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JOLIRVAI
OF
4PPLitD
SPORT
PSYCHOLOGY
11,
194-209
(1999)
Primary Process in Competitive Archery Performance:
Effects
of
Flotation REST
TORSTEN NORLANDER
AND
HENRIK BERGMAN
Karlstad Universih.
S~veden
TREVOR ARCHER
The purpose
of
the present study was
to
investigate whether
or
nor the floating
form
of
Restricted Environmental Stimulation Technique (REST) may be exploit-
ed within the field
of
competitive archery
to
reinforce primary process (inner-
directed) orientation and thereby enhance the quality
of
coaching and training.
Floatation REST consists of a procedure whereby an individual is immersed in a
water-tank filled with saltwater
of
an extremely high salt concentration. The
ex-
periment was performed over the course
of
two weekends with
a
6-week interval.
Twenty participating archers.
13
male and
7
female, were recruited. The between-
group factor was “adjudged skill.’’ The within-group factor was provided by an
Armchair condition in which the participants sat in an armchair for 45 min after
which they were required to shoot
four
salvo series
of
three shots each, as
a
coinparison to the Flotation-Rest condition whereby the participants were required
to
lie in a floating-tank for 45 min just prior to shooting. Results indicated that:
(a) the participants experienced less perceived exertion during marksmanship in
thc floating condition.
(b)
the elite archers performed more consistently in the
Flotation-REST condition. (c) the least and most proficient archers had lower
muscle tension in the Extensor Digitorum in the Flotation REST condition.
A number of investigations strongly suggest that the ability
to
unre-
servedly concentrate mental effort
is
the key
to
successful performance
in sport (e.g., Abernethy, 1993;
Cox,
1994; Gordon 1990; Landers, Hans,
Salazar, Petruzzello, Kubitz,
&
Gannon, 1994; Summers, Miller,
&
Ford,
1991
).
One generally-accepted way
of
defining concentration is
to
de-
Author note: This study was supported by grants from Karlstad University, Karlstad, from
Olympic Support Center. erebro, and from Swedish National Center for Research in Sports,
Stockholm.
Correspondence should be addressed to
Dr.
Torsten Norlander, Department of Psychology,
Karlstad University.
SE-65
I
88
Karlstad, Sweden. Email:
(at.norlander@rnailbox.swipnet.se).
194
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FLOTATION REST AND ARCHERY
195
scribe it as the ability to focus one’s attention on the task at hand and
thereby not be disturbed or affected by irrelevant external and internal
stimuli (Schmid
&
Peper,
1993).
Within sport psychology, a central role has been assigned to problems
concerning concentration. Much effort has focussed upon the consequenc-
es of externdinternal distractions, or putative improvements to “concen-
trative-effort” within sport (for a review, see Moran,
1996).
A critical
period for the athlete during ongoing performance occurs when negative
preoccupations (pertaining to perceived failure) must be rejected for new
opportunities. In this regard, these individual sports are most demanding
whereas the fast and unpredictable team sports ensure the players’ atten-
tion is drawn to events as they occur (Moran,
1996).
Archery provides
an example of an individual sport that may be studied within the context
influenced by a “here-and-now” experience in concentration. Thus, Land-
ers, Boutcher, and Wang
(1986)
found that archers who dwelt on earlier
failures performed worse than those more focussed on the present. Other
observations indicate that thinking about the future, rather than the pres-
ent, also caused performance deterioration (Moran,
1996).
Electroencephalogram techniques may offer a neurophysiological cor-
relate for the “here-and-now’’ experience wherein archers and shooters
display cognitive shift from left to right hemisphere the instant after firing
(e.g., Hatfield
&
Landers,
1987;
Hatfield, Landers,
&
Ray,
1984;
Salazar,
Landers, Petruzzello, Crews, Kubitz,
&
Han,
1990).
According to Sum-
mers and Ford
(1995),
this may be described as a shift from the verbally-
based left hemisphere to the spatially-dominant right hemisphere. In tra-
ditional psychological terms the effect may be described as a cognitive
shift from a more secondary process-oriented thinking to a more primary
process orientation (Neisser,
1967).
The secondary process-primary pro-
cess continuum is here taken in a descriptive manner (Martindale
&
Dail-
ey,
1996).
As such, the primary process is a unconventional, instinctive
thinking that tends to operate on concrete images rather than abstract
concepts, while secondary process
is
associated with studied, logical, an-
alytic, abstract, and reality-oriented thought. Hilgard (1
968)
postulates
that primary and secondary thought may be considered two alternative
states of awareness and concurrent processes and differentiates between
(a)
fusion,
where both types of thought process are “fused” in differing
proportions, and (b)
oscillation,
“quick shifts,” where each part remains
distinct and intact. Singer
(1974)
has implied that fantasy provides a con-
tinuous background to everything one endeavors, but that this is noticed
first after attention upon the outer sources of stimulation begins to rescind.
It
is reasonable to assume that different sports require a differential
equilibrium between primary and secondary processes in order to ensure
maximal performance. For instance, in a soccer match a player will most
often “calculate” effects of a pass in the context of hisher and team-
mates’ movements on the field (secondary process). In a different situa-
tion the same player may be required to concentrate upon a penalty
whereby a well-rehearsed sequence of action is allowed to dominate (pri-
196
NORLANDER ET
AL.
mary process). The former demonstrates a “broad-external,” the latter a
“narrow-internal” focus (Nideffer, 1986). A narrow focus of attention is
a special necessity in closed
skill
and/or self-paced sports like archery,
rifle shooting, diving, and ice-skating (Nideffer, 1993). Associated with
the secondary-primary process continuum is that of arousal-control as a
concentration technique. Performers in strength and power sports may
favor “psych up” strategies while preparing for competition while pre-
cision sport performers, like archers, may prefer to engage in “psych
down” or relaxation techniques (Moran, 1996). Relaxation techniques
often lead to both less perceived exertion and less muscle tension (Borg,
1970).
Those athletes active in sports where a dominant and constant primary
process-orientation is a requirement for optimal performance must devel-
op techniques to ensure that the training facilities provide just these con-
ditions. Noy (1969) suggests, with the support of Goldberger’s (1961)
experiments
in
sensory isolation, that sensory deprivation,
or
with the
more modern terminology Restricted Environmental Stimulation Tech-
nique (REST), might be an effective technique for inducing a primary
process condition. Much evidence indicates that following REST an “af-
tereffect,” lasting about an hour, comprises a cognitive balance with a
mainly primary process-orientation (Hutchison, 1984a; Norlander, Berg-
man, and Archer, 1998). The floatation-isolation technique is a special
form of REST. The floating form of REST consists of a procedure where-
by an individual is immersed in a water-tank filled with saltwater of an
extremely high salt concentration. The complete technique centers upon
reducing sensations to a minimum. In order to achieve this, the participant
in question must lie down in the tank while a cover is closed down over
the opening. This cover may be opened quite easily just through pushing
it
up. The floating tank is isolated from the inside in order to preserve
the warmth and keep out both noise and light.
Experiments conducted earlier with REST often reported negative ef-
fects on participants (Zubeck, 1973), such as problems with logical think-
ing, concentration problems, higher levels of anxiety, and even halluci-
nations. Later research, however, has shown also the occurrence
of
pos-
itive effects, such as improved relaxation (Jacobs, Heilbronner,
&
Stanley,
1984), reduced anxiety (Fine
&
Turner, 1982), increased receptivity to
information (Aquino, 1982), pain reduction (Turner
&
Fine, 1984), heart
rate reduction (Jacobs, Heilbronner,
&
Stanley, 1984), and muscular ten-
sion reduction (Stanley
&
Francis, 1984). Corresponding positive effects
have been reported
for
the floating form of REST (e.g., Best
&
Suedfeld,
1982; Hutchison, 1984a; Forgays
&
Belinson, 1986; Suedfeld, Metcalfe,
&
Bluck, 1987; Suedfeld
&
Bruno, 1990). Several studies (e.g., Lee
&
Hewitt, 1987; Suedfeld
&
Bruno, 1990; McAleney, Barabasz,
&
Bara-
basz, 1990; Wagaman, Barabasz,
&
Barabasz, 1991) provide strong sup-
port for the contention that the flotation-isolation procedure reinforces
aspects
of
“imagery,” a prerequisite to the creative process (Forgays and
Forgays, 1992). At the same time, these effects may also be regarded as
FLOTATION REST AND ARCHERY
197
an expression of a primary process domination (Norlander, 1997, 1998).
Flotation REST has been applied to a sport psychology context in order
to attain a more effective control over the negative consequences of stress,
to reinforce various visualization techniques, and
to
improve the restitu-
tion following training bouts and competition (Bond, 1988; Hutchison,
1984b; Lee
&
Hewitt, 1987; Suedfeld
&
Bruno, 1990). As yet we are not
aware of any systematic attempt to study the direct and immediate influ-
ence of Flotation REST (i.e., without visualization and during aftereffects)
upon precision sport performance.
The purpose of the present study was to investigate to what extent
Flotation REST may be exploited within the field of competitive archery
to reinforce primary process orientation in performers and thereby en-
hance the quality of coaching and training. During and directly after
Flo-
tation REST a condition consisting of a narrowed span of attention and
relaxation was achieved. This condition provides the point of departure
for the theoretical standpoints described above. Sensory isolation leads to
a cognitive shift towards the primary process, which is associated with
an increased psychological and muscular relaxation. These characteristics
of relaxation are important for closed sports like archery (Moran, 1996).
Thus, the following hypotheses were formulated: Flotation REST would
lead to significantly less perceived exertion and less muscle tension. These
changes would possibly lead to (c) improvements in performance.
Methods
Participants
The present experiment was performed over the course of two week-
ends (Saturday and Sunday) with a 6-week interval. The experiment was
carried out at the Olympic Support Center in Orebro, Sweden, in collab-
oration with Karlstad University, Sweden. Twenty participants, 13 male
and 7 female, were recruited through the auspices of the Swedish Archery
Union (Svenska Biigskytteforbundet). The participating archers may be
described as (a) those that maintained a good junior standard at district
and club level, (b) those archers aspiring to belong to the category “Ju-
nior-elite’’ but had not quite reached that standard, and (c) those that had
achieved Swedish Junior-elite standard. Mean age was 15.75 years
(SD
=
1.33, variation of age range
=
13-18). Five of the participants used
the so-called “compound-bow,’’ 3 used the “classical bow,” and
12
the
“free-style bow.” Each of these three types of archery bow define sep-
arate branches within the sport and would not normally compete with
each other under standard competitive conditions. Only one of the par-
ticipants had any previous experience of the flotation-REST technique but
nine of them had experience of some type of mental training. Two of the
participants were left-handed.
At the start of the experiment, four federal (national) coaches, univer-
sally recognized for their expertise and experience within the field of
archery were assigned the task of separately assessing and grading the
198
NORLANDER ET AL.
archers with regard to their skill. These assessments were later shown to
indicate a high level
of
interjudge reliability (see “Interjudge Reliability”
in Results section) and on this basis three groups could be identified and
formulated as an independent variable: the least skillful archers, an inter-
mediary group, and finally an elite, most skillful, group. The least skilled
group consisted of seven participants, the intermediary group of seven,
and the elite group of six participants. One-way ANOVA’s did not show
any group-differences with regard to either age, height, weight, degree of
optimism (LOT), personal commitment (PCS),
or
maximum voluntary
contraction (MVC), as measured by the EMG-apparatus
(ps
>
0.089).
Kruskal-Wallis testing did not show any differences between groups with
regard to type of bow used, gender, type of breakfast consumed, self-
assessed performance level, marital status, health condition at the first
weekend occasion, as well as at second weekend occasion, type of up-
bringing, type of school education, smokinglnon-smoking habit, alcohol
consumption, female participants’ phase of the menstrual cycle,
or
amount
of training
(ps
>
0.065).
However, a significant effect of Type of lunch
(KW
=
2.39,
p
=
0.044) where a multiple comparisons procedure indi-
cated that the least skilled group
(M
Rank
=
7.71)
showed evidence of
lunch habits that were distinguished by an irregularity and lack of nour-
ishment value in comparison with the intermediary group (Mean Rank
=
12.00) and the elite group
(M
Rank
=
12.00).
Design
This study presented a mixed effect design. The between-group factor
was defined by the assignment of the participants into three experimental
groups on the basis of “Adjudged Skill,” the least skillful, the interme-
diate, and the elite. The within-group factor was provided by an Armchair
condition in which the participants sat in an armchair for 45 min after
which they were required to shoot four salvo series of three shots each,
as
a
comparison to the Flotation-REST condition (Flotation condition),
whereby the participants were required
to
lie in a floating-tank for 45 min
just prior to shooting their four salvo series. The order in which the
Armchair condition and the Flotation condition were presented was varied
so
that half
of
the participants began with the Armchair condition whereas
the other half began with the Flotation condition and then reversed con-
ditions
for
the next experimental session. Between conditions was a
6-
week interval interspersed.
Instruments
Floating Tank.
A floating tank (Pantarei Flytexperten, Stockholm) with
measurements 2400 mm
X
1,260
nun
X
950
mm
was used. Water depth
varied between 200-300
mm,
due to evaporation, volume of water
1
cubic meter. The floating tank was insulated on the inside
so
as to main-
tain a constant temperature and to isolate the participant from sound and
sight. The water temperature was maintained at 34.2”C. Ambient (air)
FLOTATION REST AND ARCHERY
199
temperature was the same as the water temperature minimizing sense
sensation. The water was saturated with magnesium sulphate in order to
maintain a salt concentration of 1.3 g/cm3.
The Target.
The target was a regular competitive archery target
(1)
i.e.,
it was ten-ringed with a total diagonal of
40
cm. The rings were graded
from
1
point for the outermost ring
to
10
points for hitting the bull’s eye
(the center point, diameter cm). The distance to the target was fixed at
18
meters which represents the international indoor competitive standard
range. Each archer was required to shoot
4
series of
3
arrows to each
series. Maximum time allowed was
120
sec per salvo series.
EMG (Electromyogram Analysis).
These measurements were carried
out using an EMG-apparatus Myo
I
(EMG-Konsult, Solna, Sweden). In
order to measure contraction impulses from the chosen muscle (i.e., Ex-
tensor Digitorum), two electrodes were connected to the skin of the lower
arm on the muscle (medial central) as well as a third, neutral electrode
on the skin above the bone,
0s
radius. For right-handed archers, the right
arm
was chosen, whereas the two left-handed archer received electrode
placements on the left
arm.
The Extensor Digitorum muscle was chosen
because this muscle has antagonist action to the Flexor Digitorum muscle
which controls the flexion responses of the fingers and wrist, thereby
exerting a critical influence on the arching of the bow when the bowstring
is drawn.
It
was assumed (Jansson,
1995)
that the antagonist of the Flexor
Digitorum (i.e., Extensor Digitorum) is required to
be
as relaxed as pos-
sible in order to achieve maximal archery performance. For the EMG-
measurements, Maximum Voluntary Contraction (MVC) was applied. In
order to obtain calibration standards, each participant was instructed to
tense Extensor Digitorum as much as possible. All the measured values
of
the participants were described as a percentage of each individual’s
MVC. For the present analysis two separate assessments for percent of
MVC were employed (a) Mean Tension (MT) as expressed by the total
mean muscle tension during the four salvo series, and (b) Prerelease Ten-
sion (PT) as expressed by the mean value for muscle tension shortly
before
(0.1-0.5
sec) the bowstring was released on each of the
12
shots.
RPE-Ratings
of
Perceived Exertion.
This scale (Borg,
1970;
Borg,
1985;
Borg,
1998)
provides an assessment
of
perceived exertion
(1
i.e.,
how heavy and strenuous particular exercises are experienced by the ath-
lete). According to the RPE instructions, perceived exertion depends
mainly on the strain and fatigue in the athletes’ muscles. Each participant
is instructed to use a scale from
6
to
20,
where
6
symbolized “no exertion
at all” and
20
“maximal exertion.” A high reliability of ratings of per-
ceived exertion has been found in many investigations applying different
procedures (Borg,
1998).
Parallel Test Reliability is reported to lie be-
tween
0.70
and
0.90,
Intratest Reliability around
0.90,
and Retest Reli-
ability around
0.90.
Similarly,
WE
provides good values for different
validity measures, including content validity
(0.96)
regarding self-versus
observer-ratings, concurrent validity
(0.77-0.94),
as well as predictive
validity
(0.50-0.70)
(Borg,
1998).
200
NORLANDER
ET
AL.
The Five-scale.
The direct experiential effects of the presentation, from
“bad” to “very good,” were assessed on a five-graded scale (Janson,
1995). This scale is often used by coaches even though there are no
analyses on reliability and validity data available. In an applied sport
psychology study, however, it is important that the scale be tested.
LOT-Life Orientation Test.
The test (Scheier
&
Carver, 1985) consists
of eight items, plus four filler items. The task of each participant is to
decide whether or not one is in agreement with each
of
the items de-
scribed, ranging from
0
(strongly disagree)
to 4
(strongly agree).
The test
measures dispositional optimism, defined in terms of generalized outcome
expectancies. Parallel Test Reliability is reported
to
.76
and Internal Con-
sistency to .76 (Scheier
&
Carver, 1985).
LOT
is also regarded to have
an adequate level of convergent and discriminant validity (Scheier
&
Carver, 1985) demonstrated by correlation statistics and by using
LISREL
VI (r
=
0.64).
PCS-Personal Commitment Scale.
A 1-10 graded scale (Orlick, 1990)
that indicates how highly individuals estimate and evaluate their interests
in sports was used. A
10
on the scale indicates that
it
is the most important
pastime in one’s life whereas a mark of 1 indicates the minimal priority
of the sport. Orlick (1990) has demonstrated from studies with marathon
runners that those who rated marathon running highest showed better
performances competitively compared with those who rated their own
marathon running as being less important. Orlick (1990) does not present
any reliability data but, regarding validity, it is indicated that when a large
group of marathon runners responded to the PCS it was found that those
individuals with the highest commitment were shown to the most profi-
cient.
“As
the commitment score decreased, the performance level de-
creased proportionally. The same was true for athletes in a variety of
other sports” (Orlick, 1990, p. 9).
Procedure
The experiment was performed during two weekends (Friday evening
to Sunday evening), with a 6-week break, at the Olympic Support Center,
Orebro, Sweden. On arrival at the first Friday evening, all the archers
were received by the coaches and subsequently instructed by the exper-
imenters on the experimental design and set-up. At the same time, the
archers were informed which
of
them had been assigned, randomly, to
either the Control (Armchair condition) or to the Floating conditions dur-
ing each of the two occasions. It was indicated too that all task-associated
data would be treated with strict confidentiality. The rest of that evening
was assigned for shooting practices. On the following Saturday morning
further information, pertaining to the period when they were not actively
engaged
in
the experiment, was provided. Thus, they were told they were
supposed to participate, pre- or post-performance, in theoretical or coach-
ing exercises organized by national coaches.
At the start of the experiment, each participant was required to com-
FLOTATION
REST
AND
ARCHERY
20
1
plete a questionnaire on background information as well as
LOT.
If
he/
she was in the Armchair condition the participant was shown to a separate
room and instructed to sit in an armchair and read the newspapers avail-
able. Those included in the Flotation condition were shown to the house
with the tank. Each participant was instructed to
make
a toilet visit,
change to bathing clothes and shower. The participant was then instructed
to dry carefully around the face in order to avoid drops of water disturbing
relaxation. In order to introduce the participant to an immediate relaxed
state in the tank following instruction (adapted from Benson, 1975) was
given: “We require you
to
lie down in the water. Experience the comfort
of the situation. Shut your eyes and let yor muscles simply relax. Allow
the relaxation to start at you toes, then go slowly to your feet, legs, thighs,
stomach, chest, arms, shoulders, and neck and finally try to also feel
relaxation in your face muscles. Maintain this state of relaxation. Try to
breath through your nose exclusively when you exhale and keep the word
ONE in conscious awareness. For example breath
IN
.
.
.
OUT,
‘ONE’.
IN
.
. .
OUT,
‘ONE’. If you maintain this procedure a few times then
flotation will maintain your condition. You do not have to do anything
yourself.” The participant was then informed of how to remove the cover
and how to climb in and out of the tank.
So
as not to be disturbed
by
the water and to further eliminate sounds, wax plugs were inserted into
the participants’ ears. Thereafter, the participant entered the tank
and
45
minutes later
the
tank visit was interrupted and the participant was al-
lowed to shower and put on training overalls.
Following the respective armchair-sitting and floating an experimenter
instructed that full competition status was in force, requiring complete
concentration. Then the participant proceeded to the Archer y-hall. A dif-
ferent experimenter received the participant and mounted the EMG elec-
trodes on the pulling-arm. An assistant explained that after each shot the
participant was to rate the experience on a five-point scale. Then the
participant was allowed to loose-off four series of three shots each. The
time limit was
120
sec per series. When the participant had completed
all four series he/she made an estimate of perceived exertion on the
RPE
scale. Finally, a short debriefing was organized whereby the participant
communicated particular problems or viewpoints. The same procedure
(except with reversed order of conditions) was maintained during the next
weekend occasion, six weeks later, with the exception that the background
questionnaire and
LOT
were replaced by the Personal Commitment scale.
Results
Data Reduction
In order to simplify the statistical analysis it was investigated as to
whether or not one may obtain data reductions regarding marksmanship
in the four shooting series, the five scale after the four series, the mean
tension (EMG-MT) during the four series, the pre-release tension (EMG-
PT) during the four series. Regression analysis (enter-method) were used
202
NORLANDER
ET
AL
for calculating Multiple
R
(R)
which showed significant correlations be-
tween the four shooting series for
R
with regard to Marksmanship in the
Armchair condition
(R
=
0.75,
p
=
0.003), Marksmanship in the Flotation
condition
(R
=
0.90,
p
<
0.001), the Five-scale in the Flotation condition
(R
=
0.66,
p
=
0.018), EMG-MT in the Armchair condition
(R
=
0.94,
p
<
0.001),
EMG-MT in the Flotation condition
(R
=
0.96,
p
<
O.OOl),
EMG-FT in the Armchair condition
(R
=
0.95,
p
<
0.001),
EMG-PT in
the Flotation condition
(R
=
0.96,
p
<
0.001). There was however no
significant correlation with regard to the Five-scales in the Armchair con-
dition
(R
=
0.43,
p
=
0.330). Since the regression analysis indicated
acceptable
(R
>
0.70)
or high
(R
>
0.90)
R
values it was considered
meaningful to summate the results for the Marksmanship from the four
shooting series in both the Armchair and the Flotation conditions, sum-
mate the results for the EMG-MT measures from the four shooting series
in both Armchair and Flotation conditions, and summate the results from
the EMG-PT measures from the four shooting series in both Armchair
and Flotation conditions. The scores from the Five-scales in the Armchair
condition did not correlate significantly and it was also adjudged unnec-
essary
to
convert the scores in the Flotation condition to one variable as
a comparison was no longer possible.
Reliabilities
Order Sequence
of
the Conditions.
To examine whether or not the order
sequence between conditions affected outcome participants who received
floating on the first occasion were compared with those receiving floating
on the second. Split-plot ANOVAs were used with the Armchair and
Flotation conditions marksmanship, respectively, the RPE scale result, the
EMG results expressed as Mean Tension (MT) and Pre-release Tension
(PT),
respectively, as the Within-Subject Factors and sequential order of
conditions as the Between-Subject Factor. The analyses indicated that the
order of conditions had no influence on either marksmanship
(p
=
0.723),
the RPE scale
(p
=
0.449), EMG-MT
(p
=
0.343) or EMG-PT
(p
=
0.3 19). Nor were there any interactions between factors and within factors
Znterjudge Reliabilities.
Regression analysis (enter-method) showed a
significant multiple correlation between the four coaches
(R
=
0.90,
p
<
0.001). Thus it was deemed necessary
to
average the coaches’ scoring
for skill as well as apply the coaches’ own group divisions.
Type
of
Bow.
Three types of bow were used in the experiment.
No
significant group differences (Kruskal-Wallis) occurred with regard to
type of bow
(p
=
0.90)
and split-plot ANOVAs with Armchair and
Flo-
tation condition marksmanship, the WE scale result, results of the EMG,
MT and
PT,
respectively, as Within-Subject Factors and type of bow as
Between-Subject Factor showed that type of bow had no influence for
either marksmanship
(p
=
0.224), the WE scale
(p
=
0.208), or EMG-
MT
(p
=
0.562). However, type
of
bow did influence EMG-PT [F(2,16)
(ps
>
0.121).
FLOTATION REST
AND ARCHERY
203
Table
1
Relationships between conditions (armchair and flotation) and skill
level
for
different dependent variables
Least skillful Intermediate Most skillful
A-condition F-condition A-condition F-condition A-condition F-condition
Markship
Mean
SD
RPE
Mean
SD
Mean SD
Mean
SD
EMG-MT
EMG-PT
91.29 77.86
105.57
99.71 105.50
11.28
23.86 9.03
13.65 13.28
12.86
10.57 12.86
12.14 9.50
1.86
2.44 2.04
1.46 0.84
17.00
13.12
15.45
17.48 15.48
3.53
3.15 6.22
6.08 1.30
25.15 18.07
20.21
25.31 18.41
11.20 6.93
9.84 18.82
9.83
108.67
7.45
9.50
1.05
13.70
1.83
17.44
6.23
=
5.04,
p
=
0.0201. Further testing (one-way ANOVA's and the
LSD-
test) indicated in the Armchair condition a significant difference between
the compound
(M
=
11.71,
SD
=
5.36) and the freestyle bow
(M
=
26.37,
SD
=
9.56), but not with regard to the classical bow
(M
=
19.71,
SD
=
7.13).
No
interaction effects occurred with respect to between-
factors and within-factors
(ps
>
0.680).
Dependent Variables
In order to analyze the dependent variables split-plot ANCOVA's were
used (controlling for the difference between groups in regard to lunch
habits) and will be described below. For means and standard deviations
se Table 1.
(a) Marksmanship.
A
split-plot ANCOVA was used with scores from
marksmanship as the Within-Subject Factor and Group as the Between-
Subject Factor. There was no interaction effect between Marksmanship
and Group and no difference between conditions
(ps
>
O.l),
but there
were group differences [F(2,17)
=
9.92,
p
=
0.0021. As post hoc analysis
LSD-testing was applied to examine group differences
(5%
level), indi-
cating that there was a significant difference in marksmanship between
the least skilled group (Armchair condition:
M
=
91.29,
SD
=
11.28;
Flotation condition:
M
=
77.86,
SD
=
23.86) and the intermediary group
(Armchair condition:
M
=
105.57,
SD
=
9.03; Flotation condition:
M
=
99.71,
SD
=
13.65), and between the least skilled and the elite (Armchair
condition:
M
=
105.50,
SD
=
13.28; Flotation condition:
M
=
108.67,
SD
=
7.45). Standard deviation may provide a measure of performance
constancy,
so
a comparison (one-way ANOVA's) of these was derived:
in the Armchair condition, no group-differences existed
(p
=
0.988), but
in the Flotation condition there was a significant difference in deviance
204
NORLANDER
ET
AL.
for marksmanship [F(2,17)
=
3.00,
p
=
0.0461. LSD-testing indicated
group differences: The elite
(M
=
1.28,
SD
=
0.41) indicated significantly
lower deviation than the least slulled
(M
=
3.43,
SD
=
1.87), but did not
differ from the intermediary group
(M
=
3.04,
SD
=
2.06).
(b)
RPE-Ratings
of
Perceived Exertion.
A split-plot ANCOVA was
used with scores from the RPE scale as Within-Subject Factor and with
Groups as the Between-Subject Factor. Significant interaction effects were
obtained between the RPE scale and Groups [F(2,17)
=
4.41,
p
=
0.029)
and between conditions on the RPE scale [F(1,17)
=
9.70,
p
=
0.0061,
as well as group differences [F(2,17)
=
6.23,
p
=
0.0101. In the Armchair
condition, means
(M
=
11.85,
SD
=
2.25) were significantly higher than
in the Flotation condition
(M
=
10.80,
SD
=
2.02) which may suggest
that less effort was perceived necessary in the Flotation condition. Sub-
sequent LSD-testing indicated, in the Armchair condition, a significant
difference for the RPE scale between the elite
(M
=
9.50,
SD
=
0.84)
and the least skilled
(M
=
12.86,
SD
=
1.86), and between the elite and
the intermediary group
(M
=
12.86,
SD
=
2.04), whereas for the Flotation
condition there was a difference between the elite
(M
=
9.50,
SD
=
1.05)
and the intermediary group
(M
=
12.14,
SD
=
1.46), with the least skilled
(M
=
10.57,
SD
=
2.44) in between. To examine the interaction effects,
the RPE scale results were analyzed under Armchair and Flotation con-
ditions using the Wilcoxon Matched-Pairs Test. In the least skilled group
there was a significant difference
(Z
=
-2.20,
p
=
0.028) between
con-
ditions whereby the RPE scale in the Armchair condition gave a higher
mean
(M
=
12.86,
SD
=
1.86) than in the Flotation condition
(M
=
10.57,
SD
=
2.44). There were no other significant differences within
groups between Armchair and Flotation conditions regarding the RPE
scale
(ps
>
0.390).
(c)
Mean Tension (MT).
A
split-plot ANCOVA was used with scores
from EMG-measures, in MT, as a Within-Subject Factor and Groups as
Between-Subject Factor.
There was a significant interaction between
EMG-MT and group [F(2,17)
=
11.67,
p
=
0.0011 but there were no
significant differences between conditions
(p
=
0.127) and no group dif-
ference
(p
=
0.626). Wilcoxon Matched-Pairs Test was used to examine
the EMG-MT result under Armchair and Flotation conditions in each
group. In the least skilled group there was a significant difference
(Z
=
-2.03,
p
=
0.043) between conditions whereby EMG-MT, in the Arm-
chair condition, gave a higher mean
(M
=
17.00,
SD
=
3.53) compared
with that of the Flotation condition
(M
=
13.12,
SD
=
3.15). Further, in
the elite group there was a significant difference
(2
=
-2.20,
p
=
0.028)
between conditions such that EMG-MT, under the Armchair condition,
showed a higher mean
(M
=
15.48,
SD
=
1.30) than in the Flotation
condition
(M
=
13.70,
SD
=
1.83). For the intermediary group there were
no significant differences
(p
=
0.075)
between the Armchair condition
(M
=
15.45,
SD
=
6.22) and the Flotation condition
(M
=
17.48,
SD
=
6.08).
(d)
Pre-release Tension (PT).
A split-plot ANCOVA was used with
FLOTATION REST
AND
ARCHERY
205
scores from the EMG-measures expressed with PT as Within-Subject Fac-
tor and group as Between-Subject Factor. No EMG-PT
X
Group inter-
action effect was indicated
(p
=
0.197) and no difference between con-
ditions
(p
=
0.772),
nor any Group difference
(p
=
0.661).
Correlation Statistics
Correlation coefficients (Pearson’s
r)
were computed between variables
(see Table
2).
The results indicated that the connection between mark-
manship (Mark) and the consistency of performance (Con) increased dur-
ing Flotation condition (F) at the same time as the connection between
ratings of perceived exertion (RPE) and adjudged
ski1
(Skil) diminished.
Discussion
Statistical analyses indicated that the participants experienced a lesser
perceived exertion
effort during marksmanship in the Floating condition
than in the Armchair condition, as measured by the RPE scale. The most
proficient archers (the elite) distinguished themselves from the other two
groups in the Armchair and Floating conditions through their significantly
lower points on the RPE scale (i.e., the elite group experienced lower
perceived exertion). The concept
of
perceived exertion (Borg, 1998) con-
tains several components used to describe all exercises from exaggerat-
edly high overall physical exertion (e.g., distance running) to the exer-
cising of small muscle groups or to exercises with short duration (e.g.,
archery). For archery, local strain sensations in the
arm
muscles involved
disturb concentration
so
that a lower perceived exertion is an advantage
(Janson, 1995), suggesting a practical value.
With regard to
average muscle tension
(EMG-MT) in the Extensor
Digitorum during marksmanship, a between-conditions difference was ob-
tained for the least and most proficient archers (the least skilled group
and the elite group, respectively) whereby floating led to lower muscle
tension. However, no significant difference between either group or con-
dition regarding
pre-release tension
(EMG-PT) was obtained.
Marksmanship
was not improved in the Flotation REST condition. One
explanation may be that an improved marksmanship performance requires
a period of training under conditions of relaxation induced by Flotation.
On the other hand, it should be noted that the elite archers performed
more
consistently
in the Flotation condition compared with the least
skilled group.
Several studies appear to confirm the conclusion that Flotation REST
induces a more conspicuous primary process condition (Norlander, 1997;
Norlander, Bergman,
&
Archer, 1998). This condition (i.e., a deeper con-
centration) includes certain mechanisms (e.g., immediacy-focus, cogni-
tive-shift from the verbal-based left hemisphere to the spatially-dominated
right hemisphere, narrowed span
of
attention, and relaxation) that have
been found to exert particular influence in “closed skills” andor self-
paced sports like archery,
rifle
marksmanship, diving, and ice-skating
Table
2
Correlations between different variables in armchair
(A)
and flotation
(F)
conditions. Significant
correlations are indicated as follows:
p
<
0.05
(*),
p
<
0.001
(**)
Z
Mark A MarkF
Con
A
Con
F RPEA RPE
F
MTA MTF PTA
PTF
Skill
0
Ei
Mark A
1
.oo
Mark
F
.69**
1
.oo
Con
A
-.65* -.21
1
.oo
Con
F
-
.46* -.77**
.09
I
.oo
w
RPE A
-
.24
-33 .23
.22
1
.oo
RPE F
.29
-.ox
-.I2
.05
.70*
1
.oo
MT A
-.ox
-.26
.02
.40
.I8
.25
I
.oo
MT
F
.I
1
-.I4
PTA
-.4x*
P.35
.25
.09
.4x* .27 .42 .22
I
.oo
PTF
-.Ol
-.27
-.Ol
.46*
.ox
.29
.65* .77** .4
1
1
.oo
Skill
.4x* .62*
-
.03
-.4x* -.60*
-.20
-.I7 .07
-
.2x
-.o1
1
.oo
8
3
-
.06
39
.26 .42 .62*
1.00
FLOTATION REST AND ARCHERY
207
(Moran, 1996). Even though the present study did have some methodo-
logical limitations (the sample size was rather small and the Flotation
condition included, for a couple of minutes, progressive relaxation which
was not present in the Armchair condition), it indicates that clear divi-
dends may be obtained through the exploitation of the “aftereffects” in-
duced in the floating condition. In order to reinforce the quality of training
in individual technically-based disciplines the technical advances offered
by a floating procedure may possibly be applied to develop particular
assemblies of responses (for example taking a penalty in soccer) in oth-
erwise exclusively team sports. Well-rehearsed coaching with high tech-
nical and conceptual quality reinforces the probability of enhanced con-
centration and successful performance in the instant of competition (Rai-
lo, 1992).
Flotation REST may be applied as an instrument to improve coaching
and to hone technique, as data discussed above suggest. Within compet-
itive archery, there appears much importance placed upon the degree of
relaxation encountered in the antagonist to the Flexor Digitorum (i.e., the
Extensor Digitorum) during the performance of archery marksmanship
such that further relaxation of this muscle optimizes performance. Flo-
tation REST provided positive effects in this respect. The results indicated
that even the most proficient archers were presented an opportunity
to
improve the consistency of their marksmanship. The technical opportu-
nities for advancing quality of coaching and training ought to be rein-
forced through the combination of Flotation REST with visualization in
the water-tank (Lee
&
Hewitt, 1987; Suedfeld
&
Bruno, 1990). Further,
simulation training (Orlick, 1990), under the influence of the “afteref-
fect,” assisted by external distractions (e.g., noise, applause) is expected
to reinforce potential benefits.
In summary, the present data describes a treatment recipe for coaching
and training that capitalizes on primary process reinforcement through
concentration of effort in a highly individual sports discipline. Further
experimentation is necessary to define the basic methodology in different
sports. Longitudinal studies with athletes training after Flotation-REST
compared with athletes training without REST might here be of great
interest.
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Manuscript submitted: May 4, 1998
Final revision received: Jan 10, 1999
