goals set by other people (Locke,
1996), and goals that reflect personal values are more
satisfying when attained (Sheldon, 2001).
This study addressed this dilemma by offering
coachees a range of broadly defined goals that had
been determined through extensive pre-program
consultation with stakeholders and participants.
Thus, there was general agreement with the content
of all seven goals before the program started, and the
coachees had a degree of choice as to which specific
goals they focused on. The idea that participants
were pre-committed to these goals is supported by the
fact that, on average, participants had been trying to
attain these goals for 3.24 years. In addition, a number
of qualitative comments mentioned that the goal
attainment was a rewarding experience.
Coaching builds resilience
The coaching program was also effective at enhancing
resilience. This finding makes sense in that as
individuals work through the self-regulation cycle
towards their goals (Figure 1) there are barriers and
challenges to be overcome. These could include nega-
tive self-talk, self-defeating behaviours or simply stay-
ing focused on one’s goal over time. Overcoming such
barriers is likely to improve an individual’s resilience
and improve self-confidence (Gyllensten & Palmer,
2005). Indeed, the qualitative comments indicated that
many of the participants experienced improvement in
their levels of self-confidence and resilience following
coaching. This is in accord with past work. For
example, Taylor (1997) found that solution-focused
coaching fostered resilience in medical students, and
Green et al. (2007) found that solution-focused
coaching enhanced resilience in high school students.
The finding that personal resilience was enhanced
in the present study’s population is an important one.
The public health sector is one where resources are
scarce and high work-related demands are common-
place. Past research in the public health sector has
found that effective organisation-level processes in
terms of policies and procedures for handling challen-
ging workloads can maximise the use of resources,
and can also improve organisational resilience (Miller
& Xiao, 2007). The present study focused on building
resilience at the individual level. It appears that
executive coaching may be an effective method of
building personal resilience, and future studies could
explore the efficacy of resilience building in greater
depth. Given that past research has found that sick
leave tends to significantly increase in times of
organisation change and stress (Hansson, Vingard,
Arnetz, & Anderzan, 2008), it would be useful to know
if the self-reported increases in personal resilience
found in the present study translate into cost savings
through reduced sick leave or staff turnover.
The impact on depression, anxiety and stress
Based on previous work it was hypothesised that
participation in the coaching program would be
associated with reduced depression, anxiety and stress
(e.g., Grant, 2003; Gyllensten & Palmer, 2005). Indeed,
there was a significant interaction effect for depression
between Time 1 and Time 2 indicating that Group 1’s
levels of depression significantly reduced whilst
Group 2’s levels increased. However, there was no
significant difference between Group 2’s depression
levels at Time 2 and their levels at Time 3 (when
Group 2 had completed coaching). In relation to
anxiety, there was no significant impact, nor was there
an interaction effect for participants’ stress levels
between Time 1 and Time 2. However, there was a
404 A.M. Grant
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significant reduction in stress levels for Group 2 once
they had completed coaching at Time 3. Thus, the
findings for the impact on depression, anxiety and stress
are less clear than for the other dependant variables.
One explanation may be that, in the present study,
participants’ levels of depression, anxiety and stress
were within the normal range (see Lovibond &
Lovibond, 1995), and the failure to observed wide-
spread reductions in depression, anxiety and stress may
simply be due to measurement floor effects inherent in
the DASS. This highlights an important issue in the
measurement of coaching outcomes using instruments
that measure psychopathology, and this point is
particularly salient for research into coaching and
applied positive psychology. Pathology-orientated
instruments, such as the DASS, only measure the
presence or absence of depression, anxiety or stress and
not the presence or absence of well-being, and when
used as the sole measure of psychological states will
not detect the full psychological impact of coaching.
Workplace well-being
Participants’ levels of workplace well-being increased
significantly following coaching. This finding has
implications for organisations because the coaching
primarily focused on the attainment of goals that were
aligned with the organisation’s leadership objectives,
rather than being primarily focused on the enhance-
ment of the executives’ well-being. This suggests that
this kind of executive coaching may have the potential
to benefit both the employee and the organisation.
There are a number of mechanisms that may be
responsible for the increase in well-being. Firstly,
goal attainment can enhance well-being, particularly
if the goals are personally valued (Sheldon, Elliot,
Kim, & Kasser, 2001). Secondly, past work has shown
that social support and a sense of autonomy, both
central to the coaching process, can buffer the impact
of stressors on well-being (Daniels & Guppy, 1994).
Along similar lines, self-acceptance has been found
to be related to workplace well-being (Donaldson-
Feilder & Bond, 2004), and the qualitative comments
indicated that many participants experienced increased
self-acceptance and confidence as a result of coaching.
In relation to the assessment of the impact of
the coaching intervention on mental health. Both
WWB and resilience were negatively correlated with
the DASS scores. Whilst the anxiety and stress scores
on the DASS did not change for both groups, both
WWB and resilience scores were significantly different
following coaching. This finding underscores the
importance of using a broad range of mental health
measures to assess the psychological impact of coach-
ing. In order to detect a broad range of psychological
outcomes it is important to assess the full spectrum
from mental illness to mental health (for a useful
discussion of this issue see Keyes, 2003), and future
research should bear this point in mind.
Limitations of the present study
There are several limitations inherent in the present
study, and these should be taken into account when
interpreting these findings. Firstly, the participants
were senior level employees of a public sector health
service. This sector is recognised as being a particularly
challenging work environment (Miller & Xiao, 2007).
Management in the public sector tends to receive less
leadership development than (for example) the private
professional services sector (Mikelson & Nightigale,
2004). Thus, the executive coaching may have been
effective because the participants had not previously
received such intensive leadership development in
the past. It should also be noted that, unlike many
executive populations, the majority of participants in
this study were female. This may have been because
most of these participants had began their careers as
nurses, and there are far more female than male nurses
(Wilson, 2005). Thus these findings may not generalise
to other populations, for example, to male managers in
a professional services area. In addition, the outcome
measures were self-report, and responses could be
subject to a demand characteristic effect in which
participants felt obliged to report making progress.
Finally, although organisational change formed an
important part of the context in which this study was
conducted, no direct measures of organisation change
were taken; the focus was entirely on the individual.
Future studies should explore the impact of executive
coaching at both individual and organisational levels.
However, despite the above limitations, the present
study has presented original data related to the use of
executive coaching in the public health service sector,
and has extended the knowledge-base on executive
coaching.
Practical implications
A number of practical implications flow from this
study. This study has shown that as little as four
coaching sessions can be effective. Executive coaching
typically takes place over a greater number of sessions,
with many experienced coaching practitioners recom-
mending 8–10 sessions (Berman & Bradt, 2006).
However, Burke and Linley (2007) found that just
one coaching session improved goal self-concordance
and commitment, although they did not measure goal
attainment. The results of the present study extend
Burke and Linley’s (2007) work and suggest that short-
term coaching interventions can indeed be effective.
The Journal of Positive Psychology 405
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Future research should explore this issue and compare
short-term to longer-term interventions.
The quantitative results of this study provide
support for the notion that executive coaching can
indeed increase goal attainment, enhance resilience,
ameliorate depression and stress, and increase work-
place well-being. The participants’ qualitative
responses support many of the quantitative findings
and also suggest that executive coaching may well be
a valuable tool in helping individuals deal with the
uncertainly and challenges inherent in organisational
change. Given that many organisational change
initiatives are problematic (Stober, 2008), and such
change failures can be costly in both business and
human terms, organisations should consider using
individual coaching as a support mechanism in con-
junction with organisational-level change initiatives
during times of significant change, thereby building
resilience and well-being at both an organisational and
individual level.
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