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The effects of audio-visual and visual-only cues on consumers' responses to co-branded advertising
Journal of Marketing Communications
Abstract
Co-branded advertising (two brands featured in the same ad) is a relatively new and under-researched area of advertising that offers advertisers the opportunity to share advertising costs and leverage brand equity. Despite its growing popularity, few research studies have examined the potential benefits and/or limitations of this executional strategy, and particularly a strategy in which one brand (a focal brand) is paired with another, but less emphasized (peripheral) brand. This study reports the results of an empirical investigation that examines how modifying reference to the peripheral brand (visual-only versus simultaneous visual and audio references) influences consumers' perceived associations of the advertised brands, as well as their attitudes toward the advertisement and intentions to purchase either brand. Employing a convenience sample of undergraduate students on a university campus in the United States, the results of this study indicate that audio-visual cues enhance brand association and purchase intentions. However, additional analyses reveal that attitude toward a co-branded advertisement mediates the brand association effect on purchase intentions toward the focal brand, whereas brand association has a direct effect on purchase intentions toward the peripheral brand.
... Consistent with previous literature on brand partnership at the product level (Aaker and Keller 1990;Wang and Muehling 2010), "similar" was frequently cited by the participants as a guiding principle when searching for joint promotion partners. Participants judged brands as appropriate joint promotion partners when they were from similar product categories, had When two brands or products are similar, it is easier to create associations between them and consumers are also more likely to form connections between the two (Grossman 1997). ...
... Nevertheless, it may also go the other way: that the partnering brand may dilute the attribute of the superior brand, which is less frequently discussed in the literature. In addition, the brand with superior attributes may have become the primary focus and dominated the joint promotion (Wang and Muehling 2010). Therefore, future studies should explore the effect of superiority of partnering brands on the perception and evaluation of a joint promotion. ...
... Future studies could also explore consumers' cognitive responses in the process, for example, any thoughts that have gone through consumers' mind such as counterarguments or discounting elaborations which may undermine the effect of joint promotions (Wang and Muehling 2010). ...
The use of partnerships as a creative strategy is particularly popular when targeting millennials, though little is known about millennials’ perceptions and preferences on joint promotions. Using a prosumer perspective, the current study explored this issue with a short survey of 221 participants and a qualitative study of 20 focus group discussions. Insights from the quantitative and qualitative studies indicated that participants were generally positive towards joint promotions and they used a 3S model in selecting joint promotion partners. The results provide information on an emerging trend in marketing communications that may motivate future research on the utility and efficacy of joint promotions that target millennials.
... Copromotion, an agreement to market products and brands in tandem, has been adopted widely and increasingly by many brands to gain mutual benefits (Varadarajan, 1985;Washburn, Till, and Priluck, 2004), such as brand-product differentiation (Lebar et al., 2005), positive spillover effects (Baumgarth, 2004;Cunha, Forehand, and Angle, 2015), or favorable brand evaluation (Hillyer and Tikoo, 1995). By pooling resources and developing copromotional campaigns together, brands can achieve better performance in brand extension, new product launches, or cobranding (Wang and Muehling, 2010). As promotion costs rise in the increased competition for consumer attention, copromotion is being adopted widely by brands (Varadarajan, 1986). ...
... Copromotion is a growing and pervasive phenomenon in the overall marketing mix of many brands (Romaniuk, 2013;Son, Hahn, and Kang, 2006;Wang and Muehling, 2010). Various terminologies refer to cooperative brand-marketing activities, including "brand alliance" (Baumgarth, 2004;Washburn et al., 2004), "cobranding" (Hillyer and Tikoo, 1995;Newmeyer, Venkatesh, and Chatterjee, 2014), "comarketing" (Bucklin and Sengupta, 1993), "joint branding" (Lebar et al., 2005), and "advertising alliance" (Samu, Krishnan, and Smith, 1999). ...
... Efficiency Copromotion provides several mutual benefits to partnered brands (Deighton and Henderson, 1994;Samu et al., 1999;Wang and Muehling, 2010). One of the major advantages is an image enhancement through spillover or halo effects in a brand association. ...
Drawing on media-dilution effects, this article investigates the role of media planning, such as media use and scheduling, in copromotion efficiency, calculated with superefficiency data-envelopment analysis. The results show that concentrated media use was more effective in improving copromotion efficiency than extensive media use was in retail sales. In short-term media scheduling, pulsing scheduling led to higher copromotion efficiency than did continuous scheduling. Two-way interaction effects between the number of media uses and scheduling on copromotion efficiency were found also. The positive effect of concentrated media use was stronger for pulsing scheduling than for continuous scheduling. Finally, long-term, multiyear scheduling contributed to copromotion-efficiency improvement. © 2017, World Advertising Research Center. All rights reserved.
... Copromotion, an agreement to market products and brands in tandem, has been adopted widely and increasingly by many brands to gain mutual benefits (Varadarajan, 1985;Washburn, Till, and Priluck, 2004), such as brand-product differentiation (Lebar et al., 2005), positive spillover effects (Baumgarth, 2004;Cunha, Forehand, and Angle, 2015), or favorable brand evaluation (Hillyer and Tikoo, 1995). By pooling resources and developing copromotional campaigns together, brands can achieve better performance in brand extension, new product launches, or cobranding (Wang and Muehling, 2010). As promotion costs rise in the increased competition for consumer attention, copromotion is being adopted widely by brands (Varadarajan, 1986). ...
... Copromotion is a growing and pervasive phenomenon in the overall marketing mix of many brands (Romaniuk, 2013;Son, Hahn, and Kang, 2006;Wang and Muehling, 2010). Various terminologies refer to cooperative brand-marketing activities, including "brand alliance" (Baumgarth, 2004;Washburn et al., 2004), "cobranding" (Hillyer and Tikoo, 1995;Newmeyer, Venkatesh, and Chatterjee, 2014), "comarketing" (Bucklin and Sengupta, 1993), "joint branding" (Lebar et al., 2005), and "advertising alliance" (Samu, Krishnan, and Smith, 1999). ...
... Efficiency Copromotion provides several mutual benefits to partnered brands (Deighton and Henderson, 1994;Samu et al., 1999;Wang and Muehling, 2010). One of the major advantages is an image enhancement through spillover or halo effects in a brand association. ...
Drawing upon media dilution effects, this paper investigates the role of media planning (e.g., media use and scheduling) in co-promotion efficiency calculated with Super Efficiency Data Envelopment Analysis. The results show that concentrated media use is more effective in improving co-promotion efficiency than extensive media use in retail sales. In short-term media scheduling, pulsing scheduling leads to higher co-promotion efficiency than does continuous scheduling. Further, two-way interaction effects between the number of media use and scheduling on co-promotion efficiency was found. Specifically, the positive effect of concentrated media use is stronger for pulsing scheduling than continuous scheduling. Finally, long-term multi-year scheduling contributes to co-promotion efficiency improvement.
... Keller (1993) notes that while advertisements and product packages frequently showcase multiple brand elements, the ability for each item to cue any one ad campaign is limited. Wang and Muehling's (2010) findings suggest that when two cues are presented via the same mode, this can tax the recipient as the cues compete for the same, limited, cognitive resources. This body of literature alludes to a potential danger associated with co-op advertising, in that the presence of the second brand may increase the audience's cognitive processing load, hence inhibiting information retrieval. ...
... When two brands are featured in an ad, they are often not given equal emphasis. Consequently, one brand usually receives the primary focus while the other receives less attention (Wang and Muehling, 2010). Therefore, it was important that for each brand pair, we create two forms of creative stimuli: ...
Retailers often feature manufacturer brands in their advertising with the aim to drive sales for those brands and, at the same time, increase in-store traffic. The adoption of such cooperative advertising strategies should reach an expanded audience base comprising of store and brand buyers. Based on empirical evidence in non-retail settings, these buyers are more likely to remember the advertising than non-buyers. This usage-bias effect implies that cooperative advertisements achieve greater cut through than would be the case if either brand advertised alone. Our paper tests this hypothesis in the context of retailer advertisements that feature manufacturer brands in the US, UK and Australia. Our results confirm that a retail brand's shoppers are more likely to recall its advertisements than non-shoppers, extending the usage-bias generalisation to a retailing context. However, while cooperative advertising does expand the buyer-base reach, any uplift in ad-memorability is negated by a reduced ability for buyers of only one of the two brands to recall the advertisement. Information overload on cognitive processing is a possible explanation for this finding, and has implications for extracting value from any investment in cooperative advertising.
... Some scholars argue that presenting a stimulus in different modalities can activate more memory nodes, and thus it will lead to information integration (e.g. McCracken & Macklin 1998;Jiang & Benbasat 2007;Wang & Muehling 2010). This, therefore, suggests a bimodal placement (a visual-plus-auditory placement) 1 is more effective than a unimodal one (a stand-alone visual placement or a stand-alone auditory placement). ...
... Some scholars suggest that presenting a stimulus in different modalities will lead to information integration, generating superior recall, better learning and more favourable attitude (e.g. McCracken & Macklin 1998;Jiang & Benbasat 2007;Wang & Muehling 2010). The associative network model of memory (Anderson & Bower 1973) is one of the key theories to explain information integration across modalities. ...
Is brand-placement effectiveness immune to competitive interference? This study explored that question in the context of entertainment media, specifically children's video games. Results showed that brands placed in a video game were recalled by only a minority of children and that brand choice was significantly influenced even when the placement was not recalled - suggesting that brand placement may influence children's choice without any explicit cognitive processes. The data further demonstrated that the presence of a competing brand placement may have a negative impact on focal-brand choice. When exposed to a competing brand placement, children were less likely to choose the target brand at test than those who had not been exposed. Thus, advertisers need to negotiate for exclusiveness when placing brands in entertainment media. Furthermore, the dissociation between brand recall and brand choice suggests advertisers should use multiple methods to measure brand placement effectiveness.
... Por ser mencionada em diferentes trabalhos sobre co-branding (ESCH et al., 2009;LEUTHESSER;KOHLI;SURI, 2003;WANG;MUEHLING, 2010;WASHBURN;TILL;PRILUCK, 2000), ser considerada a maior fabricante mundial de microprocessadores (INTERBRAND, 2012), além de possuir marca e imagem fortes e apresentar vantagem de preço e desempenho em relação a sua principal concorrente (LEUTHESSER; KOHLI; SURI, 2003), a Intel foi a marca ingrediente escolhida para este estudo. ...
... Por ser mencionada em diferentes trabalhos sobre co-branding (ESCH et al., 2009;LEUTHESSER;KOHLI;SURI, 2003;WANG;MUEHLING, 2010;WASHBURN;TILL;PRILUCK, 2000), ser considerada a maior fabricante mundial de microprocessadores (INTERBRAND, 2012), além de possuir marca e imagem fortes e apresentar vantagem de preço e desempenho em relação a sua principal concorrente (LEUTHESSER; KOHLI; SURI, 2003), a Intel foi a marca ingrediente escolhida para este estudo. ...
O objetivo deste estudo é verificar como consumidores avaliam notebooks de marcas com diferentes níveis de conhecimento quando há aliança de co-branding com uma marca forte. Fez-se uso da teoria de ancoragem de marca, de acordo com a qual a percepção de um produto resultante da aliança entre uma marca mais conhecida e outra menos conhecida é mais influenciada pela marca com alto nível de conhecimento, ao passo que o efeito da ancoragem não deve ser verificado quando a co-branding é entre duas marcas fortes. Por meio de um experimento realizado com 290 estudantes universitários, de três instituições de ensino superior de São Paulo, foram testadas três hipóteses. Para tal, utilizou-se as escalas de conhecimento de marca e avaliação de produto. Foram encontradas evidências de que: (i) uma marca menos conhecida de notebooks tem seu produto melhor avaliado quando realiza co-branding com uma marca forte; (ii) embora uma marca muito conhecida tenha seus produtos bem avaliados isoladamente, ela também se beneficia da aliança de co-branding com uma marca forte.
... Some scholars argue that presenting a stimulus in different modalities can activate more memory nodes, and thus it will lead to information integration (e.g. McCracken & Macklin 1998;Jiang & Benbasat 2007;Wang & Muehling 2010). This, therefore, suggests a bimodal placement (a visual-plus-auditory placement) 1 is more effective than a unimodal one (a stand-alone visual placement or a stand-alone auditory placement). ...
... Some scholars suggest that presenting a stimulus in different modalities will lead to information integration, generating superior recall, better learning and more favourable attitude (e.g. McCracken & Macklin 1998;Jiang & Benbasat 2007;Wang & Muehling 2010). The associative network model of memory (Anderson & Bower 1973) is one of the key theories to explain information integration across modalities. ...
This research compares two competing views - the integration view and the interference view - to see whether presenting a brand placement in multiple modalities can enhance its effectiveness. Our results first show that majority of the children can not recall a brand placement embedded in a video game. Our results further demonstrate that presenting a brand placement in a single modality makes children more likely to choose the target brand at test than presenting it in multiple modalities. These results have important implications for both public policy makers and marketing managers.
... By providing additional information, audio-visual cues can enhance visual-only delivered information (Peck and Childers, 2008). Unnava et al. (1996) found that when auditory modality was used in conjunction with visual modality, advertising information was learned better, which can enhance brand associations and attitudes, as well as purchase intentions toward the advertised brand (Wang and Muehling, 2010). In mobile ads the use of audio-visual cues has been shown to lead to more positive perceptions and higher ad and brand recall (Nasco and Bruner, 2007). ...
Despite the power of VR in immersing viewers in an experience, it generally only targets viewers via visual and auditory cues. Human beings use more senses to gather information, so expectedly, the full potential of this medium is currently not yet tapped. This study contributes in answering two research questions: (1) How can conventional VR ads be enriched by also addressing the forgotten sense of smell?; and (2) Does doing so indeed instill more engaging experiences? A 2 × 3 between-subjects study (n = 235) is conducted, whereby an existing branded VR commercial (Boursin Sensorium Experience) is augmented with “sound” (on/off) and (congruent/incongruent/no) “scents.” The power of these sensory augmentations is evaluated by inspecting emotional, cognitive and conative dimensions of customer engagement. The results identify product-scent congruence (with sound) as a deal-maker, albeit product-scent incongruence is not necessarily a deal-breaker. The article concludes with further research avenues and a translation into managerial implications.
... Erfgen et al. (2015) also voiced concerns that co-branding ads may lead to poor brand recall and hurt the effectiveness of the co-branding effort. Accordingly, Wang and Muehling (2010) found that the potential negative repercussions of "sharing the spotlight" with another brand may outweigh the potential positive benefits of co-branding strategies. Other potential risks associated with co-branding include adverse spillover effects, brand dilution, brand erosion, and negative bottomline consequences for participating brands (Keller & Lane, 2003;Uggla, 2004). ...
This study proposes that the interaction effect of brand personality fit and product category fit will influence perceived masstige under a co-branding context. When product category fit is high, low (vs. high) brand personality fit leads to greater perceived masstige. However, when product category fit is low, high (vs. low) brand personality fit leads to greater perceived masstige. Furthermore, the interaction effect of brand personality fit and product category fit on perceived masstige is mediated by processing fluency and perceived novelty. Specifically, when product category fit is low, high (vs. low) brand personality fit can elicit greater processing fluency, leading to higher perceived masstige. In contrast, when product category fit is high, low (vs. high) brand personality fit can stimulate perceived novelty, leading to higher perceived masstige. In addition, we examine how perceived masstige influences brand equity. Focusing on the masstige co-branding strategies between a mass brand and a luxury brand, this study aims to build a bridge between co-branding and masstige.
... Romaniuk's (2009) review of studies (five out of five) shows that branding that is dual-mode results in enhanced ad and brand recall, compared to single-mode tactics. This builds on an established body of work showing that both audio and visual cues provide brands a higher chance of being attended to (Nasco & Bruner, 2007Tessitore & Geuens, 2013;Wang & Muehling, 2010). ...
Charities operate in a highly fragmented environment with many players competing for individuals’ support. The limited resources available for campaign development (creative, filming) and execution (media planning, on-air time) means that charity marketers need to use the most effective principles to ensure return on investment. Commercial marketers can use clear guidelines published on how to execute the brand to enhance advertising effectiveness and, more specifically, brand recall and recognition. Whether such guidelines are adhered to by charity marketers is unclear as no known research exists on this topic. In this paper, we draw on well-regarded memory theories and their past applications to commercial brand and messaging execution studies, documenting the evidence of these in the advertising collateral of 40 Australian charities. The results allow us to report on the characteristics of charity advertising and to derive guidelines for the future development and testing of effective charity advertising initiatives.
... When attentional capacity reaches a maximum limit, the recipient may experience a diminished ability to attend to any external information. According to Wang and Muehling (2010), when two cues are presented via the same mode (e.g., presenting two brands visually), they compete for the same limited cognitive resources and can tax the audience. ...
A well-established empirical generalization is that brand users are more likely than non-users to recall advertising for the brand they use. The pairing of a corporate and charity brand in advertising should create an expanded brand-user base, which should, in turn, lead to higher ad-memorability than either brand advertising alone. This study tests this hypothesis for consumer-packaged goods and charity brands in the United Kingdom and Australia. We find evidence that extends the generalization that ad-memorability is higher among brand users to charity supporters in non-profit contexts. We also find that when two brands are present, ad-memorability is highest among those who use the brand and support the partner charity. However, the uplift in ad-memorability among these dual-brand users is dampened by the lower ad-memorability experienced by those who use only one brand, due to a suspected information overload. The findings challenge accepted wisdom on the benefits of co-branded advertising and have implications for partner-selection for co-branded activities.
... Ideally, audiences of co-branded advertising are left with an impression of both brands. However, when two brands are featured in one advert, one brand is usually the primary focus while the other brand receives less attention (Wang and Muehling 2010). Our final hypothesis focuses on ad-context congruency that is the extent to which there is a match between the brand and context in which it is placed (Dahlén and Lange 2005). ...
Co-branded advertising, where advertisements feature two partnered brands from different categories, should ideally benefit both brands. We test this assertion by studying the effect of featuring a second brand in advertisements on ad and brand name memorability, and the role of category context on which brand is recalled. Our test covers online display advertisements for consumer-packaged brands paired with charity and retailer brands in three markets (USA, UK, and Australia). Independent sample comparisons across 54 brand pairs show that advertising two brands has a neutral effect on ad memorability and negative effect on brand memorability. Furthermore, the advertisement’s category context determines which of the brands is recalled. Our findings support a competitive interference theory of dual-brand processing, whereby the two brands compete for attention resources. The results have implications for the return on investment from advertising expenditure, which will vary substantively depending on whether the costs of advertising are shared or borne by one brand in the pair.
... When attentional capacity reaches a maximum limit, the recipient may experience a diminished ability to attend to any external information. According to Wang and Muehling (2010), when two cues are presented via the same mode (e.g., presenting two brands visually), they compete for the same limited cogni- tive resources and can tax the audience. ...
... We also show that advertisements can induce favorable evaluations for different cobrands by priming the form of interpretation strategy within the ad content. Our findings further contribute to the emerging research on cobrand advertising that has examined the determinants of advertising effectiveness (Samu, Krishnan, and Smith 1999), effects of different levels of cognitive elaboration (Gammoh, Voss, and Chakraborty 2006), and the role of audiovisual ad cues on partnering brand associations (Wang and Muehling 2010). ...
Extant research on cobranding does not examine when and why complementarity or similarity between cobranding partners can be more effective. This research examines consumers' reactions to cobranded partnerships that feature brands with either complementary or similar attribute levels, both of which are common in the marketplace. The results of six experiments show that consumers' evaluations vary as a function of concept combination interpretation strategy (property mapping or relational linking) and whether cobranded partners have complementary or similar attributes. Specifically, when consumers use property mapping, they evaluate cobranded partnerships with complementary (vs. similar) attribute levels more favorably. In contrast, when using relational linking, they evaluate cobranded partnerships with complementary (vs. similar) attribute levels less favorably. The results also reveal that the breadth of the host brand (broad vs. narrow) and the type of advertising influence the extent to which consumers are likely to use property mapping or relational linking in evaluating cobranded partnerships.
... Attitude persistence research in consumer behavior has been predominantly associated with high-rather than low-involvement processing (Jones, 2008). However, with the recognition that advertising information is often processed in low-involvement conditions, researchers have been concerned with how consumers' brand attitudes are formed initially and how these attitudes endure over time when consumers are not motivated to process an advertising message (Wang & Muehling, 2010). It has been suggested that nonverbal peripheral cues (e.g., pictures) affect information recall and attitude formation under the lowinvolvement condition (Ang & Lim, 2006). ...
Attitude persistence research in consumer behavior has been predominantly associated with high- rather than low-involvement processing (Jones, 2008). However, with the recognition that advertising information is often processed in low-involvement conditions, researchers have been concerned with how consumers’ brand attitudes are formed initially and how these attitudes endure over time when consumers are not motivated to process an advertising message (Wang & Muehling, 2010). It has been suggested that nonverbal peripheral cues (e.g., pictures) affect information recall and attitude formation under the low-involvement condition (Ang & Lim, 2006).
... 23 This processing relates to the contextual relevance effect because information related to a developing or active schema is more likely to be interpreted coherently and remembered correctly. 22,24 For example, highly congruent and relevant audio and video stimuli exhibit comparable positive effects on processing and memory, compared to the cases where the audio and video provide weakly related or even different information. 25 Research has also examined the effects of the relevant modalities based on the contextual relevance effect on branding in the co-branded advertising context. ...
The contextual relevance effect is an important factor for the effectiveness of financial services advertising that corresponds to the message effects such as ad recall (RAD), perceived contextual relevance (PCR), message involvement (MI) and attitude towards the ad (AAD), created during the process. Thus, this study examines whether the contextual relevance effect increases RAD, PCR, MI and AAD. The results reveal that the contextual relevance effect increases RAD, PCR, MI and AAD. Moreover, MI mediates PCR on AAD. Implications based on the findings demonstrate the importance of contextual relevance as a metric for financial services advertising effectiveness.
Purpose
Brands increasingly coappear in television programs while research in product placement has primarily focused on the placements of a single brand. Building on research related to product placement and cobranding, this study aims to systematically examine the roles of product competitiveness and brand competitiveness on the effectiveness of brand coappearance on television programs.
Design/methodology/approach
Extensive pretesting and four experimental studies were conducted. Real stimuli that had been digitally manipulated with fictitious brands were used in Study 1 (laboratory experiment involved student samples) and Study 2 (online experiment with a national sample) to examine the short- and long-term impacts of product competitiveness on brand coappearance. Real stimuli incorporated actual brands were used in Study 3 (involved advertisers’ key demographic) and Study 4 (alterative television program with a national sample) to examine the impacts of brand competitiveness and its interaction effect with product competitiveness.
Findings
The study found that coappearing with a product of high competitiveness significantly enhanced attitudes and purchase intention toward the coappearing products both in the short and long term. Product competitiveness further interacts with brand competitiveness to influence attitudes and purchase intention toward the coappearing brands suggesting a coopetition pattern for brand coappearances. The effect of brand coappearances did not vary substantially for low or high involvement products with or without character interaction.
Research limitations/implications
The study develops a useful framework for explaining and understanding the potential spillover effects in brand coappearances. It contributes to the existing literature on product placement and cobranding, while also paving the way for future research opportunities.
Practical implications
When introducing new brands, marketers are advised to consider coappearance deals with more competitive brands in highly competitive product categories. Conversely, coappearance deals with less competitive brands in less competitive product categories should be adopted to promote well-known brands. Advertisers may also consider product or brand exclusivity arrangements with broadcasters to enhance the effectiveness of the product placement.
Originality/value
Although brand coappearance in media content is likely to continue to proliferate, little is known about the phenomenon and its effects. To the best of the authors’ knowledge, this research is the first to systematically examine the perceptions toward brands coappeared in television programs.
The past decade has seen an increasing number of diversity initiatives undertaken by brands in an attempt to connect with consumers. While audiences view some initiatives positively, some evoke controversy or backlash, indicating that they have not been successful. Without clear research-based directions for designing diversity initiatives though, marketers continue to struggle. Therefore, this article proposes a framework of how diversity initiatives might achieve success through audience connectedness. The framework includes three characteristics of such initiatives: the marketer’s approach to diversity, the audiences’ perception of diversity, and the level of belief congruence. When all three factors converge, diversity initiatives can evoke a sense of audience connectedness. Through leveraging audience connectedness, marketers can devise and achieve initiatives that target, reach, and resonate with broader, rather than limited audiences.
Purpose
To analyze the market reception of multi-authored works of art through the lens of collaborative old master paintings (“formal/prestige collaboration”). This paper tests whether multi-authored attribution strategies (i.e. naming two artists as brand names) affect buyers' willingness to pay differently from single-authored works in the auction market.
Design/methodology/approach
This case study focuses on collaborative paintings by Flemish masters, based on a data set comprising 11,630 single-authored and collaborative paintings auctioned between 1946 and 2015. Hedonic regressions have been employed to test whether or not co-branded artworks are differently valued by buyers and how the reputation of each artist might influence valuation.
Findings
Despite the opportunity for buyers to purchase one artwork with two brand names, this study reveals that the average value of collaborative paintings is statistically lower than that of single-authored paintings. This is especially true when a reputed master was involved in the collaboration. The present findings suggest that the valuable characteristics of formal collaborations (i.e. double brand name, dual authorship and reputation, high-quality standards) are no longer perceived and valued as such by buyers, and that co-branding can affect the artist brand equity because of a contagion effect. We argue that integral authorship is more valued than partial authorship, suggesting that the myth of the artist as a lone genius is still well-anchored in purchasing habits.
Research limitations/implications
Prestige collaborations are a very particular form of early co-branding in the art world, with limited data available. Further research should consider larger samples to reiterate the analysis on other collaboration forms in order to challenge the current findings.
Practical implications
Researchers and living artists should be aware that brand building and co-branding are marketing strategies that may generate negative effects on prices in the art market. The perceived and market value of co-branded works are time-varying, and depends on both the context of reception of these works and the reputation of the artists at time t .
Originality/value
This market segment has never been considered in art market studies, although formal collaboration is one of the earliest documented forms of co-branding in the art world. This paper provides new empirical evidence from the auction market, based on buyers' willingness to pay, and it further highlights the reception of multi-authored art objects in Western art markets that particularly value individual creators.
Purpose
The purpose of this paper is to examine the strategic importance of visual aesthetics and presentation modality for consumer responses to fashion luxury brand content posted on Instagram.
Design/methodology/approach
A content analysis of 40,679 posts on the official Instagram accounts of 15 global luxury brands was conducted.
Findings
Brand posts using expressive aesthetic image received more likes and comments on Instagram than those with classical aesthetics. Brand video content received more likes and comments than static content. There was also a significant interaction between visual aesthetics and presentation modality in generating likes and comments. Brand content adopting expressive aesthetic and audio-visual modality generated more responses when using audio-visual modality, while content using classical aesthetics produced more responses in a visual-only format.
Practical implications
As visual aesthetics and modality resulted in different responses to Instagram ads, luxury marketers should consider using appropriate approaches when creating brand posts on Instagram.
Originality/value
This is one of the few studies examining the effectiveness of visual aesthetics and presentation modality in Instagram advertising, especially in luxury fashion brand context.
In this article, we attempt to distinguish between the properties of moderator and mediator variables at a number of levels. First, we seek to make theorists and researchers aware of the importance of not using the terms moderator and mediator interchangeably by carefully elaborating, both conceptually and strategically, the many ways in which moderators and mediators differ. We then go beyond this largely pedagogical function and delineate the conceptual and strategic implications of making use of such distinctions with regard to a wide range of phenomena, including control and stress, attitudes, and personality traits. We also provide a specific compendium of analytic procedures appropriate for making the most effective use of the moderator and mediator distinction, both separately and in terms of a broader causal system that includes both moderators and mediators. (46 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
A LTHOUGH not new, comparison advertising hcis only in the last few years become prevalent enough to provoke growing interest and controversy. The subject is of concern to many groups—consumer organizations, the advertising industry, govemment bodies—and, of course, to individual marketers. The question arises as to whether comparison advertising is, indeed, a powerful marketing tool; in this regard, there are many interesting issues that require further consideration. The purpose of this cirticle is to present the contexts for these issues and to propose some fruitful avenues for investigation. Definition and Overview It is useful and appropriate to begin this treatment of comparison advertising with a working definition of the term and some illustrative examples. Therefore, for the purposes of this article comparison advertising is defined as advertising that: 1. Compares two or more specifically named or recognizably presented brands of the same generic product or service class, and 2. Makes such a comparison in terms of one or more specific product or service attributes Although knowledgeable marketers might rightfully offer alternative definitions, the above version does serve to highlight several important issues. The first element of the definition—that brands must be specifically named or recognizably presented—is significant because of the real possibilities that explicit comparisons will evoke different consumer responses from those evoked by more traditional advertising appeals. The second element—that brands be compared along one or more product attributes—focuses attention on
The current research considers how ad claims that are factual may mislead consumers. This possibility is examined in the context of advertisements that present a combination of comparative and noncomparative information. In particular, the authors explore how and when processing of the former type of ad information can cause deceptive beliefs about the latter type of ad information, an outcome referred to as "copy x copy" interactions. The authors examine alternative processes that may underlie copy x copy interactions, as well as when these interactions are most likely to occur by testing their robustness across potential moderators. The authors also provide evidence regarding the magnitude and seriousness of copy x copy interactions and present implications for public policy and directions for additional research.
With the advancements in mobile phone technology and the increase in consumer use of wireless devices to access the internet, there is a need to explore the inevitable effect of these factors on mobile advertising. In this project, we presented commercial content on wireless devices, designed to represent various modality combinations (text, audio, and pictures) to test hypotheses based on cognitive load theory. Results showed that modality significantly affected subjects’ perceptions toward and recall of the commercial content. However, modality did not affect perceptions of the mobile device itself, or influence behavioral intentions and attitudes toward mobile advertising on wireless devices. Behavioral intentions to use mobile devices were significantly predicted by consumer perceptions of content and of the device. Marketers can use these results to design more effective ads to be presented on mobile devices.
Claims about the superiority of news over advertising are a cornerstone of public rela- tions practice. Drawing on the dual processing models in social cognition (Chaiken, 1980, 1987; Petty & Cacioppo, 1986), this study defines the difference between news and advertising in terms of content class, a contextual variable that serves as a cue dur- ing cognitive processing of mediated messages. An experimental study using a2×2× 2 factorial design (N = 329) manipulated content class, argument strength, and prod- uct involvement using 16 full-page prototype articles and ads for 4 products that might be found in a new college magazine. Content class interacted with product in- volvement to impact the amount of processing by participants (based on recall and cognitive responses measures) and with argument strength to bias message evalua- tions (based on valence of cognitive thoughts, believability assessments, and attitudi- nal-conative measures). The results provide only qualified support for claims about the superiority of news over advertising and suggest caution by public relations prac- titioners when promoting advantages of publicity.
The authors examine the growing and pervasive phenomenon of brand alliances as they affect consumers' brand attitudes. The results of the main study (n = 350) and two replication studies (n = 150, n = 210) together demonstrate that (1) consumer attitudes toward the brand alliance influence subsequent impressions of each partner's brand (i.e., "spillover" effects), (2) brand familiarity moderates the strength of relations between constructs in a manner consistent with information integration and attitude accessibility theories, and (3) each partner brand is not necessarily affected equally by its participation in a particular alliance. These results represent a first, necessary step in understanding why and how a brand could be affected by "the company it keeps" in its brand alliance relationships.
Student credit card debt is a growing problem. This study explores the effectiveness of the inoculation strategy to foster resistance to credit card marketing targeting college students. In order to explore further the medical analogy on which the inoculation strategy is based, this study was the first systematically to alter the argument strength of both the counterarguments and refutations in the inoculation pretreatment message to determine whether argument strengths impact effectiveness of inoculation treatments. In addition, this investigation explored whether inoculation spreads from person to person via social channels, similar to the marketing concept of viral marketing. Results indicated that conventional inoculation treatment messages successfully inoculated college students against credit card advertisements, manifested in attitude valence and behavioral intentions, and that matching argument strength is the most effective inoculation strategy.
Argues that product assortments "make sense" to consumers due to a perceived complementarity among constituent elements. Consumers' choices are often guided by the positive or negative valuation of groupings of symbolically related activities. Advertisers are reminded of the strategic importance of combining holistic views of both communications and consumption. As competition for consumers' attention intensifies, marketers are developing an array of new, more comprehensive strategies to penetrate awareness. A surge of interest by marketers in integrated communications strategies brings with it the implicit acknowledgement that consumers assimilate data about popular culture from many sources. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
With a variety of mobile content, such as weather, sports, and commercial ads, available for consumers to access on wireless devices, it is important to explore the effect of presentation modalities on consumers' ability to retain the information and on consumers' perception of the content. Three messages were presented on a mobile device to 116 respondents via six presentation modalities that combined text, audio, static pictures, and/or video. Strong content effects were found, such that weather information was perceived as most important, most involving, and most likely to influence future mobile usage. Modality effects influenced recall, with complementary modes (visual and audio) facilitating recall of the commercial ad, but hindered recall of weather information. Implications for marketers, content designers, and mobile service providers are discussed. © 2008 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.
The explicit superiority claims in direct comparative ads should facilitate differentiation of the advertised brand from the comparison brand. However prior research suggests that such ads primarily associate brands. This problem is investigated by considering the categorization and inferential processes elicited by direct comparative ads. Results suggest that direct comparative ads can enhance a consumers' perceptions of the advertised brand by associating it with the comparison brand and simultaneously differentiate the brands by lowering consumers' perceptions of the comparison brand on the featured attribute. But both effects are contingent on the typicality of the featured attribute and the familiarity of the advertised brand. A key finding is that direct comparative ads are most effective for both unfamiliar and familiar advertised brands when the featured attribute is typical of the category. Copyright 1991 by the University of Chicago.
There is discrepancy between practitioners' views of comparative advertising and null findings by academics. However, in most studies, subjects' attention to and memory of the comparative claims were inflated, which may have precluded effects on these variables and on purchase intentions. This study manipulated market share and type of comparative claim, used nonforced exposure, measured attention via a computerized magazine, and assessed memory and purchase intentions after a 24-hour delay. Some findings are that direct comparative claims attract attention and thereby enhance purchase intentions for low-share brands but detract from purchase intentions for established brands by increasing awareness of competitors and sponsor misidentifications. Copyright 1990 by the University of Chicago.
In this article, we attempt to distinguish between the properties of moderator and mediator variables at a number of levels. First, we seek to make theorists and researchers aware of the importance of not using the terms moderator and mediator interchangeably by carefully elaborating, both conceptually and strategically, the many ways in which moderators and mediators differ. We then go beyond this largely pedagogical function and delineate the conceptual and strategic implications of making use of such distinctions with regard to a wide range of phenomena, including control and stress, attitudes, and personality traits. We also provide a specific compendium of analytic procedures appropriate for making the most effective use of the moderator and mediator distinction, both separately and in terms of a broader causal system that includes both moderators and mediators.
Recent research has identified two factors that influence consumer perceptions of a brand extension: brand affect and the similarity between the original and extension product categories. However, surprisingly little attention has been paid to other associations specific to the brand itself. The authors perform three experiments to explore the relative importance of these associations. The experiments reveal that brand-specific associations may dominate the effects of brand affect and category similarity, particularly when consumer knowledge of the brands is high. The authors conclude by discussing the implications of these findings for managerial decision making and the process by which consumers evaluate brand extensions.
The authors examine the growing and pervasive phenomenon of brand alliances as they affect consumers’ brand attitudes. The results of the main study (n = 350) and two replication studies (n = 150, n = 210) together demonstrate that (1) consumer attitudes toward the brand alliance influence subsequent impressions of each partner's brand (i.e., “spillover” effects), (2) brand familiarity moderates the strength of relations between constructs in a manner consistent with information integration and attitude accessibility theories, and (3) each partner brand is not necessarily affected equally by its participation in a particular alliance. These results represent a first, necessary step in understanding why and how a brand could be affected by “the company it keeps” in its brand alliance relationships.
The authors report two studies investigating the effectiveness of a composite brand in a brand extension context. In composite brand extension, a combination of two existing brand names in different positions as header and modifier is used as the brand name for a new product (e.g., Slim-Fast chocolate cakemix by Godiva). The results of both studies reveal that by combining two brands with complementary attribute levels, a composite brand extension appears to have a better attribute profile than a direct extension of the header brand (Study 1) and has a better attribute profile when it consists of two complementary brands than when it consists of two highly favorable but not complementary brands (Study 2). The improved attribute profile seems to enhance a composite's effectiveness in influencing consumer choice and preference (Study 2). In addition, the positions of the constituent brand names in the composite brand name are found to be important in the formation of the composite's attribute profile and its feedback effects on the constituent brands. A composite brand extension has different attribute profiles and feedback effects, depending on the positions of the constituent brand names.
In this article, the authors investigate the effectiveness of advertising alliances (in which two brands from different product categories are featured together in an advertisement) for introducing new brands. The authors identify degree of complementarity between the featured products, type of differentiation strategy (common versus unique advertised attributes), and type of ad processing strategy (top-down or bottom-up) as important factors in determining ad effectiveness. The conceptualization captures the effects of these factors on brand awareness, brand accessibility, brand beliefs, belief accessibility, and brand attitudes. The theory was tested in an experiment using print advertisements to manipulate the three factors in conditions of high consumer involvement. The results show an interesting pattern of interactions among the factors, which has important implications for managers of new and established brands.
Co-marketing alliances between firms afford fresh opportunity for strategic advantage. Data from 98 alliances show that gains in effectiveness can be obtained by reducing power and managerial imbalances. Careful project selection and better matching of potential partners also help to enhance alliance effectiveness.
Comparison advertising—what's all the furor about? What is it, and how does it work?
Drug tests, credit checks, background investigations, lie detector tests—these are just some of the things that today's employers go through to get hard‐working, clean‐living employees.
In this article, the authors investigate the effectiveness of advertising alliances (in which two brands from different product categories are featured together in an advertisement) for introducing new brands. The authors identify degree of complementarity between the featured products, type of differentiation strategy (common versus unique advertised attributes), and type of ad processing strategy (top-down or bottom-up) as important factors in determining ad effectiveness. The conceptualization captures the effects of these factors on brand awareness, brand accessibility, brand beliefs, belief accessibility, and brand attitudes. The theory was tested in an experiment using print advertisements to manipulate the three factors in conditions of high consumer involvement. The results show an interesting pattern of interactions among the factors, which has important implications for managers of new and established brands.
The authors report two studies investigating the effectiveness of a composite brand in a brand extension context. In composite brand extension, a combination of two existing brand names in different positions as header and modifier is used as the brand name for a new product (e.g., Slim-Fast chocolate cakemix by Godiva). The results of both studies reveal that by combining two brands with complementary attribute levels, a composite brand extension appears to have a better attribute profile than a direct extension of the header brand (Study 1) and has a better attribute profile when it consists of two complementary brands than when it consists of two highly favorable but not complementary brands (Study 2). The improved attribute profile seems to enhance a composite's effectiveness in influencing consumer choice and preference (Study 2). In addition, the positions of the constituent brand names in the composite brand name are found to be important in the formation of the composite's attribute profile and its feedback effects on the constituent brands. A composite brand extension has different attribute profiles and feedback effects, depending on the positions of the constituent brand names.
Recent research has identified two factors that influence consumer perceptions of a brand extension: brand affect and the similarity between the original and extension product categories. However, surprisingly little attention has been paid to other associations specific to the brand itself. The authors perform three experiments to explore the relative importance of these associations. The experiments reveal that brand-specific associations may dominate the effects of brand affect and category similarity, particularly when consumer knowledge of the brands is high. The authors conclude by discussing the implications of these findings for managerial decision making and the process by which consumers evaluate brand extensions.
Recent debate on comparative advertising has focused on its ethical rather than its effectiveness dimension. A laboratory experiment was performed to assess the communications-effectiveness of a comparative advertisement in relation to its "brand X" counterpart. Results indicate that though a comparative advertising format can enhance message recall to some extent, it also can result in some loss of effectiveness from consumer perceptions of low credibility of its claims.
A laboratory experiment examines factors affecting evaluations of proposed extensions from a core brand that has or has not already been extended into other product categories. Specifically, the perceived quality of the core brand and the number, success, and similarity of intervening brand extensions, by influencing perceptions of company credibility and product fit, are hypothesized to affect evaluations of proposed new extensions, as well as evaluations of the core brand itself. The findings indicate that evaluations of a proposed extension when there were intervening extensions differed from evaluations when there were no intervening extensions only when there was a significant disparity between the perceived quality of the intervening extension (as judged by its success or failure) and the perceived quality of the core brand. A successful intervening extension increased evaluations of a proposed extension only for an average quality core brand; An unsuccessful intervening extension decreased evaluations of a proposed extension only for a high quality core brand. Though a successful intervening extension also increased evaluations of an average quality core brand, an unsuccessful intervening extension did not decrease core brand evaluations regardless of the quality level of the core brand. The relative similarity of intervening extensions had little differential impact, but multiple intervening extensions hod some different effects than a single intervening extension.
Two studies were conducted to obtain insights on how consumers form attitudes toward brand extensions, (i. e., use of an established brand name to enter a new product category). In one study, reactions to 20 brand extension concepts involving six well-known brand names were examined. Attitude toward the extension was higher when (1) there was both a perception of "fit" between the two product classes along one of three dimensions and a perception of high quality for the original brand or (2) the extension was not regarded as too easy to make. A second study examined the effectiveness of different positioning strategies for extensions. The experimental findings show that potentially negative associations can be neutralized more effectively by elaborating on the attributes of the brand extension than by reminding consumers of the positive associations with the original brand.
This article presents the rationale and procedures for conducting a process analysis in evaluation research. Such an analysis attempts to identify the process that mediates the effects of some treatment, by estimating the parameters of a causal chain between the treatment and some outcome variable. Two different procedures for estimating mediation are discussed. In addition we present procedures for examining whether a treatment exerts its effects, in part, by altering the mediating process that produces the outcome. Finally, the benefits of process analysis in evaluation research are underlined.
Co-marketing alliances between firms afford fresh opportunity for strategic advantage. Data from 98 alliances show that gains in effectiveness can be obtained by reducing power and managerial imbalances. Careful project selection and better matching of potential partners also help to enhance alliance effectiveness.
Explains how marketers have begun to pair their new brands with existing brands that have powerful images attached to them in the hopes of linking these positive images with their products. Recommends strategies for co-branding based on classical conditioning, a method for developing associations, and provides examples of firms that have found success when using these techniques.
Engagement plays a contingent role in the effectiveness of advertising processing that corresponds to the message effects created during the process. Such message effects are advertising recall, message involvement, message believability, attitude toward the message (Am), and attitude toward the advertisement (AAD). This study's objective is to examine whether higher engagement initiated by contextual relevance increases advertising recall, message involvement, message believability, Am, and AAD. The results have revealed that higher engagement increases advertising recall, message involvement, message believability, Am, and AAD- Moreover, message involvement mediates the engagement effect on message believability, whereas Am mediates message believability on AAD. Implications based on the findings demonstrate the importance of engagement as a driver of message involvement and a metric for advertising effectiveness.
Co-branding is an increasingly popular technique marketers use in attempting to transfer the positive associations of the partner (constituent) brands to a newly formed co-brand (composite brand). This research examines the effects of co-branding on the brand equity of both the co-branded product and the constituent brands that comprise it, both before and after product trial. It appears that co-branding is a win/win strategy for both co-branding partners regardless of whether the original brands are perceived by consumers as having high or low brand equity. Although low equity brands may benefit most from co-branding, high equity brands are not denigrated even when paired with a low equity partner. Further, positive product trial seems to enhance consumers’ evaluations of co-branded products, particularly those with a low equity constituent brand. Co-branding strategies may be effective in exploiting a product performance advantage or in introducing a new product with an unfamiliar brand name.
This paper introduces a conceptual framework for managing the transfer of meaning between brands using a structured and strategic approach. A model is introduced that distinguishes between four components: the leader brand, the partner brand, institutional associations and the customer's image of the brand. An overview of the model is presented and then each component of the model and the paths of transfer of meaning to and from brands are described in greater detail. Finally, issues related to leader and partner brand architecture are presented and a research-derived checklist for leader brand territory expansion is suggested.Journal of Brand Management (2004) 12, 105-123; doi:10.1057/palgrave.bm.2540208
The authors present an empirical study that compares advertising for a weak brand and advertising for a strong brand. The results indicate that brand attitude and purchase intention for the weak brand are higher when subjects cannot recall the ad. The opposite is found for the strong brand. Comparisons between single-brand ads and a joint ad reveal that ad-evoked brand recall increases for the weak brand in the joint ad and decreases for the strong brand. Furthermore, brand attitude and purchase intention are lower in the joint ad for the weak brand and higher for the strong brand. The study adds new insights to the literature on brand exposure without recall and the literature on joint advertising. © 2005 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.
There is growing interest in the trend towards co‐branding alliances between non‐profit and commercial entities,which are undertaken by these organisations to transfer associations and affect between each brand partner. Certainly, it makes sense that commercial entities want to gain more from their brands and that non‐profits want secured funding, however, in the same way that the joining of two brands can be beneficial, it can also bring with it major risks when the brand alliance is not well received and evaluations of the alliance are not favourable.
This research supports the notion that both commercial entities and non‐profit organisations can benefit from a branding alliance, however, an understanding of how these brand alliances are evaluated is important. This research investigates evaluations of brand alliances and the resulting spillover effects for original brand partners that result from brand alliances.
This research provides empirical support relating to reactions to brand alliances between a non‐profit organisation and a commercial business in terms of how original brand attitudes, familiarity of original brands and perceived brand fit impact on evaluations. While collaboration is important and has potential benefits for each partner—they rest on partner selection and fit between alliance partners. Managerial implications and future research directions are also provided.
Copyright © 2006 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
This research examines brand alliances, a specific marketing strategy designed to transfer the positive brand equity of two or more partner brands to the newly created joint brand. The study explores how customer-based brand equity (that is, brand equity as seen from the customer's perspective) of partner brands affects consumer evaluations of an alliance brand; how the brand equity of one partner brand affects the other; how customer-based brand equity of the partner brands affects consumers' evaluations of the search, experience, and credence attribute performance of the alliance brand; and how product trial influences such evaluations. Results suggest that merely the act of pairing with another brand elevates consumers' evaluations of the partner brands' customer-based brand equity, and high-equity partners enhance pretrial evaluation of experience and credence attributes that are relevant to the high-equity partner. As hypothesized, product trial moderates the equity value of the alliance partner for experience attributes, and brand equity of the partner brands influences consumer perceptions of the alliance brand's equity. © 2004 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.
A consistent finding in brand-alliance research is that a well-known, reputable brand ally improves consumers' evaluation of an unknown brand. The authors contribute to this research by examining the effects of a brand ally at different levels of cognitive elaboration and message argument strength. Results suggest that the brand ally serves as an endorser of the primary brand in two key ways. When cognitive elaboration is low and the ad contains strong arguments, the ally serves as an endorser. On the other hand, the presence of a reputable ally is an information cue when cognitive elaboration is high and the ad contains weak arguments. © 2006 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.
Computer-based multimedia learning environments — consisting of pictures (such as animation) and words (such as narration) — offer a potentially powerful venue for improving student understanding. How can we use words and pictures to help people understand how scientific systems work, such as how a lightning storm develops, how the human respiratory system operates, or how a bicycle tire pump works? This paper presents a cognitive theory of multimedia learning which draws on dual coding theory, cognitive load theory, and constructivist learning theory. Based on the theory, principles of instructional design for fostering multimedia learning are derived and tested. The multiple representation principle states that it is better to present an explanation in words and pictures than solely in words. The contiguity principle is that it is better to present corresponding words and pictures simultaneously rather than separately when giving a multimedia explanation. The coherence principle is that multimedia explanations are better understood when they include few rather than many extraneous words and sounds. The modality principle is that it is better to present words as auditory narration than as visual on-screen text. The redundancy principle is that it is better to present animation and narration than to present animation, narration, and on-screen text. By beginning with a cognitive theory of how learners process multimedia information, we have been able to conduct focused research that yields some preliminary principles of instructional design for multimedia messages.
Firms make decisions about the most favourable strategy to implement, given that they face a set of environmental conditions. Interorganisational arrangements (IOAs) are a single strategic response that can potentially contribute to continuing and considerable performance outcomes, although it is recognised that this is not an isolated performance solution. It is, however, important to understand the reasons why firms engage in IOAs and to ascertain the environmental conditions that would be ideal for such arrangements. Specifically, this paper aims to identify the antecedents that motivate firms to engage in a functional form of IOA, namely, cooperative marketing. That is, it seeks to appraise the internal and external contexts under which there is a need for cooperative marketing strategies.
We argue that imaging is a cognitive process that uses the same mental resources as perception. Therefore, when imaging and perception compete for the same resources, message elaboration and learning should be undermined. Two experiments are reported that provide support for this theorizing. In the first experiment, the learning of visual or auditory imagery-provoking information is adversely affected by reading or listening, respectively. In the second experiment, information with high levels of visual imagery is found to be learned better than information with low levels of visual imagery when the information is presented auditorily, but the reverse occurs when information is present visually. Copyright 1996 by the University of Chicago.
Two experiments with 5- and 7-year-old children tested the hypotheses that auditory attention is used to (a) monitor a TV program for important visual content, and (b) semantically process program information through language to enhance comprehension and visual attention. A direct measure of auditory attention was the latency of the child's restoration of gradually degraded sound quality. Restoration of auditory clarity did not vary as a function of looking. Restoration of visual clarity was faster when looking than when not looking. Restoration was faster for visual than auditory degrades, but audiovisual degrades were restored most rapidly of all, suggesting that dual modality presentation maximizes children's attention. Narration enhanced visual attention and comprehension including comprehension of visually presented material. Auditory comprehension did not depend on looking, suggesting that children can semantically process verbal content without looking at the TV. Auditory attention did not differ with the presence or absence of narration, but did predict auditory comprehension best while visual attention predicted visual comprehension best. In the absence of narration, auditory attention predicted visual comprehension, suggesting its monitoring function. Visual attention indexed overall interest and appeared to be most critical for comprehension in the absence of narration.
An event-related brain potential (ERP) study investigated whether spatially selective processing in vision and audition is controlled by a single supramodal system or by independent modality-specific systems.
Event-related brain potentials were recorded in response to visual and auditory stimuli at attended and unattended locations. In the 'Attend Same' condition, attention was directed to a single location in both modalities, while in the 'Attend Opposite' condition, visual and auditory attention had to be directed into opposite directions.
Sensory-specific effects of attention on visual and auditory ERPs reflecting attentional modulations of perceptual processing were obtained in the 'Attend Same' condition, but not the 'Attend Opposite' condition. Beyond 200 ms post-stimulus, attentional ERP effects were also found in the 'Attend Opposite' condition.
Results are inconsistent with the view that spatially selective processing is controlled by independent modality-specific systems. Effects of spatial attention on visual and auditory perceptual processing are closely linked, suggesting the existence of a supramodal attentional control system. At post-perceptual levels, attentional control may be more flexible.
Neo-Pavlovian conditioning and its implications for consumer theory and research
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Summary statistics: Credit card usage analysis
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