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62 ReferencesRemembering to be afraid: Applications of theories of memory to the science of safety communication
Abstract
Since it is not always possible to design-out hazards, safety communications take on the critical roles of warning about potential hazards, informing how to avoid injury, and revealing the possible consequences of failing to take appropriate action. Failures to adequately communicate, comprehend, or remember safety information may result in serious injury or death. While one goal of safety communications is to persuade, the focus here is on their role as reminders of hazards. It is suggested that psychological research in the area of memory can provide pointers as to how to improve a warning's ability to communicate safety information such that it is adequately understood and remembered. Towards this end, selected psychological theories and findings in the area of memory and their application to the study of warning processing are reviewed. Based on the studies reviewed, recommendations are made for improving memory for warning information and areas for future research are suggested. It is concluded that increased communication and collaboration among researchers from different disciplines, as well as professionals in the field, will more rapidly advance the science of safety communication.
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- (Alsamadani et al.,2012). Although evidence showed that communication breakdown directly relates to the safety of the human beings (Lesch, 2005; Buckley, 2010; Donahue et al., 2012), there is still a lack of attention devoted to safety communication at the workplace (Laughry, 2006; Kines et al., 2010). The importance of communication is valued once the employees perceive an open safety communication at the workplace (Neal et al., 2000).
[Show abstract] [Hide abstract] ABSTRACT: Rapid development in industrialization and global economy has contributed to the increased number of workplace injuries and accidents. Nowadays, with the advancement and the reliability of technology, accidents caused by equipment and machinery failures seem to be on decline. However, human element tends to feature as a significant contributor to workplace accidents: statistical reports and evidence indicate that around 80 to 90 percent of work-related accidents can be attributed to human factors. Meanwhile, effective safety communication is believed to play a vital role in human factor accidents at the workplace. Effective communication among the workers and leaders is believed to help in the attenuating the risk of human factor accidents. Against this background, this research examines 394 sets of questionnaires with 89.14% response rate from respondents of manufacturing companies in Negeri Sembilan, Malaysia. Based on the results, the interaction between safety communication and human factor accident is found to be significant. In addition, this study investigates the mediating effect of safety culture between safety communication and human factor accident. The results show that safety culture significantly mediates by the relation of safety communication and human factor accident.- If perceived hazard in response to products is well-calibrated to perceived hazard in response to their associated warning labels, then it could be argued that the warning system is valid (i.e., it communicates the intended level of hazard) for the given user population. That is, the warning is successfully serving its function as a reminder of already-known hazards (see Lehto and Miller, 1988; Lesch, 2005). However, another function of warnings is to educate about unknown hazards.
[Show abstract] [Hide abstract] ABSTRACT: In the current study, 44 Chinese and 40 US college students rated their perceived hazard in response to warning labels and products and attempted to match products with warning labels communicating the same level of hazard. Chinese participants tended to provide lower ratings of hazard in response to labels, but hazard perceived in response to products did not significantly differ as a function of culture. When asked to match a product with a warning label, Chinese participants' hazard perceptions appeared to be better calibrated, than did US participants', across products and labels. The results are interpreted in terms of constructivist theory which suggests that risk perceptions vary depending on the "frame of mind" evoked by the environment/context. Designers of warnings must be sensitive to the fact that product users' cognitive representations develop within a culture and that risk perceptions will vary based on the context in which they are derived.- Since we store massive amounts of information in our memory, it can be difficult to retrieve/recall the desired information (due to interference from other information). However, retrieval of an associated piece of information can aid in the process by serving as a ''hook'' that ''pulls out'' the targeted information from memory (see Craik and Tulving, 1975; see also Lesch, 2005a). Furthermore, the more elaborate text of the accident scenarios may help to counteract deficits in working memory (e.g., Martin and Romani, 1994).
[Show abstract] [Hide abstract] ABSTRACT: This study compared the effectiveness of two different types of training in improving comprehension of warning symbols by younger (aged 20-35 years) and older adults (aged 50-70 years). The verbal label training paired the symbol with a label describing its meaning while the accident scenario training further expanded on the nature of the hazard, the required/prohibited actions, as well as the possible consequences of failing to comply. Contrary to prior research (e.g., [Lesch, M.F., 2003. Comprehension and memory for warning symbols: age-related differences and impact of training. J. Safety Res. 34, 495-505]), there was no difference in comprehension for younger and older adults prior to training, with both groups only obtaining about 40% correct responses. Both types of training improved performance on a subsequent comprehension test. However, the accident scenario training produced a higher percentage of correct responses, greater confidence in those responses, as well as a longer-lasting reduction of reaction times. In order to further improve symbol design, as well as training to address comprehension difficulties, future research should more closely examine symbol characteristics that influence comprehension.- [Show abstract] [Hide abstract] ABSTRACT: Perceptions of risk are an inherent part of the decision-making process. What is more, risk perception can be understood as an individual's assessment of risk, and the adequacy of any risk assessment is reliant on the adequacy of the accessible risk information. Consequently, one way to understand the effect of risk perception on decision-making, and the approach taken in this literature review, is to understand how risk information is communicated and received by an individual. A number of factors are identified that have been found to influence perceptions of risk, which are related to the design of risk messages: the message (colour, signal word, surround shape, and the framing effect), the source of the message (credibility and trust), and the target of the message (risk target). It is concluded that, in order to design effective risk communications, and to facilitate decision-making and safe behaviour, these factors need to be considered, in a context-dependent manner.
- [Show abstract] [Hide abstract] ABSTRACT: Prior research indicates that many warning symbols are poorly understood. However Lesch [Lesch, M.F., 2003. Comprehension and memory for warning symbols: Age-related differences and impact of training. J. Safety Res. 34, 495-505] found that accident scenarios could be used to improve comprehension of warning symbols. The current study further investigated the potential benefits of accident scenario training. During training, warning symbols with verbal labels corresponding to the meaning of the symbol were paired with accident scenarios which expanded on the nature of the hazard, the required/prohibited actions, as well as the possible consequences of failing to comply. A number of measures were obtained prior to, and following (immediately and 2 weeks later), the accident scenario training: comprehension across three knowledge types (verbal label, required/prohibited actions, potential consequences of failure to comply), ratings of agreement with statements reflecting perceived control, and ratings of hazard and intent to comply. Benefits of training were observed on all dependent measures: Comprehension improved from 43 to 82% correct, reaction times were reduced by about 2s, and level of confidence in correct responses increased by 23%. Ratings of perceived hazard, intent to comply, and perceived control over accident/injury involvement also increased. It is suggested that accident scenario training can be used to help prevent accidents and injuries by ensuring that responses to warnings are "sure and swift".
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