Article

A tool for measuring stress tolerance in elite athletes

March 1990
2(1):51-66

DOI:10.1080/10413209008406420

Authors:

A self-report inventory of sources of life-stress and symptoms of stress is described. The tool can be used to determine the nature of an athlete's response to training, particularly his/her capacity to tolerate training loads. Data are used to demonstrate the use of the inventory to determine i) training responses which are either too stressed or under-stressed, ii) the ideal amount of stress to promote the optimum level of training effort, iii) the influence of outside-of-sport stresses that interfere with the training response, iv) preliminary features of overtraining, v) reactions to jet-lag and travel fatigue, and vi) peaking responses.

Individually guided training prescription by heart rate variability and self-reported measure of stress tolerance in recreational runners: Effects on endurance performance

Article

Mar 2023
J SPORT SCI

The aim of this study was to determine the effect of endurance training individually guided by objective (Heart Rate Variability-HRV) or self-report measure of stress (DALDA-questionnaire) in comparison to predefined endurance training prescription for improving endurance performance in recreational runners. After a 2-week preliminary baseline period to establish resting HRV and self-reported measure of stress, thirty-six male recreational runners were randomly assigned to HRV-guided (GHRV; n = 12), DALDA-guided (GD; n = 12) or predefined training (GT; n = 12) prescription groups. Before and after 5-weeks of endurance training, participants performed a track field peak velocity (Vpeak_TF), time limit (Tlim) at 100% of Vpeak_TF and 5 km time-trial (5 km TT) tests. GD lead to higher improvements in Vpeak_TF (8.4 ± 1.8%; ES = 1.41) and 5 km TT (-12.8 ± 4.2%; ES = -1.97), than GHRV (6.6 ± 1.5% and -8.3 ± 2.8%; ES = -1.20; 1.24) and GT (4.9 ± 1.5% and -6.0 ± 3.3%; ES = -0.82; 0.68), respectively, with no differences for Tlim. Self-report measures of stress may be used to individualize endurance training prescription on a daily basis leading to better performance enhancement, which may be used with HRV for a holistic understanding of daily training-induce adaptations.

Testosterone/cortisol ratio: gender effect and prediction of podium results in beach sprint master rowers

Article

Full-text available

Dec 2024

Objective The purpose of this study was to address the lack of data on the stress and motivation response in master athletes during competitions, as athletic performance in this age group can be significantly impacted by stress rather than appropriate training. Methods Coastal rowing beach sprint master athletes aged 43–57 years were examined to assess the saliva levels of stress biomarkers, cortisol, and testosterone. Specifically, samples were collected at awakening and before and after the boat race. Results Mean values of cortisol remained unchanged from awakening and raised at the end of the competition, while testosterone levels increased before the race, suggesting an aggressive/competitive behavior. Cortisol levels were significantly higher when comparing pre-race levels with post-race ( p = 0.001) levels and early morning with post-race ( p = 0.006) levels. No gender effect was observed in this case. Testosterone values did not demonstrate significance when compared between time points, not even when stratifying by gender. Considering the 24 athletes, a higher testosterone/cortisol ratio was correlated with a worse podium position (B = 3.705; p = 0.009). When stratified by gender, the testosterone/cortisol ratio demonstrated an association with a worse outcome of the race only in female rowers (B = 4.012; p = 0.022). Male athletes demonstrated no significant correlation between hormone ratio and race results (B = 3.288; p = 0.292). Conclusion It emerged from this study that the amateur rowers who approach competitive sport during adulthood may have problems in coping with the race-related stress and thus the outcome of their performance might be affected, as in adolescents.

"ll ruolo del Microbioma intestinale nel processo di allenamento: nutrizione, sport e salute"

Thesis

Nov 2023

Junior Carlone

Fatigue and stress responses in athletes performing functional-fitness workout and its association with well-being

Article

Full-text available

Jul 2023

We monitored fatigue and stress using heart rate variability and session rating perceived exertion in trained athletes performing a single bout of functional-fitness training workout. Also, we verified the association between heart rate variability and session rating perceived exertion with well-being. In the first week of tapering, eleven national athletes (age: 25.7 ± 3.3y; body mass index: 27.7 ± 2.8 kg·m-2; training history: > 4y) participated in this study. Heart rate variability was analyzed basal, before and after the experimental protocol. Session rating perceived exertion was analyzed after the experimental protocol, and after the assessments, the association between them and well-being was performed. Repeated measures of ANOVA were performed to compare condition x time, and Pearson correlation was used to analyze the associations. Heart rate variability decreased its values after the training workout (ηp2=11.5, p<0.001), and session rating perceived exertion was high (25.8 ± 6.9 a.u.). We did not find associations between heart rate variability or session rating perceived exertion and well-being (r between-0.34 and 0.35, p>0.05). This study did not support the idea of a significant relationship between objective/subjective, physiological assessments and well-being in one bout of training workout. Functional-fitness coaches and athletes should know the limited evidence about objective/subjective assessments and well-being.

Assessment of Fatigue and Recovery in Sport: Narrative Review

Article

Apr 2022
INT J SPORTS MED

Fatigue is a phenomenon associated with decreases in both physical and cognitive performances and increases in injury occurrence. Competitive athletes are required to complete demanding training programmes with high workloads to elicit the physiological and musculoskeletal adaptations plus skill acquisition necessary for performance. High workloads, especially sudden rapid increases in training loads, are associated with the occurrence of fatigue. At present, there is limited evidence elucidating the underlying mechanisms associating the fatigue generated by higher workloads and with an increase in injury risk. The multidimensional nature and manifestation of fatigue have led to differing definitions and dichotomies of the term. Consequently, a plethora of physiological, biochemical, psychological and performance markers have been proposed to measure fatigue and recovery. Those include self-reported scales, countermovement jump performance, heart rate variability, and saliva and serum biomarker analyses. The purpose of this review is to provide an overview of the fatigue and recovery plus methods of assessments.

Carga interna e fontes e sintomas de estresse durante o treinamento em atletas de CrossFit®: Um estudo piloto

Article

Mar 2022

O estudo teve como objetivo avaliar as respostas da carga de treinamento obtidas a partir da percepção subjetiva de esforço da sessão (PSEsessão) e dos sinais e sintomas de estresse a partir Daily Analysis of Life Demands in Athletes (DALDA) durante quatro semanas de treinamento de CrossFit®. Participaram da pesquisa 10 atletas de CrossFit® que foram monitorados durante quatro semanas de treinamento. Durante as semanas de monitoramento foram avaliadas as cargas internas de treinamento de cada atleta, no qual ao final de todas as sessões a PSEsessão foi obtida a partir da resposta da escala CR-10 de cada atleta. Além disso, ao final de cada semana de treinamento os participantes responderam ao questionário DALDA. Os resultados demonstraram que as respostas da carga de treinamento e do DALDA não apresentaram diferenças significantes (p>0,05) entre as quatro semanas de treinamento monitoradas. Portanto, conclui-se que as cargas de treinamento as respostas do DALDA não foram diferentes nas quatro semanas de treinamento de CrossFit®, indicando uma possível relação entre as variáveis, visto que não foram observadas grandes alterações nas respostas das cargas e das fontes e sintomas de estresse. Em relação a aplicação prática, o estudo reforça a importância do monitoramento do treinamento utilizando-se de métodos válidos e que auxiliam treinadores, atletas e praticantes do CrossFit® a prescrever de maneira adequada as cargas de treinamento.

Peer Presence Increases Session Ratings of Perceived Exertion

Article

Full-text available

Sep 2021

Purpose: This study aimed to examine the effect of peer presence on session rating of perceived exertion (RPE) responses. Method: Fourteen males, with mean (SD) age 22.4 (3.9) years, peak oxygen uptake 48.0 (6.6) mL·kg-1·min-1, and peak power output 330 (44) W, completed an incremental cycling test and 3 identical experimental sessions, in groups of 4 or 5. Experimental sessions involved 24 minutes of cycling, whereby the work rate alternated between 40% and 70% peak power output every 3 minutes. During cycling, heart rate was collected every 3 minutes, and session-RPE was recorded 10 minutes after cycling, in 3 communication contexts: in written form unaccompanied (intrapersonal communication), verbally by the researcher only (interpersonal communication), and in the presence of the training group. Session-RPE was analyzed using ordinal regression and heart rate using a linear mixed-effects model, with models fit in a Bayesian framework. Results: Session-RPE was voted higher when collected in the group's presence compared with when written (odds ratio = 4.26, 95% credible interval = 1.27-14.73). On average, the posterior probability that session-RPE was higher in the group setting than when written was .53. Session-RPE was not different between the group and verbal, or verbal and written collection contexts. Conclusions: This study suggests that contextual psychosocial inputs influence session-RPE and highlights the importance of session-RPE users controlling the measurement environment when collecting votes.

e BOOK Livro Entendendo os temas emergentes em treinamento, atividade física e saúde

Chapter

Full-text available

Dec 2024

A prática de atividade física (AF) é amplamente reconhecida como uma das estratégias mais eficazes e a de menor custo para a promoção da saúde e prevenção de doenças crônicas não transmissíveis (DCNTs) (Winpenny et all, 2020). No contexto educacional, incentivar e facilitar essa prática é essencial, não apenas pelos benefícios físicos, mas também pelos impactos no bem-estar mental, social e no desenvolvimento cognitivo dos estudantes (OMS, 2022), além de projetar o hábito saldável e benefícios a saúde para vida adulta (Winpenny et all, 2020). Entretanto, apesar dos esforços globais e nacionais, como os programas de incentivo à AF nas escolas brasileiras, os níveis de sedentarismo entre crianças, adolescentes e adultos jovens continuam preocupantes, e com projeções de ampliação até 2035. (World Obesity Federation, 2024). Este capítulo tem como objetivo discutir os desafios e percepções: barreiras para a prática de atividade física no contexto educacional, divido em 5 tópicos: (1) Visão geral das políticas e diretrizes educacionais relacionadas à atividade física no contexto 298 Entendendo os Temas Emergentes em Treinamento... escolar; (2) Importância da prática de atividade física e barreiras percebidas no contexto educacional; (3) Barreiras à Atividade Física na Infância; (4) Desafios para a Prática de Atividade Física entre Adolescentes e (5) A Prática de Atividade Física no Ensino Superior. A fragmentação tem como objetivo discutir o cenário e principais barreiras que limitam a prática regular de AF no ambiente escolar e universitário, abordando os desafios enfrentados por diferentes grupos etários, desde a infância até a fase adulta de uma forma mais organizada. Desejamos uma excelente leitura. Visão geral das políticas e diretrizes educacionais relacionadas à atividade física no contexto escolar. A educação física (EF) nas escolas é um componente essencial da educação básica no Brasil, conforme estabelecido na Base Nacional Comum Curricular (Brasil 2018). A educação física une aspectos de educação e saúde, oferecendo conhecimento, aprendizado e vivências corporais que beneficiam várias dimensões da saúde, como a física e motora, psicológica, social e ambiental, além da cognitiva (TOMPSETT et al., 2017). Assim, diversas estratégias com objetivo de prática de atividades física têm sido analisadas e colocadas em prática, relacionadas a aspectos como política e ambiente, currículo, orientações adequadas e avaliação dos alunos, visando promover um impacto positivo na vida e na saúde dos estudantes (BESSA et al., 2019). A contribuição positiva das aulas de educação física escolar para a saúde tem sido fundamental na elaboração de recomendações para a EF em diversos países (GARCÍA-HERMOSO et al., 2020). Foram registrados benefícios em indicadores de saúde física e motora, como a aptidão cardiorrespiratória e as habilidades motoras básicas; na saúde psicológica, incluindo engajamento, motivação, autonomia, afetividade e redução da ansiedade e depressão; e na saúde socioambiental, destacando a empatia, a cooperação, a formação de amizades e comportamentos pró-sociais (BESSA et al., 2019). Entendendo os Temas Emergentes em Treinamento... 299 A promoção da saúde se transforma em uma política pública no Brasil, com a escola sendo um ambiente propício para a implementação de recursos educativos voltados a esse objetivo. Portanto, iniciativas governamentais sustentam essas estratégias no ambiente escolar, como o Programa Saúde na Escola, Programa Nacional de Alimentação Escolar (PNAE). O Programa Saúde na Escola (PSE) foi criado no Brasil em 2007, por meio do Decreto Presidencial nº 6.286, de 5 de setembro de 2007, como uma iniciativa de política pública que integra os setores de educação e saúde (BRASIL, 2022). Entre as ações previstas no programa, destacam-se: promoção da atividade física; saúde ambiental; alimentação saudável e prevenção da obesidade; incentivo à cultura de paz e aos direitos humanos; prevenção da violência e de acidentes; combate a doenças negligenciadas; verificação do estado vacinal; saúde sexual e reprodutiva, além da prevenção ao Vírus da Imunodeficiência Humana (HIV) e a Infecções Sexualmente Transmissíveis (IST); prevenção ao uso de álcool, tabaco e outras drogas; saúde bucal; saúde auditiva; saúde ocular; e medidas de prevenção à Covid-19, incorporadas em julho de 2020 (BRASIL, 2022). Em relação à promoção da atividade física, a literatura científica destaca os benefícios dessa prática para a saúde de indivíduos de todas as idades. Para crianças e jovens, os efeitos positivos estão associados a diversos aspectos, como o desenvolvimento humano, a melhoria da socialização, a saúde cardiovascular e a condição física. Além disso (BRASIL, 2021). Para esse grupo, a prática de atividade física auxilia no desenvolvimento de habilidades motoras, melhora o humor, reduz a sensação de estresse, ajuda a manter um peso corporal saudável e contribui para um melhor desempenho escolar. É importante ressaltar que o PSE abrange estudantes de todos os níveis de ensino, desde a creche até a educação de jovens e adultos, com a maioria dos participantes sendo alunos do Ensino Fundamental (BRASIL, 2021) O PSE promove ações intersetoriais e mobiliza parceiros na rede de atenção básica à saúde e no ensino fundamental 300 Entendendo os Temas Emergentes em Treinamento... público, visando aprimorar o cuidado individual e coletivo, além de reduzir riscos e agravos que afetam crianças e adolescentes. O objetivo é ampliar os mecanismos de enfrentamento e garantir um cuidado integral. Desde sua implementação, o PSE tem registrado avanços significativos, mas também enfrenta importantes desafios. Sua agenda de adesões, expandida nos marcos regulatórios, é frequentemente debatida no contexto das interconexões entre os setores. Já o Programa Nacional de Alimentação Escolar (PNAE), criado em 1995 e inicialmente denominado “Campanha de Merenda Escolar”, é uma das políticas públicas mais antigas do Brasil e um dos maiores programas de alimentação escolar do mundo. (PEDRAZA et al., 2018). O PNAE tem como principal objetivo garantir aos estudantes uma alimentação digna, assegurando pelo menos uma nutrição segura e de qualidade. Com o programa, todos os alunos matriculados na educação básica, incluindo as etapas de educação infantil (creche e pré-escola), ensino fundamental e ensino médio, são atendidos. Além disso, o PNAE beneficia também estudantes indígenas, quilombolas, aqueles que recebem Atendimento Educacional Especializado (AEE), e os matriculados na Educação de Jovens e Adultos (EJA) em escolas públicas, filantrópicas, conveniadas com o poder público e instituições confessionais, assim como nas escolas federais. Esses estabelecimentos recebem recursos financeiros da União por meio do Fundo Nacional de Desenvolvimento da Educação (FNDE) (FERREIRA et al., 2019). Diante desse contexto, é fundamental promover ações e políticas que incentivem a atividade física nas escolas, especialmente aquelas ligadas à Atenção Primária à Saúde (APS), que é o foco de atuação do PSE. Isso visa encorajar sistemas, sociedades e indivíduos a se tornarem mais ativos. Também é essencial capacitar gestores e profissionais de educação e saúde com documentos orientadores, como o “Guia de Atividade Física para a População Brasileira”, as Recomendações para Gestores e Profissionais de Saúde e os Cadernos Temáticos do PSE, elaborados pela gestão federal, que Entendendo os Temas Emergentes em Treinamento... 301 têm como um de seus objetivos estimular a oferta de práticas de atividade física nas escolas. Importância da prática de atividade física e barreiras percebidas no contexto educacional. É fundamentado na literatura que a prática de atividade física (AF) traz inúmeros benefícios; estes estão alinhados ao conceito de saúde, abrangendo aspectos físicos, sociais e psicológicos (OMS, 2022). Nessa perspectiva, a adoção de ferramentas para identificação frente essa problemática, tornam-se imprescindíveis. A avaliação das barreiras percebidas é crucial, pois, referem-se às dificuldades subjetivas percebidas por indivíduos que podem impedir ou desencorajar a adoção de comportamentos saudáveis, como a prática de AF. A prática regular de AF desempenha um papel crucial na prevenção e controle de complicações relacionadas às doenças crônicas não transmissíveis (DCNT), responsáveis por 41 milhões de mortes anualmente em todo o mundo (OMS, 2023) Adicionalmente, prejuízos ao erário público na ordem de 1,14 bilhão/ano, somente no Brasil (Bielemann, 2010). Neste sentido, múltiplos esforços estão sendo realizados para ampliar os níveis de AF nos diversos públicos, em especial para pessoas mais jovens, onde os impactos precoces, são focos de maiores discussões. No entanto, mesmo com as ações e metas estabelecidas, parece que elas não estão produzindo os resultados esperados. (World Obesity Federation, 2024). Nessa perspectiva, a adoção de ferramentas para identificação frente essa problemática, tornam-se imprescindíveis. A avaliação das barreiras percebidas é crucial, pois, referem-se às dificuldades subjetivas percebidas por indivíduos que podem impedir ou desencorajar a adoção de comportamentos saudáveis, como a prática de AF (ref ). Essas barreiras podem incluir fatores pessoais, como falta de motivação, baixa autoestima e dificuldade de gestão 302 Entendendo os Temas Emergentes em Treinamento... do tempo, que têm sido identificadas como as principais barreiras (Rigoni, 2012; Sousa, 2010). É crucial compreender que a falta de tempo não é meramente uma desculpa, mas sim um reflexo das dificuldades organizacionais enfrentadas por muitos adultos em equilibrar suas atividades diárias (Rech et al., 2018)., barreiras ambientais, como a ausência de espaços adequados para a prática de exercícios (Sousa, 2010), além de barreiras sociais, como a falta de apoio de amigos e familiares, e econômicas, como a dificuldade de acesso a academias ou equipamentos, que influenciam a decisão e a capacidade de se engajar regularmente em atividades físicas. Eventos e transições ao longo da vida exercem um impacto negativo significativo sobre a AF e outros comportamentos de estilo de vida (Winpenny et al., 2020), o que representa um desafio adicional para a manutenção de hábitos saudáveis durante períodos de mudança, particularmente entre os universitários (Ferreira Silva et al., 2022). Evidências indicam uma diminuição na AF durante a transição da adolescência para a idade adulta, com uma redução média de 5,2 minutos por dia de atividade física de intensidade moderada a vigorosa (Corder et al., 2019). Assim, o objetivo do escopo do capítulo é discorrer sobre os desafios e percepções enfrentadas pelas por esse segmento da população no percurso formativo da educação básica e superior Barreiras percebidas à prática de AF entre universitários podem ser atribuídas a diversas dimensões, incluindo fatores psicológicos, emocionais, cognitivos, ambientais, socioeconômicos e demográficos, como falta de tempo, motivação, acessibilidade a locais apropriados e limitações financeiras (Ferreira Silva et al., 2022). Este estudo visa explorar e quantificar essas barreiras específicas para a prática de AF no lazer entre estudantes universitários, proporcionando uma compreensão mais profunda dos fatores que influenciam seus comportamentos de saúde.

The association between subjective sleep and stress in recreational athletes

Article

Full-text available

Dec 2024

Jason Walsh

Subjective sleep and stress are strongly associated, at multiple levels, and the current body of evidence highlights a bi-directional association. Previous research has highlighted that issues with sleep can impact on several stress responses. On the other side of this relationship, research has shown that stress-inducing factors can significantly impact sleep. The present study examined this association in a sample of recreational athletes, a population that has received little to no research focus to date Recreational athletes are defined as individuals who exercise >4 hours per week for health, fitness, or unofficial competitions. Recreational athletes (n = 34) completed online measures of subjective sleep, subjective stress, subjective anxiety/depression and training load (PSQI, PSS, HADS and DALDA). Pearson correlations were carried out to examine associations between variables. There was a significant positive correlation between subjective sleep quality and subjective stress. There was a significant positive correlation between subjective stress and training load. There was a significant positive correlation between subjective sleep quality and training load. The positive associations between sleep, stress and training load are consistent with previous research, but the present study adds to the literature by highlighting the associations in recreational athletes. Recreational athletes should proactively manage their sleep and stress, as due to the bi-directional relationship, improving sleep may benefit stress, and improving stress may benefit sleep quality. This is also likely to benefit overall mood and reduce the likelihood of overtraining in recreational athletes.

Influence of training load intensity on young soccer players' sleep patterns

Conference Paper

Feb 2024

Introduction: During the sports training process, there is different training load orientation that can cause an increased need for sleep to athletes. Therefore, the goal of this study was to verify if the acute load of soccer training, in young athletes, carried out during a week of intensification are enough to modify the sleep pattern of young football players. Materials and Methods: Fifteen young football players (age: 15.90 ± 0.63 years; body mass: 67.82 ± 6.34 kg; weight: 1.73 ± 0.08 m; body mass index: 22.62 ± 1.16) were evaluated during a two-week of training period with different workloads. External training load (ETL) measurements were performed using the PlayerLoad method, while the rating of perceived exertion (using the CR-10 scale) value was multiplied by the match duration to measure the internal training load (ITL) Sleep variables included total time in bed (TTB), total sleep time (TST), sleep latency (SL), wake after sleep onset (WASO), and sleep efficiency (SE), and all variables were assessed daily, using wrist actigraphy (GT3-X). The CET, ITL, and Sleep data were analyzed in a paired manner, comparing the data between corresponding days of each week. For example, the data from Monday of week 1 was compared with Monday of week 2, and so forth. Results: Regarding ETL, significant differences were found on Mondays (p = 0.036), Wednesdays (p = 0.001), and Fridays (p = 0.018). There were significant differences in ITL were observed on Mondays (p = 0.003) and Wednesdays (p = 0.001), consistently with higher loads in the second week for both variables. In relation to sleep variables, there were significant differences in SE between Tuesdays (p = 0.002) and Thursdays (p = 0.046). Similar results were found for TST, with differences between Tuesdays (p = 0.034), with the increasement of 80 minutes, and Thursdays (p = 0.004), there was an increase of 86 minutes. The results showed a higher SE and TST in the second week of training, in subsequent days of training loads intensification. Conclusions: Increase in the workload was sufficient to promote a bigger necessity to sleep, resulting in an increase of TST and SE in subsequent days of training intensification. Acknowledgements: Federal University of Rio Grande do Norte

Influence of training load intensity on young soccer players' sleep patterns

Article

Feb 2024
SLEEP MED

Effects of Training Loads on Stress Tolerance and Mucosal Immunity in High-Intensity Functional Fitness Athletes

Article

Jan 2022

Higher training loads affect sleep in endurance runners: Can a high-heat-capacity mattress topper mitigate negative effects?

Article

Nov 2023

CARGA INTERNA DE TREINAMENTO E TOLERÂNCIA AO ESTRESSE EM JOVENS ATLETAS DE GINÁSTICA RÍTMICA EM DIFERENTES PERÍODOS DE TREINAMENTO: CARGA INTERNA E TOLERÂNCIA AO ESTRESSE EM GINASTAS

Article

Aug 2023

O presente estudo teve como objetivo avaliar as respostas da carga interna de treinamento (CIT) obtidas a partir da percepção subjetiva de esforço (PSEsessão) e dos sinais e sintomas de estresse a partir do questionário Daily Analysis of Life Demands in Athletes (DALDA) durante quatro semanas de treinamento de Ginástica Rítmica (GR) divididas em um período com e outro sem competição. Participaram da pesquisa oito ginastas de GR, que responderam, durante quatro semanas, a PSEsessão após trinta minutos do final de cada sessão de treinamento treino; já o questionário DALDA foi aplicado ao final de cada semana de treinamento. Os resultados demonstraram que não houve diferenças significantes entre as quatro semanas de monitoramento do treinamento em relação às respostas da CIT e dos sinais e sintomas de estresse, ou seja, entre os períodos com e sem competições. Logo, sugere-se uma possível relação entre a CIT e o DALDA, uma vez que não foram observadas grandes mudanças tanto da CIT quanto dos sinais e sintomas do estresse ao longo do período monitorado.

Dynamic training load management in international judo training camp

Technical Report

Full-text available

Sep 2023

Marcus Fabio Agostinho

This technical note aims to present applied means and methods of monitoring and load control for young judo athletes participating in international training camps.

Effects of Different Training Load Magnitudes on Sleep Pattern and Mood State in Young Soccer Players

Conference Paper

Jun 2023

INTRODUCTION: Young athletes are exposed to successive periods of changes in training loads, which can affect their sleep-related health and mood states. OBJECTIVE: To analyze the effect of different training load magnitudes on sleep patterns and mood states in young soccer players. METHODS: 13 young soccer players (15.93 ±0.59 years; 68.70 ±6.12 kg; 1.75 ±0.07 m; 22.30 ±0.97 kg/m²), were evaluated by 3 weeks of training during a pre-season. The external training load (ETL) was verified by the PlayerLoad method, while the internal training load (ITL) was determined by the Subjective Perceived Effort of session (sRPE) method. Pulse actigraphy was used to monitor sleep. Sleep variables, including time in bed (TIB), total sleep time (TST), sleep latency (SL), wake after sleep onset (WASO) and sleep efficiency (SE) were evaluated on every night. Mood state was assessed using the Brunel Mood Scale (BRUMS). Repeated measures ANOVA was used to verify the effect of time. Friedman's test was used for data that did not meet normality assumptions (sleep latency and mood states). Bonferroni's post-hoc was used to verify point differences. RESULTS: Week 2 showed higher ETL and ITL compared to weeks 1 and 3 (p < 0.001). There was a significant improvement in sleep during week 2 (TIB: +35 min, p = 0.044; TST: +46 min, p = 0.003; SL: -5 min, p = 0.001; SE: +3%, p = 0.019). There was no difference in the BRUMS scale component: tension (p = 0.378), depression (p = 0.311), anger (p = 0.148), vigor (p = 0.178), fatigue (p = 0.063) and confusion (p = 0.630 ) during the three weeks analyzed. CONCLUSION: During a microcycle with higher training loads there was no change in the mood state of athletes and possibly the longer total sleep time may, at least in part, explain this finding. Keywords: Actigraphy; Physical training; workload; Football.

Seasonal changes in physiological and psychological parameters of stress in collegiate swimmers

Article

Full-text available

Jul 2023

Abstract To investigate the seasonal changes in physiological and psychological parameters of stress in collegiate swimmers. Fifteen NCAA Division I swimmers (8 men) participated in a tethered anaerobic swim test to determine physiological responses in an ecologically-relevant, graded exercise test. Wisconsin Upper Respiratory Symptom Survey (WURSS-21), Activation-Deactivation Adjective Check List (AD-ACL), Daily Analysis of Life Demands of Athletes (DALDA), and Pittsburgh Sleep Quality Index were assessed at post-season in April (V1), the end of off-season in June (V2), and pre-season in October (V3). The percent change was determined from V2–V1 (off-season phase), V3–V2 (pre-season phase), V1–V3 (in-season phase). Spearman’s rho correlation was used to examine associations between change in physiological and psychological outcomes. All data results showed a better swim performance occurred at V2. Men tended to have faster speed (p = 0.07) in fewer strokes (p = 0.10) and greater work per stroke (p = 0.10) at V2 than V1. Women were faster during V2 compared to V1 (p = 0.02) and V3 (p = 0.05). Women had fewer strokes (p = 0.02) and greater work per stroke (p = 0.01) at V2 compared to V3. Women had the lowest HR and lactate concentration at V3 compared to other visits (p

Sportmedizinische Grundlagen: Überbeanspruchung, Übertraining und Übertrainingssyndrom, Erholung und Erholungsfähigkeit

Chapter

Mar 2023

Unter einem „Übertrainingssyndrom“ versteht man einen unerwarteten Abfall der Leistungsfähigkeit ohne organisch krankhaften Befund, der auch nach einer längeren Regenerationsphase nachweisbar ist. Es existiert kein einzelner zuverlässiger Marker zur Diagnose von chronischen Überlastungszuständen. Die Diagnose eines Übertrainingssyndroms ist eine klinische Ausschlussdiagnose. Zur Prävention sind standardisierte Leistungstests und Fragebögen zur Erfassung der subjektiven Befindlichkeit mit Kenntnis individueller Basiswerte geeignet. Eine angemessene Ernährung, Kälteanwendungen, adäquater Schlaf sowie eine präventive individuelle Trainingsplanung und -dokumentation scheinen geeignete Möglichkeiten, die Erholung zu unterstützen und somit die Qualität des Trainings zu gewährleisten. Dieser Beitrag ist Teil der Sektion Sportmedizin, herausgegeben vom Teilherausgeber Holger HW Gabriel, innerhalb des Handbuchs Sport und Sportwissenschaft, herausgegeben von Arne Güllich und Michael Krüger.

(Evidenzbasierte) Trainingsprinzipien

Chapter

Mar 2023

Trainingsprinzipien gelten als Handlungsorientierungen für die Gestaltung des Trainingsprozesses. In den letzten Jahrzehnten haben sich eine Vielzahl dieser Prinzipien etabliert. Je nach Bezugssystem und Sprachraum existieren in der Literatur bis zu 20 dieser Prinzipien. Deren wissenschaftliche Evidenz und die Bedeutung für den Trainingsprozess ist nicht immer klar belegt. Einige dieser Prinzipien sind zudem unscharf von anderen abgrenzbar. Eine integrative und evidenzbasierte Berücksichtigung relevanter Prinzipien sollte im Planungs-, Umsetzungs- und Auswertungsprozess des Trainings unter effizientem Mittel- und Methodeneinsatz im Sinne eines optimalen Anpassungsprozesses gefördert werden. Diese intendierten Anpassungsreaktionen sind reizspezifisch, individuell und müssen unter Berücksichtigung des progressiven Overloads sowie der Belastungsnormativa (Frequenz, Intensität, Typ und Zeit) sorgfältig geplant und überwacht werden. Dieser Beitrag ist Teil der Sektion sportmotorische Fähigkeiten und sportliches Training, herausgegeben vom Teilherausgeber Michael Fröhlich, innerhalb des Handbuchs Sport und Sportwissenschaft, herausgegeben von Arne Güllich und Michael Krüger.

The Influence of Different Training Load Magnitudes on Sleep Pattern, Perceived Recovery, and Stress Tolerance in Young Soccer Players

Article

Jan 2023
J STRENGTH COND RES

Ferreira, ABdM, Ribeiro, BLL, Batista, EdS, Dantas, MP, and Mortatti, AL. The influence of different training load magnitudes on sleep pattern, perceived recovery, and stress tolerance in young soccer players. J Strength Cond Res 37(2): 351–357, 2023—The aim of this study was to analyze the influence of 3 weeks on sleep parameters, perceived recovery, and stress tolerance in young soccer players using different training load magnitudes. A total of 13 young male soccer athletes (15.9 ± 0.5 years; 68.7 ± 6.1 kg; 170 ± 7 cm) who performed 3 typical training weeks with different workloads were analyzed. The external training load (ETL) was verified by the PlayerLoad method, and the internal training load (ITL) was determined using the session rating of perceived exertion method. Sleep was monitored using a wrist-actigraphy monitor. Sleep variables, including total time in bed (TTB), total sleep time (TST), sleep latency (SL), wake after sleep onset (WASO), and sleep efficiency (SE), were evaluated across all nights of sleep. The recovery status was assessed with the perceived recovery status (PRS) scale, and the stress tolerance was monitored using the “daily analysis of life demands of athletes” questionnaire. There was an increase in sleep time during the week with the highest training load (week 2) (TTB: +35 minutes, TST: +46 minutes, SL: −5 minutes, SE: +3%). There was no difference in the PRS or in the stress tolerance during the evaluation weeks. A very large within-individual correlation was observed between ITL and ETL (r = 0.78) and moderate within-individual correlation between ETL and TST (r = 0.34), between ITL and TST (r = 0.45), and between ITL and SE (r = 0.359). These results showed that there was an increase in TST during a microcycle with intensified loads, without impairing bedtime and resulting in maintenance of the perceived recovery or stress tolerance values.

The Psychology of Athletic Tapering in Sport: A Scoping Review

Article

Full-text available

Jan 2023
SPORTS MED

Taper is a common training strategy used to reduce fatigue and enhance athletic performance. However, currently, no review has summarised what psychological research has been conducted examining taper, what this research shows and what future research needs to be undertaken to extend the field. Consequently, a scoping review was conducted with three aims: (a) to determine the characteristics of psychological research examining taper, (b) to summarise psychological research collected during taper with adult athletes and coaches, and (c) to identify gaps in psychological research examining taper. Forty-eight articles were identified following an exhaustive search strategy and charted following scoping review guidelines. Results showed most research was quantitative, used a longitudinal design, was conducted in swimming, triathlon, cycling or across multiple sports, and used a university-, regional- or national-level male athlete sample. Eight themes were developed to summarise the research: Mood, Perception of Effort, Perceived Fatigue and Wellness, Recovery-Stress, Taper as a Stressor, Stress Tolerance, Psychological Preparation and Cognitive Functioning. Additionally, four research recommendations were identified: (a) conducting exploratory research that examines the impact taper has on athletes’ and coaches’ competition preparation and stress experience, (b) asking more advanced psychological questions and conducting multi-disciplinary research, (c) including a more diverse participant sample in studies and (d) examining the impact of psychological interventions during taper. Overall, this scoping review has highlighted the limited research examining the psychology of taper and the need for focused research that asks more complex questions across diverse populations. Supplementary Information The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1007/s40279-022-01798-6.

Entrenamiento Coadyuvante en el Hockey sobre Césped

Chapter

Full-text available

Dec 2022

Walter Foresto

Inevitably, the inadequate practice of sports is associated with the appearance of injuries, and as the number of people who practice sports increases, these figures continue to rise. Field hockey is not exempt from this, due to the popularity and heyday of recent years, thanks to the sporting achievements of the national teams. It is important to highlight the change in the 2016 regulation, where the matches had a duration of 2 halves of 35' with 15' rest, to go on to play 4 quarters of 15' with 2' rest between the 1st and 2nd quarters and 3rd-4th, and 5´ between the 2nd and 3rd quarter. This made the intensity of the matches and, consequently, of the training sessions, greater and the players exposed to a greater number of injuries. Due to this, a complementary training proposal will be made. Key Word: Adjuvant Training; Field hockey; Injuries; Training

Analysis of stress tolerance, competitive-anxiety, heart rate variability and salivary cortisol during successive matches in male futsal players

Article

Full-text available

Nov 2022

Background This study aimed to compare the stress tolerance, competitive anxiety, heart rate variability and salivary cortisol before and during successive futsal competitive matches (3 matches in 4 days) in young male futsal players. Methods 10 young male futsal players (16.9 ± 0.7 age; 71.0 ± 5.1 kg; 174.9 ± 4.3 cm) were monitored during one training session and across a competitive period with 3 successive matches. External load was determined by the PlayerLoad method, while session rating of perceived exertion was used to calculate the internal training and competitive load. The stress tolerance was examined using Daily Analysis of Life Demand in Athletes questionnaire and the Competitive State Anxiety Inventory was used to analyze the competitive anxiety. The Time and frequency monitoring parameters were used to analyze the vagal cardiac autonomic marker. sC was analyzed using enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay. Results A generalized estimating equation showed a significant difference for PlayerLoad from M1 to TS, M2 and M3, from M2 to M3 (p < 0.05), and for session rating of perceived exertion from M1 to Ts and M3 (p < 0.05). A difference for sources [χ²(3) = 1.481, p = 0.68] or symptoms [χ²(3) = 3.893, p = 0.27] was not found. There was no significant difference in any of the competitive anxiety [cognitive anxiety (F (1.644; 14.799) = 4.6, p = 0.73, ŋ² p = 0.28), somatic anxiety (F (2,09; 18,85) = 26.07 p = 0.057; ŋ²p = 0.27) or self-confidence (F(2.07; 18.85) = 15.875 p = 0.152; ŋ²p = 0.18)] domains. The HRV parameters (time domain and frequency) and Salivary Cortisol (sC) (χ²(3) = 4.320 p = 0.229) did not significantly change during the successive matches. Conclusion The competitive scenario in which the players were evaluated did not significantly modify the stress tolerance, or the athletes’ state of anxiety, which in turn was not able to promote changes in the cardiac vagal modulation or in the sC levels before the matches.

The Repeated High Intensity Efforts ability in rugby union : Evaluation, Development and Optimization.

Thesis

Full-text available

Jan 2022

Adrien Vachon

The repeated sprint ability (RSA) was considered as a major physical determinant of performance in rugby union. However, some studies from rugby league highlighted that the simple RSA is not sufficiently representative of the physical constraints of the sport and does not prepare properly the players to the game. In this context, the ability to repeat high intensity efforts (RHIE) is suggested as a physical quality more specific to rugby union and thus more discriminant of the performance. The RHIE topic is address in 3 different steps : the evaluation, the development and the optimization. In a first study, the assessment of metrological properties of key outcomes from sprint and tackle performance is made using a RHIE test, specifically modified to represent the physical demands of rugby union. Results show that only sprint indices have a sufficient level of reliability to be used with players. Measures of tackle intensity are too variable for an appropriate interpretation. However, this test allows practitioners to identify the physical qualities associated with RHIE, in order to prescribe coherent development strategies with rugby union players. This topic is discussed during the second study. In this context, body composition, maximal sprinting speed and aerobic capacity are the major performance determinants of the RHIE. Therefore, they should be integrated to specific strength and conditioning programs in rugby union. To verify this hypothesis is the aim of the third study, during which an improvement in RHIE ability is observed after a training block composed of an integrated high intensity interval method. Furthermore, results show that coaches or athletes could benefit from a training methodology based on the alternation of contacts and movements, without limiting the adaptation process. The third part of this thesis focus on the RHIE optimization specially to prepare key games or playoffs, periods during which a taper strategy seems to be preferred by coaches. However, the meta-analysis and review of literature performed during the fourth study of this thesis highlight that although a taper is effective to improve neuromuscular and cardiovascular qualities, there is no information available concerning the RHIE ability. In this context, the fifth study consists in the implementation of a taper strategy following an overload training block, with a focus on the influence of the pre-taper fatigue level on the RHIE supercompensation process. Results confirm the improvement of RHIE after the taper, and highlight an inverted U relationship between the pre-taper fatigue level and the magnitude of improvement in performance. Despite minor performance consequences, players on the left side of the relationship do not benefit from the taper due to a too small accumulated fatigue level. However, the situation of those on the right side of the relationship is more problematic. These players do not benefit from the taper due to an incomplete recovery provoked by a too severe state of accumulated fatigue considering the taper implemented. This phenomenon could be observed during short-term taper, often the only solution available within the context of professional sport. By including sleep quality as a moderator of the taper benefits, results of the sixth study show that poor sleep quality predispose athletes to a severe state of accumulated fatigue and therefore to a reduced taper efficiency with a higher risk of injury and upper respiratory tract infections. This thesis is based on scientific studies providing key information to coaches wishing to focus on the evaluation, development and optimization of their players’ repeated high intensity efforts ability. This work leads to key practical applications, which should guide coaches in their understanding of the RHIE.

Stress level and heart rate variability in police post-occurrence of bank robbery: an experience report

Article

Full-text available

Oct 2022

Introduction: The expectation of armed confrontation is among the most stressful elements in police work. Knowledge about perceived stress and cardiovascular markers in police officers comes from simulations. However, to date, information about psychophysiological responses during high-risk occurrences is scarce. Objectives: To assess stress levels and heart rate variability in policemen before and afer atending a bank robbery. Methods: Elite police officers (30.4 ± 3.7yrs) filled in a stress questionnaire and had their heart rate variability monitored at the beginning (7:00 am) and at the end (7:00 pm) of a work shif. At about 5:30 pm, these policemen were called to respond to a bank robbery in progress. Results: No significant changes in sources or symptoms of stress were found between before and afer the incident. However, statistical reductions were found in heart rate range interval (R-R interval [-13.6%]), pNN50 (-40.0%), and low frequency (-28%) and the low frequency/high frequency ratio increased (200%). These results suggest that although no change in the level of perceived stress was found, a significant reduction in heart rate variability may be atributed to a reduction in activation of the parasympathetic system. Conclusions: The expectation of armed confrontation is among the most stressful occurrences in police work. Research knowledge about perceived stress and cardiovascular markers in police officers comes from simulations. Data on psychophysiological responses post-occurrence of high-risk scenarios are scarce. This research may help law enforcement organizations find means to monitor police officers' acute stress levels afer any high-risk occurrences.

Impact of successive basketball matches in psychophysiological response and neuromuscular performance in adolescent players

Article

Full-text available

Sep 2022
Sport Sci Health

PurposeThis study aimed to analyze the impact of competition with successive basketball matches on mood, stress tolerance, competitive anxiety, total quality of recovery and neuromuscular performance in adolescent basketball athletes.Methods Ten youth basketball players (14.8 ± 0.5 years; 59.4 ± 9.1 kg; 173.7 ± 5.9 cm) were evaluated during a tournament with three matches in two days. Mood (M), stress tolerance (ST), competitive anxiety, total quality of recovery (TQR) and neuromuscular performance were measured before and after the matches. The session rating perceived of exertion (sRPE) was used to evaluate the internal match load (IML) during the competition. The Friedman test was used to compare the mood profile during matches and the Wilcoxon test was used to compare mood subscales pre- and post-matches. Repeated measures ANOVA compared the post-match values of sRPE, TQR, and neuromuscular variables.ResultsThe mood profile was significantly modified during the competition and the anger subscale was different pre- and post-match 3 (p < 0.05); somatic anxiety decreased in match 3 compared to match 1 (p < 0.05); ST did not change across the competition (p > 0.05); QTR reduced in match 3 compared to match 1 and 2 (p < 0.001); there was also a reduction in speed performance (p < 0.01), and height of the vertical jump (p < 0.001).Conclusion The current study demonstrated that there is an impact on mood, anxiety and quality of recovery with successive basketball matches, and they also reduce neuromuscular performance in adolescent basketball players.

Predictive role of coping on athletes

Article

Full-text available

May 2022

This study investigated the relationship between coping strategies on stress and anxiety symptoms in under-20 soccer players. Twenty-three athletes from four teams from the 2019 Bahia Under-20 Championship participated. The Athletic Coping Strategy Inventory, the Daily Analysis of Life Demands in Athletes and the Competitive State Anxiety Inventory-2R were used. Data analysis was conducted using Pearson’s correlation analysis and Multiple Linear Regression (p< 0.05). The results indicated that coping was related to anxiety at the beginning of the season (Cognitive, R2= 0.43; Self-confidence, R2= 0.30; p< 0.05). While, at the end of the season, with stress (R2= 0.18; p< 0.05), Anxiety (AC, R2= 0.66; p< 0.05). It is concluded that, at the end of the epoch, the magnitude of coping relationships on stress and anxiety were enhanced in young football players in the Under-20 category

Effects of Training Loads on Stress Tolerance and Mucosal Immunity in High-Intensity Functional Fitness Athletes

Article

Apr 2022
RES Q EXERCISE SPORT

Purpose: This study aimed to analyze the effects of training load on stress tolerance (ST) and secretory immunoglobulin A (SIgA) in male and female high-intensity functional fitness (HIFF) athletes during two different 10 and consecutive weekly training volume loads [higher (week 1) and lower volume (week 2)]. Methods: 14 athletes [7 males: 29.3 (±5.8) years; 86.3 (±8.2) kg and 176.8 (±3.8) cm and 7 females: 32.7 (±4.4) years; 60.0 (±6.7) kg and 162.5 (±5.9) cm] participated. The ST, assessed by Daily Analysis of Life Demand in Athletes questionnaire (DALDA) and Saliva sampling were performed in four time-points (pre (T1) and post (T2) week 1; pre (T3) and post (T4) week 2). Results: Female athletes showed a decrease in ST (symptoms of stress) from 15 T1 to T3 [F(3,36) = 7.184, p˂ 0.001, ηp2 = 0.374], without difference in male athletes (p > .05). There is a significant difference of SIgA concentration [F(3.36) = 3.551; p = .024; ηp2 = 0.228], with a significant decrease in female athletes group in T2 compared to T1 (p = .013) and T4 (p = .023). In addition, the different training volume loads did not impact mucosal immunity in male athletes (p > .05). Conclusion: The current findings suggest that higher HIFF volume results in decreased ST and SIgA concentration in female 20 athletes and a subsequent decrease in training volume loads contributed to restoring these variables.

A Narrative Review for a Machine Learning Application in Sports: An Example Based on Injury Forecasting in Soccer

Article

Full-text available

Dec 2021

In the last decade, the number of studies about machine learning algorithms applied to sports, e.g., injury forecasting and athlete performance prediction, have rapidly increased. Due to the number of works and experiments already present in the state-of-the-art regarding machine-learning techniques in sport science, the aim of this narrative review is to provide a guideline describing a correct approach for training, validating, and testing machine learning models to predict events in sports science. The main contribution of this narrative review is to highlight any possible strengths and limitations during all the stages of model development, i.e., training, validation, testing, and interpretation, in order to limit possible errors that could induce misleading results. In particular, this paper shows an example about injury forecaster that provides a description of all the features that could be used to predict injuries, all the possible pre-processing approaches for time series analysis, how to correctly split the dataset to train and test the predictive models, and the importance to explain the decision-making approach of the white and black box models.

Managing the training load of overreached athletes

Chapter

Nov 2021

Quantification of training and competition loads in endurance sports

Chapter

Nov 2021

The between-week reliability of neuromuscular, endocrine, and mood markers in soccer players and the repeatability of the movement demands during small-sided games. Running head: Reliability of responses to small-sided games. The Journal of Sports Medicine and Physical Fitness

Article

Full-text available

Nov 2021

BACKGROUND: Establishing the reliability and repeatability of both the movement demands and the consequential responses of athletes applied settings is important. Therefore, the primary aim of this study was to assess the between-week reliability of potential fatigue monitoring methods in soccer players. Secondary aims were to establish the repeatability of the movement demands and the changes in monitoring variables from the same small-sided game (SSG) protocol programmed on consecutive weeks. METHODS: Twelve semi-professional soccer players (age, 21±2 years; mass, 80.1±6.8kg; height, 1.81±0.06m) performed the same SSG protocol (4vs4+goalkeepers; 6x7-min, 2-min inter-set recovery) separated by 7 days. Movement demands were monitored using global positioning systems (GPS), with countermovement jump (CMJ), saliva (testosterone and cortisol), and brief assessment of mood (BAM+) collected immediately pre and post SSG training. RESULTS: Results suggest that CMJ variables and hormonal markers have good between-week reliability when measuring athletes at rest (CV, 2.1–7.7%; ICC, 0.82–0.98), however BAM+ did not (CV, 23.5%; ICC, 0.47). GPS variables presented low to high repeatability during SSG training, with reliability statistics varying between metrics (CV, 4.4–62.4%; ICC, 0.30–0.81). In detecting responses from pre- to post-SSG training, CMJ and hormonal markers showed moderate to very-high reliability (ICC, 0.68–0.99), whilst BAM + did not (ICC, 0.12). CONCLUSIONS: The findings from this study suggest CMJ and hormonal markers provide good between-week reliability, yet caution should be applied when using short subjective questionnaires. Additionally, some movement demands may not be repeatable when programming the same SSG session on separate occasions.

The Effects of Successive Soccer Matches on the Internal Match Load, Stress Tolerance, Salivary Cortisol and Jumping Performance in Youth Soccer Players

Article

Full-text available

Oct 2021
J HUM KINET

The study aim was to analyze the effects of successive matches on the internal match load, stress tolerance, salivary cortisol concentration and countermovement vertical jump height in twelve youth soccer players (16.6 ± 0.5 yr; 175 ± 8 cm; 65 ± 8 kg) who performed four official matches within a four day-period with a 24-h recovery interval between the matches. The internal match load, monotony index and competitive strain, as well as stress tolerance were examined. Saliva samples were collected and countermovement vertical jump height was assessed 60 min pre and 30 min post each match; delta of salivary cortisol and countermovement vertical jump height for each match were analyzed. Salivary cortisol was analyzed using an enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay. The results of ANOVA with repeated measures showed no differences between matches for the internal match load (p > 0.05). The scores of the monotony index and competitive strain were 4.3 (±2.3) and 8104 (±6795) arbitrary units, respectively. There was no difference for stress tolerance between matches (p > 0.05). Delta values of salivary cortisol were not different among the assessed matches (F(3,33) = 1.397, p = 0.351, η 2 : 0.09); however, delta of countermovement vertical jump height decreased from match 1 to match 4 (F(3,33) = 8.64, p < 0.001, η 2 : 0.44). The current findings suggest that participating in four successive matches, with 24-h of recovery in between, may not lead to changes in stress tolerance and salivary cortisol of youth players, but it may induce a decrease in players' jumping performance after the fourth match.

The effects of menstrual cycle phase on physical performance in female rugby athletes: A case-study

Article

Full-text available

Oct 2021

Limited research exists on the effects of menstrual phase on athletic performance in team sport athletes. In this case-study we investigated the potential effect of menstrual cycle phase on several physical qualities in rugby athletes. Four eumenorrhoeic female rugby athletes completed a battery of physical tests weekly for 5-9 weeks, including 10-m sprint, countermovement (CMJ) and drop (DJ) jumps, isometric mid-thigh pull (IMTP), and Bronco. Concurrently, athletes tracked their menstrual cycle with a smartphone application (FitrWoman TM). To investigate differences in physical performance between phases, data were allocated into four different menstrual phases at the date of each weekly test. A mixed linear model was created for each physical quality of interest. Mean changes between phases were estimated using magnitude-based inferences with 90% confidence intervals. Individual differences between the average score for each menstrual phase with the value predicted by the trend of the other three phases were also assessed. At a group-level, possible greater performances were observed in the CMJ during the late luteal phase compared with menstruation, in the DJ during late luteal compared with luteal, and in the IMTP during late luteal compared with follicular to ovulation (Δ% = 4.9-7.0%). A variety of responses were observed between individuals for all the tests conducted. Understanding and accounting for individual responses during the menstrual cycle will likely be beneficial to training prescription and interpreting performance monitoring results.

Methods for Monitoring Training Load

Chapter

May 2024

The vigilant monitoring of training load contributes to evidence-based decision-making aimed at reducing injury risks and enhancing player performance. In the realm of soccer, particularly at the highest levels, the employment of sport scientists in this capacity has become commonplace, with professionals fulfilling this role on a daily basis. Technological advancements have significantly expanded the arsenal of tools available to sport scientists for monitoring training load. This chapter explores various methods for monitoring training load, highlighting the integration of electronic performance and tracking systems like GPS, coupled with internal load measurement tools such as the rating of perceived exertion, wellness assessments, sleep monitoring tools, and more.

Subjective Indicators of Overtraining and Their Relationship to Sport Fitness: A 1-year Observation of Elite Athletes

Article

Full-text available

May 2024

This study explores the relationships among indicators of overtraining in adolescent athletes. The research employed widely-accepted tools for subjective overtraining indicator detection, as identified through a systematic review. Two groups of athletes were observed, comprising 13 athletes with bi-weekly assessments and 66 athletes with assessments every 3 months over a one-year period. The study analyzed relationships between variables using repeated measures correlations. A correlation matrix was subjected to principal component analysis. Three fundamental groups of indicators, reflecting negative emotionality (accompanied by sleep problems), self-concept characteristics, and core symptoms of overtraining syndrome captured through subjective sport fitness and vigor. This research emphasizes the intrinsic link between emotional and physical aspects in the lives of elite athletes, shedding light on the complex interplay of overtraining indicators in the context of adolescent developmental period.

The effects of GPS metrics, training and competition load on recovery in elite male Gaelic Football Players.

Article

Full-text available

Jan 2024

This study aimed to investigate the change in adductor squeeze strength over time and to explore the relationship between external load measured by GPS, subjective markers of recovery, training load and adductor squeeze strength. Thirteen elite male inter-county Gaelic football players provided adductor squeeze strength scores, subjective markers of recovery and sRPE over a 10-week period that covered pre-season (weeks 1 – 4) and in-season competition (weeks 5 – 10). GPS was used to determine total distance (TD) and high speed running (HSR). The results found a relationship between TD and the subjective marker of muscle soreness ( r = - 0.671, p < 0.05), and stress (r = - 0.700, p < 0.01), while HSR had a relationship with stress (r = - 0.693, p <0.01). Furthermore, a relationship was found between adductor squeeze strength scores and the subjective marker of muscle soreness (r = - 0.610; p < 0.05), fatigue (r = - 0.645; p < 0.05) and stress (r = - 0.746; p < 0.01). A small correlation was found between Wednesday adductor squeeze strength scores and the previous weeks training load (r = 0.195; p < 0.05). The results show that it is possible to obtain the recovery status of athletes’ using limited resources. This may help coaches make informed decisions on player availability and training status to help increase performance.

Métodos de controle da fadiga em atletas de futebol

Article

Full-text available

Dec 2023

A fadiga é um estado transitório causado por uma série de fatores, que culmina na redução da capacidade física ou mental do atleta, podendo ocasionar lesão. O futebol é um esporte intermitente, onde é comum ocorrer tanto a fadiga motora quanto a central. O presente estudo objetivou apresentar as formas para controle da fadiga em atletas de futebol, verificando as vantagens e desvantagens de cada método apresentado pela literatura. Trata-se de uma revisão narrativa, onde foram revisadas pesquisas sobre a temática descrita publicadas em português e inglês, sendo desconsiderado o ano de publicação para abarcar uma maior quantidade de obras. As principais formas de monitoramento da fadiga em atletas de futebol apontadas pela literatura foram: percepção subjetiva de esforço; frequência cardíaca; medida do impulso de treino; global positioning system; saltos verticais; Lactato desidrogenase; creatina quinase; Proteína C reativa e Transaminase glutâmico oxalacética, com destaque tanto por praticidade quanto por precisão para a percepção subjetiva de esforço, os saltos verticais, global positioning system e o exame de creatina quinase, sendo que a disponibilidade financeira e a logística para realização influenciam diretamente na escolha.

The Influence of a Multistage Mountain-Bike Race on Neuromuscular Activation and Synergies: A Case Study

Article

Nov 2023
Int J Sports Physiol Perform

Introduction: This case study aimed to describe potential changes in neuromuscular activation and synergies after an eight-day cross-country mountainbike (XCM) stage race. Methods: A peak power output test was performed five days before the race. Two days before the start and after seven days of racing, the athlete performed a power-based Lamberts submaximal cycling test (LSCT), including surface electromyography (EMG), and completed a Daily Analysis of Life Demands of Athletes questionnaire (DALDA). Neuromuscular activation, in terms of root mean square, timing (onset-offset) of muscle activation and synergies were obtained from EMG recordings. Results: The athlete reported an increase in symptoms of experienced stress after the stage race on the DALDA questionnaire. Both biceps femoris and tibialis anterior muscles showed a reduction in normalized amplitude after the stage race. In addition, the number of synergies that were necessary to describe neuromuscular activation increased from two to three. Conclusions: In this case study, the increase in synergies suggest that after the stage race, the athlete showed a more complex muscle recruitment pattern. This may indicate that muscle coordination can change when muscle fatigue occurs, however, further research is needed to confirm these results in a larger sample.

Changes in the stress and recovery of injured versus non-injured amateur domestic women’s rugby union team players over a competition season in New Zealand

Article

Jan 2019

Belastung und Beanspruchung im sportlichen Training

Chapter

Mar 2023

In der Trainingswissenschaft werden seit Längerem die spezifischen physiologischen Reaktionen auf unterschiedliche Trainingsbelastungen untersucht. Hierbei wird der induzierte Belastungsreiz mit der individuellen Beanspruchung in Relation gesetzt, um abschätzen zu können, welche extern induzierte Reizart („Dosis“) zu welcher individuellen psycho-physiologischen Beanspruchung und final zu spezifischen Adaptation (Wirkung) führt. Letztlich ist es das Ziel, die individuelle Dosis-Wirkungsbeziehung zu identifizieren. In den vergangenen Jahrzehnten wurde hierfür eine Vielzahl von Belastungs- und Beanspruchungsmarkern entwickelt sowie evaluiert, durch den der Reiz-Wirkungszusammenhang gemessen und quantifiziert werden kann. Dieser Beitrag ist Teil der Sektion Sportmotorische Fähigkeiten und sportliches Training, herausgegeben vom Teilherausgeber Michael Fröhlich, innerhalb des Handbuchs Sport und Sportwissenschaft, herausgegeben von Arne Güllich und Michael Krüger.

Sleep, Recovery and Rest

Chapter

Feb 2023

In this chapter the topics of sleep, recovery and rest will be discussed in the context of sport psychology. While sleep may be considered the most natural and essential recovery strategy in every human being, it is worthwhile to regard waking activities that serve the restoration of physical and psychological resources as equally important for athletes.

Effect of 3-week progressive overloading and 1-week tapering on performance, internal training load, stress tolerance and heart rate variability in under-19 Brazilian badminton players

Article

Full-text available

Dec 2022

Objective: This study aimed to determine the effect of 3-week progressive overloading and 1-week tapering during a preseason on performance, internal training load, stress tolerance, and heart rate variability in under-19 Brazilian badminton players. Material and method: Eight male under-19 badminton players (age 16.1 ± 0.6 years; height 1.68 ± 7.7 m; body mass 57.2 ± 5.8 kg; body mass index 20.3 ± 2.5 kg∙m-2; body fat 8.0 ± 2.7 %), competing at the state level had physical and physiological monitored over four weeks during pre-season. Players underwent a badminton-specific movement agility test, 5-m multiple shuttle test, Yo-Yo Intermittent Recovery test level 1, and performed vertical jumps before and after the pre-season. During the training, the heart rate variability and internal training load were monitored daily, and weekly were stress tolerance was recorded by psychometric responses. Results: The players showed significant improvements in all performance variables assessed after the training period. The internal training load during overloading was higher (1635 ± 109.9; 2490 ± 124; 2850 ± 210 AU) compared to tapering (1335 ± 100 AU). The stress tolerance decreased during overloading (4.0 ± 0.7; 8.2 ± 1.3; 10.1 ± 1.4) and increased during tapering (5.5 ± 1.5). In addition, higher internal training load during overloading resulted in a greater reduction in root-mean-square difference of successive R-R intervals (lnRMSSDmean) (4.2 ± 0.2; 4.1 ± 0.1; 4.0 ± 0.1 ms) and a smaller coefficient of variation (lnRMSSDcv) (4.5 ± 2.6; 2.1 ± 1.2; 1.4 ± 0.9 %), and the significant reduction in the internal training load during tapering led to a decrease in lnRMSSDmean (1.3 ± 0.5 ms). Conclusions: Our results suggest that using badminton training programs during the pre-season, including intermittent high-intensity actions with progressive overloading followed by a tapering is sufficient to result in positive adaptations in performance and led to adaptative changes in internal training load, stress tolerance, and heart rate variability.

Do the different menstrual cycle phases influence CrossFit® performance?

Preprint

Full-text available

Jul 2022

Aim- The aim of this study was to verify the effects of the menstrual cycle (MC) phases on CrossFit®️ performance during three benchmark workouts: CrossFit Total, Jerry, and Fran in the three MC phases: Follicular (FP), Ovulatory (OP), and Luteal (LP). Methods: Eight physically active women (26.2±1.9 years; 56.3±1.6 kg; 159.0±0.0 cm; 29.5±4.9% of fat) took place in this pilot study. All the participants were evaluated in the CrossFit Total, Jerry, and Fran workouts in the three MC phases: Follicular (FP), Ovulatory (OP), and Luteal (LP). Results: There were significant differences between the MC phases for the CrossFit Total (FP= 188.8 ± 26.4 kg; OP= 194.2 ± 25.6 kg; LP= 202.9 ± 27.2 kg), Fran (FP= 9.1 ± 1.6 min; OP= 8.4 ± 1.0 min; LP= 7.2 ± 0.8 min), sources of stress (FP= 2.6 ± 1.2; OP= 0.7 ± 0.7; LP= 1.0 ± 0.5), and symptoms of stress (FP= 9.5 ± 3.0; OP= 4.4 ± 1.1; LP= 3.1 ± 1.8); there was no significant difference for Jerry performances between MC phases. Conclusion: In conclusion, the MC phases changed the performances of CrossFit Total and Fran workouts, with better results in the LP compared to OP and FP. *OBSERVATION: This abstract not appears in your manuscript file because the article is a short communication and the instructions for authors for this type of article ask that you do not have an abstract in the main document.

FBGs Based System for Muscle Effort Monitoring in Wheelchair Users

Article

Jul 2022

Numerous studies have been carried out aiming to improve wheelchair users’ quality of life. Based on the muscle effort evaluation during their daily activities, wheelchair users can adopt different postures to reduce their effort. However, most of the current solutions for muscle effort assessment are affected by uncontrolled factors. Here, a solution immune to these factors is proposed. The system, based on six fiber Bragg gratings embedded in epoxy resin, was distributed on both arms of six wheelchair users’ volunteers. The arms’ muscle effort was estimated through the fiber Bragg grating’s wavelength shift, which was related with the epoxy resin deformation during some of the wheelchair users’ daily movements, such as horizontal plane locomotion (using different wheelchair hand movement patterns), ramp up and down, and dips. The slightest hand clearance, in relation to the rim (pattern A), implies smaller sensor deformations and, therefore, a lower effort. Comparing to pattern A, volunteer 5 increased 17% its effort in pattern B and 27% in pattern D, in the left bicep sensor. Also, ramp displacements require higher muscle effort, in relation to the horizontal plane. Of all the exercises performed, dips involve the most intense arms’ muscle effort (volunteer 5 had an 82% deformation increase, comparing to pattern A, in the left bicep sensor). The developed system revealed promising results, providing deeper knowledge about the muscle effort during daily movements. Based on this information they can adopt different postures, resulting in minor muscle fatigue, and consequently an improvement of their quality of life.

Trainingsprinzipien

Article

May 2022

Training sollte bestimmten Prinzipien folgen. Die Wissenschaft zeigt, dass sie auch in nicht-leistungssportlichen Settings, wie der klinischen Bewegungstherapie, relevant sind und zunehmend gefordert werden. Die Sportwissenschaftler Lars Donath und Oliver Faude haben die wichtigsten Prinzipien einem aktuellen Prüfstand unterzogen.

Evaluation of Two Training Programs Designed to Enhance Performance on the Army Combat Fitness Test Among ROTC Cadets

Article

Jan 2022

Introduction Physical fitness is foundational to the U.S. Army as a component of combat readiness, and accurate assessment of readiness is imperative for mission success and soldiers’ health and safety. To this end, the Army has developed the Army Combat Fitness Test (ACFT), which more accurately assesses these abilities and may aid development of a more combat-ready force. Reserve Officer Training Corps (ROTC) programs nationwide are often challenged by limited structured training time, as well as access to equipment and training space. Development and/or adaptation of a training program that addresses these limitations would benefit ROTC programs nationally. Therefore, the purpose of this study was to compare a standard military fitness training program to High-Intensity Functional Training (HIFT) in ROTC cadets. We hypothesized that a HIFT program would be more effective than the standard military program developed by the DoD on both ACFT performance and assessment of common Warrior Tasks and Battle Drills (WTBDs). Materials and Methods This study was approved by the Institutional Review Board at Colorado State University (CSU). Participants were recruited from CSU’s Army ROTC program. Before and upon completion of the training intervention, participants completed a battery of testing, conducted over three visits. The first visit consisted of body composition assessment and measurement of aerobic capacity (VO2max). Visit 2 was the ACFT, and Visit 3 was a “benchmark test” to assess WTBD performance. Participants then completed 10 weeks of group training. Once weekly, participants completed the Daily Analysis of Life Demands for Athletes (DALDA) survey to monitor the risk of overtraining. Statistical Analysis Responses to training and survey responses were examined using two-way analysis of variance (time × group) with repeated measures. Baseline characteristics were compared using Student’s t-test to assess pre-intervention differences between groups. Pearson product correlations were used to test relationships between ACFT performance, body composition, and performance on the benchmark assessment. The significance level alpha was set at P < .05. Results Twenty-five men and 10 women competed the study (n = 35). Mean age was 19.8 ± 1.3 years, range 18-23. There were no significant changes in absolute or relative VO2max within or between groups. We found no difference in body mass, but did find a small but statistically significant favorable change in body composition, with no difference between groups. Overall ACFT scores and scores in five of the six events increased significantly across both groups, with no significant differences between groups. For the benchmark test, there was no significant difference between pre- and post-intervention benchmark scores, time to completion, 1,600-m ruck time, or accuracy. DALDA survey results indicate no apparent risk for overtraining. Conclusion Three 60-minute sessions per week of moderate-high-intensity training elicited improvements in ACFT scores, with no statistically significant differences between training programs. For this population of ROTC cadets, implementing a structured training program with expert oversight appears to be effective. Based on the successes and unanticipated challenges encountered in this study, training programs that emphasize intensity, train a wide variety of movements, maximize adherence, and are adaptable to a variety of situations are likely to be successful at improving ACFT scores.

Quality of coach-athlete relationship and coping as associated factors of stress, anxiety, burnout, and depression symptoms of soccer players in transition to professional: a prospective study

Article

Full-text available

Dec 2021

Aims: The present study investigated the quality of coach-athlete relationship (CAR) and coping as associated factors stress, anxiety, burnout, and depression symptoms of soccer players in the transition to professional. Equations, Pearson's Correlation, and Linear Multiple Regression (p < 0.05). Results: Our findings show that from the beginning to the end of the season, CAR and coping strategies were predictors of psychic occurrences. For CAR, the symptoms of anxiety associated with self-confidence and stress symptoms were predicted by Proximity and Com-plementarity, respectively. As for coping strategies, only the symptoms of stress were predicted by the dimension of facing adversity. Conclusion: From the beginning to the end of the season, the magnitude of the predicting factors over some psychopathologies is enhanced in youth soccer players going through a career transition stage.

The between-week reliability of neuromuscular, endocrine, and mood markers in soccer players and the repeatability of the movement demands during small-sided games

Article

Full-text available

Dec 2021
J SPORT MED PHYS FIT

Background: Establishing the reliability and repeatability of both the movement demands and the consequential responses of athletes applied settings is important. Therefore, the primary aim of this study was to assess the between- week reliability of potential fatigue monitoring methods in soccer players. Secondary aims were to establish the repeatability of the movement demands and the changes in monitoring variables from the same small-sided game (SSG) protocol programmed on consecutive weeks. Methods: Twelve semi-professional soccer players (age, 21±2 years; mass, 80.1±6.8kg; height, 1.81±0.06m) performed the same SSG protocol (4vs4+goalkeepers; 6x7-min, 2-min inter-set recovery) separated by 7 days. Movement demands were monitored using global positioning systems (GPS), with countermovement jump (CMJ), saliva (testosterone and cortisol), and brief assessment of mood (BAM+) collected immediately pre and post SSG training. Results: Results suggest that CMJ variables and hormonal markers have good between-week reliability when measuring athletes at rest (CV, 2.1-7.7%; ICC, 0.82-0.98), however BAM+ did not (CV, 23.5%; ICC, 0.47). GPS variables presented low to high repeatability during SSG training, with reliability statistics varying between metrics (CV, 4.4-62.4%; ICC, 0.30-0.81). In detecting responses from pre- to post-SSG training, CMJ and hormonal markers showed moderate to very-high reliability (ICC, 0.68-0.99), whilst BAM + did not (ICC, 0.12). Conclusions: The findings from this study suggest CMJ and hormonal markers provide good between-week reliability, yet caution should be applied when using short subjective questionnaires. Additionally, some movement demands may not be repeatable when programming the same SSG session on separate occasions.

Initial Validation of a 33-Item Recovery-Stress Questionnaire for Italian Athletes

Article

Full-text available

Jul 2021
Open Sports Sci J

Background The Recovery-Stress Questionnaire for Athletes (RESTQ-Sport-36) is a self-report measure intended to monitor the recovery-stress balance in athletes. A validated Italian version of this instrument was not available so far. Objective The aim of this study was to provide an initial validation in Italian language of the RESTQ-Sport-36. Methods A sample of Italian athletes ( N = 339; women = 148; men = 191) from various sports completed the RESTQ-Sport-36 and the Italian Mood Scale (ITAMS). We examined the factorial validity and the internal consistency of the RESTQ-Sport-36 and its concurrent validity with the ITAMS. Results A confirmatory factor analysis supported a 12-factor structure after the removal of 3 items. Reliability analysis showed a satisfactory internal consistency of the 33-item Recovery-Stress Questionnaire for Athletes (RESTQ-Sport-33). Pearson correlation coefficients revealed that the RESTQ-Sport-33 and ITAMS share some common variance but measure different constructs. Conclusion Our results provided support to the factorial validity and reliability of the RESTQ-Sport-33. This instrument can be used to reliably monitor recovery-stress balance of Italian athletes throughout the season.

Assessing the impact of life changes: Development of the Life Experiences Survey

Article

Full-text available

Oct 1978

Describes the development of a new instrument, the Life Experiences Survey (LES), for the measurement of life changes. The LES is a 57-item self-report measure that is divided into 2 sections: Section 1 consists of 47 items that refer to life changes in a wide variety of situations; Section 2 consists of 10 items that are designed primarily for use with students. It was designed to eliminate certain shortcomings of previous life stress measures and allows for separate assessment of positive and negative life experiences as well as individualized ratings of the impact of events. The reliability and possible sex differences of the LES are discussed, and the LES is compared with the State-Trait Anxiety Inventory, the Marlowe-Crowne Social Desirability Scale, the Psychological Screening Inventory, the Beck Depression Inventory, Rotter's Internal–External Locus of Control Scale, and the Schedule of Recent Experiences using undergraduate samples. Several studies bearing on the usefulness of the Life Experiences Survey are presented and the implications of the findings are discussed.

Psychological Stress and The Coping Process

Article

Jan 1966

Richard S. Lazarus

A review of clinical, experimental, and field research on stress, together with the author's own research, provides the background for a theory that emphasizes the importance of cognitive processes. Harvard Book List (edited) 1971 #370 (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)

Stress, Adrenocortical Activity and Sleep Habits

Article

Oct 1973

Michael Goodyear

Increased activity in the adrenal cortex has long been noted as a component of a non-specific reaction to stress. Levels of adrenocortical steroid excretion have been shown to be related to individual differences in the ability to cope with everyday life, and sleep patterns also seem to reflect this quality. The way a person sleeps may, therefore, be a useful indication of stress.

Psychophysiological Reactions to Mental Tasks: Effort or Stress?

Article

Feb 1973

H. J. G. ZWAGA

The implications of the mental load model, used implicitly or explicitly by many investigators, appear to be inconsistent with many experimental results. It is demonstrated that a clearer picture emerges if the concept of arousal is taken into consideration.

The swimmer's race preparation checklists. Sydney: The Forbes and Ursula Carlilc Swimming Organization

R S Rushall

Rushall, R. S. ( I 979). The swimmer's race preparation checklists. Sydney: The Forbes and Ursula Carlilc Swimming Organization.

A tool for measuring stress in elite athletes Stress and anxiety in sport

B S Rushall

Rushall, B. S. (198 1). A tool for measuring stress in elite athletes. In Y. Hanin (Ed.), Stress and anxiety in sport. Moscow: Physical Culture and Sport Publishers.

Psychological monitoring of athletic stress syndrome

W P Morgan

Morgan, W. P. (May, 1980). Psychological monitoring of athletic stress syndrome. A paper presented at the 27th Annual Meeting of the American College of Sports Medicine, Las Vegas.

Fifty years of swimming research

F Carlile

Physiological, sociological, and psychological responses of training‐adapted talented age‐group swimmers under three levels of training stress. A paper presented at the XXIII FIMS World Congress of Sports Medicine

B S Rushall
W A Roaf

Physiological, sociological, and psychological responses of training-adapted talented age-group swimmers under three levels of training stress

B S Rushall
W A Roaf

A tool for measuring stress tolerance in elite athletes

Abstract

No full-text available

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