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The Study of the Problem of Pictorial Perception Among Unacculturated Groups

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L'étude du problème de la perception des images chez des peuples non occidentalisés. -Les psychologues sociaux se sont détournes de l'étude relativement stérile des différences raciales sous l'angle quantitatif pour se tourner vers la recherche, plus significative, des différences qualitatives dans l'expérience cognitive des groupes sans acculturation: l'étude de la perception des images est caractéristique recherches. Jusqu'à une période récente, on prenait pour garanti que les images réalisées selon les habitudes occidentales avaient une égale valeur didactique pour toutes les cultures. Or, les phénomènes d'erreurs de perception ont été explorés dans une série d'expériences, conçues pour étudier systématiquement les réponses perceptives aux conventions occidentales en matière de représentations: elles montrent que le noir illettré comprend mal les indices conventionnels utilisés ponr représenter la profondeur; le noir instruit fait également des erreurs perceptives ou répond de façon ambivalente. Chez les blancs, la manière conventionnelle de percevoir les images se développe à l'école primaire, mais dérive principalement du contexte culturel non formel, puisqu'un groupe de blancs instruits, mais isolés, fait les měmes erreurs qu'un groupe de noirs illettrés: il est clair que la cause en est une privation perceptive spécifique, culturellement et non racialement induite. Outre les indices de profondeur, d'autres indices, comme la position ou l'orientation, créent des problèmes aux noirs dans l'interprétation des images. Les résultats de ces recherches semblent valider un modèle psychologique de hiérarchic dynamique des capacités: les capacités supérieures seraient moins affectées par les expériences liées à un milieu spécifique, mais la culture aurait un rôle formateur à jouer dans l'efficacité de capacités plus périphériques comme la perception des images. Cependant, sur la base de travaux expérimentaux plus récents, d'autres théories ont été avancées pour expliquer les données expérimentales: l'une d'entre elles propose de remplacer le principe d'habitude perceptive par celui de privation sémantique. Cette approche est trop sélective et n'explique pas les differences observées dans les réponses au cours d'expériences qui utilisaient conjointement des réponses verbales et des réponses manipulatoires. La dernière étude suggère que les erreurs dans la perception des images peuvent ětre dues à l'incapacité d'intégrer la totalité des stimuli perceptifs présentés dans l'image. L'auteur passe en revue une série de recherches appliquées, menées en Afrique du Sud, de l'Ouest et de l'Est ainsi qu'en Amérique du Sud et en Amérique Centrale, sur la perception des affiches et des représentations symboliques. Ces études corroborent l'existence des problèmes que rencontrent les non-occidentalisés dans la perception des images: les indices conventionnels utilisés pour représenter la profondeur sont sources de confusions; les représentations symboliques sont mal ou pas comprises; la simplification et la réduction des détails sont essentiels, mais la sursimplification, qui réduit le réalisme, peut aller à l'encontre de ce que roulait signifier l'artiste. La compréhension des images tend à ětre liée à la scolarisation et à l'urbanisation. Les affiches, bien que porteuses de messages spécifiques, n'évoquent souvent qu'une réponse générale; en ce sens, on peut dire qu'au mieux, elles préparent le percevant, en le prédisposant à recevoir le message. Il est essentiel, en premier lieu, que le matériel pictural soit adapté au niveau d'acculturation des percevants: ceci signifie qu'il faut utiliser une série de représentations qui soient appropriées aux niveaux d'acculturation des divers groupes concernés. En second lieu, les images et illustrations sont essentiellement des aides visuelles et en tant que telles, doivent ětre convenablement intégrées à la situation pédagogiquea totale. C'est seulement a ces conditions que le temps, les efforts et l'argent dépensés à les réaliser et à les utiliser seront defructueux.

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... As Mittler (1972) pointed out relevant psychological processes involved in picture assimilation influence test results and need to be considered. As various social groups have been shown to respond to pictures differently it was decided to review research on picture perception (Misra and Shukla 1984, Sinha 1977, Hudson 1967 . ...
... Initial studies of the Bantu and Bush Negro tribes reported that perception of pictures was difficult in culturally conditioned people (Hudson 1967, Herskovits 1948, Kidd 1904). ...
... The message of pictorial material could be misinterpreted or differently perceived as the ability of the target population to interpret pictures determines the understanding of the message imparted. (Hudson 1967). Adults from deprived populations in the Kota field study (p. ...
Thesis
Almost fifty percent of India's population are children. More than two thirds belong to the lower socioeconomic strata. Yet there are few indigenously constructed developmental tests for surveillance, clinical practice or research. The need for such tests is clear. A multifaceted developmental test of cognitive skills was constructed, modelled on the Bus Puzzle Test (Egan 1984) for its ease of administration and appeal. Each stage in the design was piloted in Rajasthan in all socioeconomic groups. Stages included simple ethnic modification of the original test, development of more socioculturally appropriate scenes, a detailed statistical procedure of item analysis and reliability studies. The picture was converted into a wooden insert puzzle, called The Indian Picture Puzzle Test (IPPT) and standardised on a random sample of 616 children to construct norms. The IPPT assesses aspects of early language, picture interpretation, performance skills and conceptual development in children aged 2 to 5 years. Analysis of the standardised data highlighted the need for separate norms for each socioeconomic group. Verbal abilities were significantly different between advantaged and disadvantaged (slum and rural) groups though performance skills were comparable. Competence in picture perception did not, as it appears to do in English children, parallel that of language and was influenced by both age and social class. The Indian Picture Puzzle Test has been developed for clinical practice and research. Its forseen uses are as a tool with which to identify and compare high and low functioning populations and to monitor intervention programmes in the latter. Similarly, it may be useful within sociocultural groups to identify individuals with disordered development. Further studies are required to substantiate these proposed uses of the IPPT.
... Crucially, individual differences in conceptualization are often driven by factors that can be used to group those individuals, in which case individual differences become group differences in conceptualization (e.g. Hudson, 1967). The question for conceptual transfer is whether language, or at least the conventions of discourse communities regarding how to express conscious experience, is one of the factors that gives rise to group differences in conceptualization. ...
... However, Jarvis (2016) has argued that language use data can indeed be used as evidence of differences in attention, perception, conceptualization, and other forms of cognition, and has been successfully used in this manner by experimental psychologists for several decades. One of many examples is Hudson's (1960Hudson's ( , 1967 investigation into the effects of schooling on South Africans' perceptions of line-drawn pictures of a hunter and his prey. The participants' verbal responses provided clear evidence of whether they perceived the pictures two-dimensionally or three-dimensionally, and the results of the study showed reliable differences in perception between the study's two groups of participants. ...
Article
This article provides updated perspectives on research related to conceptual transfer, which is defined as crosslinguistic influence arising from language-specific concepts and patterns of conceptualization. I discuss the historical roots of conceptual transfer, its relationship to linguistic relativity and thinking for speaking, its core assumptions, and its current scope of inquiry. While discussing its scope of inquiry, I review some of the key findings in this area of research as well as some of the recent studies that have expanded its scope. I conclude with a summary of five important points that can be drawn from the existing research on conceptual transfer, and I offer suggestions for future directions.
... Différents indices conventionnels de profondeur mal interprétés par les acteurs (Hudson, 1967) Ainsi, une littérature importante a essayé d'étayer la thèse selon laquelle la perception de la profondeur dans un contexte pictural -un tableau ou une photographie -supposait un apprentissage sensorimoteur particulier, afin de lier certains indices visuels à l'idée d'une distance plus ou moins importante. Percevoir la profondeur dans un tableau serait ainsi le résultat d'un apprentissage perceptif qui permet de comprendre les différences de perception des individus face aux mêmes données sensibles. ...
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Le philosophe Alva Noë a développé, dans un cadre « énactiviste », une théorie de la perception structurée par une série d’anticipations sensorimotrices. Le but de cet article est de présenter et de discuter la pertinence d’une telle notion. Pour ce faire, nous présentons dans un premier temps la théorie sensorimotrice de la perception développée dans son ouvrage Action in Perception ainsi que dans plusieurs articles plus récents. Dans un deuxième temps, nous soulignons deux difficultés inhérentes à cette définition qui concernent le sens exact qu’on accorde aux notions d’ « anticipation » et de « motricité » . Enfin, dans un troisième temps, nous montrons quelles sont les modalités de socialisation des processus d’anticipation en distinguant nettement, avec et contre Alva Noë, l’anticipation des mouvements de l’objet, d’une part, et l’anticipation de mon propre mouvement, d’autre part. Nous proposons ainsi, en conclusion, quelques pistes pour développer une théorie de la socialisation de la perception à partir des données et des théories énactivistes.
... A meta-analysis [13] concludes that images generally have a positive effect on attention, comprehension, memorization, and even therapeutic adherence compared to the text alone [14]. However, in his study of image perception among non-Western individuals, Hudson [15] showed that image understanding mainly depends on socio-cultural factors such as schooling and urbanization. In addition, other research has identified comprehension issues due to image interpretation [16]. ...
Chapter
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Taking medication requires several precautions. The use of pictograms, when accompanying prescribed pharmacotherapy, is considered as an effective way to facilitate the understanding of sensitive populations (e.g., elderly people , low literacy levels, migrants, etc.) regarding their pharmaceutical treatment. However, the essential condition is to provide a set of pictograms which is easily recognized by medicine users. This supposes that those health visual tools should be designed in accordance with the users' visual representations of the pharmaceutical information. To test the identification of pictograms designed from mental images, we conducted two studies. In the first study, fifty-two participants were asked to draw their mental images associated with information contained in medication leaflets. The corpus of drawings conducted to the design of pictograms that were then submitted to a comprehension test among a new population (N = 116) in a second study. It appears that the most frequent mental images are those that are best identified once they have been transcribed in the form of pictograms. These findings, which corroborate the link between mental and visual images, invite to consider the use of pictograms to promote understanding of drug treatment on the one hand, and to integrate drug users in the process of designing pictograms on the other.
... It is noteworthy that subjects do not always align their designs horizontally in relation to the reference frame. Indeed, several authors have commented that their subjects ignored orientation as long as the overall shape was correct-or, perhaps, oriented their productions in the direction they were facing at the time of creation rather than in the direction of the reference frame (Biesheuvel, 1951b;Hudson, 1967). This is usually counted as an error in block design tests. ...
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Visuo-spatial reasoning tests, such as Raven’s matrices, Cattell’s culture-fair test, or various subtests of the Wechsler scales, are frequently used to estimate intelligence scores in the context of inter-racial comparisons. This has led to several high-profile works claiming that certain ethnic groups have lower intelligence than others, presumably due to genetic inferiority. This logic is predicated on the assumption that such visuo-spatial tests, because they are non-verbal, must be culture-fair: that their solution process does not significantly draw on factors that vary from one culture to the next. This assumption of culture-fairness is dubious at best and has been questioned by many authors. In this article, I review the substantial body of psychological and ethnographic literature which has demonstrated that the perception, manipulation and conceptualization of visuo-spatial information differs significantly across cultures, in a way that is relevant to intelligence tests. I then outline a model of how these inter-cultural differences can affect seven major steps of the solution process for Raven’s matrices, with a brief discussion of other visuo-spatial reasoning tests. Overall, a number of cultural assumptions appear to be deeply ingrained in all visuo-spatial reasoning tests, to the extent that it disqualifies the view of such tests as intrinsically culture-fair and makes it impossible to draw clear-cut conclusions from average score differences between ethnic groups.
... Différents indices conventionnels de profondeur mal interprétés par les acteurs (Hudson, 1967) Ainsi, une littérature importante a essayé d'étayer la thèse selon laquelle la perception de la profondeur dans un contexte pictural -un tableau ou une photographie -supposait un apprentissage sensorimoteur particulier, afin de lier certains indices visuels à l'idée d'une distance plus ou moins importante. Percevoir la profondeur dans un tableau serait ainsi le résultat d'un apprentissage perceptif qui permet de comprendre les différences de perception des individus face aux mêmes données sensibles. ...
Article
Au sein des approches incarnées de la cognition, un nombre croissant d’études souligne l’étroite intrication, voire le recouvrement, des mécanismes qui sous-tendent la sensorimotricité et la mémoire. Parmi ces approches incarnées, le modèle Act-In (Versace et al., 2014) propose que lors d’une expérience vécue, des traces mnésiques se forment automatiquement par le biais d’une dynamique d’activations et d’intégrations des différentes dimensions de cette expérience, en particulier les dimensions sensorimotrices. Lors d’une seconde expérience vécue ultérieurement, la situation réactive en cascade ces traces antérieures, provoquant ainsi une intégration des dimensions de la situation présente perçue et des situations antérieurement vécues. Ainsi dans ce modèle, la perception de la situation présente peut être influencée par les traces antérieures tout autant que les traces antérieures peuvent être influencées par la perception présente. Parallèlement au développement de ces approches incarnées de la cognition, la question des liens entre la mémoire et le corps est par ailleurs discutée et opérationnalisée dans le domaine de l’hypnose. Depuis l’essor de l’hypnose à la fin du 18e siècle jusqu’à sa pratique actuelle amorcée par Milton Erickson, plusieurs techniques centrales en hypnose utilisent un jeu avec la mémoire de façon à pouvoir accompagner un patient en souffrance physique ou psychique. Notamment, les « régressions en âge » consistent à proposer à un patient de « revivre » un épisode de sa vie de façon à l’aider à dépasser une difficulté actuelle ou modifier une perception présente. Ces techniques centrées sur la mémoire sont courantes et leurs effets sont souvent décrits dans la littérature. Certains domaines spécifiques, comme la question des faux souvenirs qui peuvent apparaître consécutivement « aux régressions en âge », ont donné lieu à des travaux cliniques et expérimentaux alliant mémoire et hypnose. Cependant à l’heure actuelle, ces pratiques ne bénéficient d’aucune base théorique ou conceptuelle consensuelle, et les mécanismes permettant d’expliquer les effets de ces techniques sont encore mal compris. En conséquence, à travers le prisme d’une réflexion pluridisciplinaire, cet article poursuit un double objectif. Premièrement, il s’agit de discuter de la pertinence heuristique du modèle Act-in pour comprendre pourquoi ces techniques d’hypnose qui disent utiliser des processus mémoriels produisent leurs effets. Deuxièmement, il s’agit de discuter des perspectives offertes par l’hypnose, et en particulier l’intérêt de ces techniques, pour étayer l’arsenal méthodologique qui permet d’explorer la dimension dynamique et incarnée de la mémoire humaine.
... 47 Parncutt and Cohen (1995) consider 40 cents the threshold of perceptibility of steps in a scale. unacculturated groups from decoding the spatial information in perspective-based drawings (Hudson, 1967). The culprit here is the same-centering on a single aspect of organization due to lack of integrative experience. ...
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This is a sequel to Evolution of Tonal Organization, Part-1. It completes the line of historic development of principal methods of tonal organization from Bronze Age to Western and Near- and Far-Eastern civilizations of the 17th century AD. I base my investigation on the premise that organization of sounds in music reflects the same degree of sophistication and functionality, as do tools throughout the timeline in the development of humanity. As such, I selected those traditions that produced technologies that were novel and influential across multiple cultures. The general rule of coherence between rational principles of music theory, social order, and political values in promoting certain ethical qualities in music is identified as a core in the development of great Bronze Age civilizations. This coherence remained pivotal for musical traditions up until the 17th century. Tonal order here can be viewed as a “combination lock” that encodes the social value system in interpreting the perceptual reality – and does it so in a format that is most comfortable and intuitive for transmission from one member to another member of society. In this way, tonal order, adopted as norm for each civilization serves to consolidate and reproduce the same worldview considered to be most effective in handling the everyday demands of the members of that civilization. There seems to be a general historic vector of growing complexity and finer incrimination in each subsequent tonal scheme in the timeline of the rise and development of tonal organization.
... Since 1951, evidence from children (notably Hochberg and Brooks, 1962), retardates (O'Connor and Hermelin, 1961), and other cultures [e.g. South Africa: Hudson (1960Hudson ( , 1967, Page (1970); Ghana: Mundy-Castle (1966); Ethiopia: Deregowski et at (1972)] suggests that Gibson was correct. Little if any explicit training is necessary to obtain consistent identifications of line sketches by quite diverse groups of subjects. ...
... The most highly cited African studies in the broad area of interdisciplinary psychology was by Hudson (1967) on the topic of pictorial perception among African groups (70 citations until July 2015) published in the International Journal of Psychology, followed by the investigation by Wissing and van Eeden (2002) on psychological well-being (68 citations) published in the South African Journal of Psychology. The data further suggest that, similar to international trends, most of the contributions are made by relatively few authors. ...
Chapter
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In this chapter, I will first sketch the overall landscape of African research and practice in IWO psychology. Against this background, I move on to discuss an example of IWO psychology in a particular country, South Africa, being the most developed in this field. Following an historical overview of IWO psychology in this country, I will cover some basic issues relating to the profession, science, and practice of IWO psychology in South Africa. Furthermore, given the international nature of this Handbook, particular attention will be given to key issues that may be specific to South African IWO psychology.
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Cross-cultural psychology has come of age as a scientific discipline, but how has it developed? The field has moved from exploratory studies, in which researchers were mainly interested in finding differences in psychological functioning without any clear expectation, to detailed hypothesis tests of theories of cross-cultural differences. This book takes stock of the large number of empirical studies conducted over the last decades to evaluate the current state of the field. Specialists from various domains provide an overview of their area, linking it to the fundamental questions of cross-cultural psychology such as how individuals and their cultures are linked, how the link evolves during development, and what the methodological challenges of the field are. This book will appeal to academic researchers and post-graduates interested in cross-cultural research.
Chapter
Cross-cultural psychology has come of age as a scientific discipline, but how has it developed? The field has moved from exploratory studies, in which researchers were mainly interested in finding differences in psychological functioning without any clear expectation, to detailed hypothesis tests of theories of cross-cultural differences. This book takes stock of the large number of empirical studies conducted over the last decades to evaluate the current state of the field. Specialists from various domains provide an overview of their area, linking it to the fundamental questions of cross-cultural psychology such as how individuals and their cultures are linked, how the link evolves during development, and what the methodological challenges of the field are. This book will appeal to academic researchers and post-graduates interested in cross-cultural research.
Chapter
Cross-cultural psychology has come of age as a scientific discipline, but how has it developed? The field has moved from exploratory studies, in which researchers were mainly interested in finding differences in psychological functioning without any clear expectation, to detailed hypothesis tests of theories of cross-cultural differences. This book takes stock of the large number of empirical studies conducted over the last decades to evaluate the current state of the field. Specialists from various domains provide an overview of their area, linking it to the fundamental questions of cross-cultural psychology such as how individuals and their cultures are linked, how the link evolves during development, and what the methodological challenges of the field are. This book will appeal to academic researchers and post-graduates interested in cross-cultural research.
Chapter
Cross-cultural psychology has come of age as a scientific discipline, but how has it developed? The field has moved from exploratory studies, in which researchers were mainly interested in finding differences in psychological functioning without any clear expectation, to detailed hypothesis tests of theories of cross-cultural differences. This book takes stock of the large number of empirical studies conducted over the last decades to evaluate the current state of the field. Specialists from various domains provide an overview of their area, linking it to the fundamental questions of cross-cultural psychology such as how individuals and their cultures are linked, how the link evolves during development, and what the methodological challenges of the field are. This book will appeal to academic researchers and post-graduates interested in cross-cultural research.
Chapter
Cross-cultural psychology has come of age as a scientific discipline, but how has it developed? The field has moved from exploratory studies, in which researchers were mainly interested in finding differences in psychological functioning without any clear expectation, to detailed hypothesis tests of theories of cross-cultural differences. This book takes stock of the large number of empirical studies conducted over the last decades to evaluate the current state of the field. Specialists from various domains provide an overview of their area, linking it to the fundamental questions of cross-cultural psychology such as how individuals and their cultures are linked, how the link evolves during development, and what the methodological challenges of the field are. This book will appeal to academic researchers and post-graduates interested in cross-cultural research.
Chapter
Cross-cultural psychology has come of age as a scientific discipline, but how has it developed? The field has moved from exploratory studies, in which researchers were mainly interested in finding differences in psychological functioning without any clear expectation, to detailed hypothesis tests of theories of cross-cultural differences. This book takes stock of the large number of empirical studies conducted over the last decades to evaluate the current state of the field. Specialists from various domains provide an overview of their area, linking it to the fundamental questions of cross-cultural psychology such as how individuals and their cultures are linked, how the link evolves during development, and what the methodological challenges of the field are. This book will appeal to academic researchers and post-graduates interested in cross-cultural research.
Chapter
Cross-cultural psychology has come of age as a scientific discipline, but how has it developed? The field has moved from exploratory studies, in which researchers were mainly interested in finding differences in psychological functioning without any clear expectation, to detailed hypothesis tests of theories of cross-cultural differences. This book takes stock of the large number of empirical studies conducted over the last decades to evaluate the current state of the field. Specialists from various domains provide an overview of their area, linking it to the fundamental questions of cross-cultural psychology such as how individuals and their cultures are linked, how the link evolves during development, and what the methodological challenges of the field are. This book will appeal to academic researchers and post-graduates interested in cross-cultural research.
Chapter
To look forward, it is necessary to look back and learn. History is more than just facts about the past; it is a narrative told from a particular perspective. A proverb from Africa, 'Until lions have their own historians, tales of the hunt shall always glorify the hunter,' captures this best. Most of the scholarship about psychological assessment comes from very specific nationalities and cultures, which does not truly reflect the diversity and breadth of histories pertaining to the field. Covering 50 countries, this collection gives voice to those that have previously been under represented and sometimes marginalized. This book not only describes important moments in psychological assessment from around the globe, but also equips readers with the tools to map the future of psychological assessment across nations. It advocates for a more globally inclusive science of assessment that holds promise for enhancing creativity and innovation in the field.
Thesis
Visuo-spatial approaches have been a fundamental aspect of landscape archaeology since its inception. Such methods rely on the visual identification and presentation of spatial relationships, and therefore depend on visual perception. It has been argued that visual perception is affected by an individual’s cultural background. If this is the case, then landscape archaeologists will have a different perception of the landscape to the people that they study, and from many of those to whom they present the past. The former brings into question the validity of data used to form archaeological hypotheses. The latter raises concerns for engaging an increasingly diverse public in heritage. Whilst the extent of cultural influence upon visual perception has been debated widely within archaeology, perceptual research has never been used to inform the discussion. This thesis applies perceptual research to landscape archaeology for the first time, in order to understand the effect of culture upon visual perception. Having established what may be learnt from existing perceptual research about modern populations, archaeological evidence which may give insight into the visual perception of past people is investigated. In order to understand the effect of culture on visual perception of the landscape, a landscape based perceptual experiment was undertaken. Using the principle of Perceptual Uniformitarianism, the results of this experiment were used to argue that culture does not have an effect upon visual perception of the landscape. It was therefore concluded that the underpinnings of landscape interpretation and presentation were perceptually valid.
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While the distinction between pictures and texts is well established on theoretical grounds and has attracted much research, the differences and commonalities between realistic depictions and its real-world counterparts have received much less attention. This chapter aims to contribute to closing this gap by systematically comparing life-like images to real-world events in terms of commonalities and differences in visual appeal as well as in perception and mental processing. Based on the notion of a “dual character” of digital images, both closely resembling reality but simultaneously being systematically different, several issues regarding processes of knowledge acquisition will be discussed, including: Are viewers aware of differences between real-world information and mediated information—and do they take them into account? Do realistic images require specific competencies for comprehension? Should the realism of visual representations be maximized for learning? How do viewers deal with the informational complexity and ambiguity of realistic images?
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The history of early childhood preschool education for the environmentally disadvantaged is a record of searching for an intervention model that would enable this kind of education to play a significant role in human development and to contribute in some measure to the reduction of poverty and its deleterious effects on this development. The concept of disadvantagement has been further extended to include also the possible effects of cultural circumstances prevailing in ethnic groups different in behaviour patterns, values and child-rearing practices from those prevailing in middle-class Western societies.
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The cross-cultural study of personality can make a variety of contributions to psychological knowledge. It is this varied potentiality that makes it a fruitful area of research, and first I intend to set out those points where it is particularly valuable:1. In the first place, it is a legitimate enquiry to ask just what are the differences — if any — between different races of men and different cultural groups. This is an ancient interest, as the many striking differences noted by Herodotus between Egyptians and Greeks attest. At present, this is a field of enquiry that is regarded by many (for example, Kamin, 1974) as vicious and fascistic, and of course such information, whether true or false, has been used as a basis for treating out-groups such as Jews or blacks in ways that are, to use understatement, morally repugnant. In fact the notion of race was used by the Nazis totally erroneously, although clearly there are distinct races of men (Baker, 1974). It is a purely scientific matter to investigate differences between these races in personality and ability. Any differences between them might allow clues to be gained concerning the biological, genetic determination of the traits concerned. To assume that there are no differences is to make the same error that is so roundly condemned in the fascists — namely that there are differences.
Article
Twenty male and five female undergraduates were assessed in a study designed to test for three dimensional pictorial perception in a Papua New Guinea sample. A version of Hudson's (1960) and Deregowski's (1968) test stimuli was used; the stimuli were slightly modified to make them culturally appropriate. The major result of the study was a finding of consistent sex differences in pictorial depth perception. Males tended to perceive three dimensionally while females tended to perceive two dimensionally.
Article
Full-text available
Cross-cultural psychology has come of age as a scientific discipline, but how has it developed? The field has moved from exploratory studies, in which researchers were mainly interested in finding differences in psychological functioning without any clear expectation, to detailed hypothesis tests of theories of cross-cultural differences. This book takes stock of the large number of empirical studies conducted over the last decades to evaluate the current state of the field. Specialists from various domains provide an overview of their area, linking it to the fundamental questions of cross-cultural psychology such as how individuals and their cultures are linked, how the link evolves during development, and what the methodological challenges of the field are. This book will appeal to academic researchers and post-graduates interested in cross-cultural research.
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The Learning Efficiency Test Battery (LETB) was developed to meet a real need: this being how to evaluate Asian2 children’s cognitive ability and/or learning efficiency when their experiences and cultural backgrounds are different from children with Western type backgrounds on whom the majority of the commonly used IQ tests have been standardised. Although a large majority of practising psychologists are aware that traditional IQ tests are inappropriate for ethnic minority5 children (cf. Mackenzie, 1980), they continue to be used as one of the important criteria for the purposes of classification and for placing these children into special schools and units (Tomlinson, 1981; Reschly, 1984). The deficiencies of traditional testing procedures and the advantages of assessing children’s learning efficiency have already been outlined in Chapter 1, and there is therefore little need to restate them here. Suffice it to say that our conviction as to the advantages of assessing learning efficiency and our cognizance of the literature highlighting the limitation of IQ tests were the motivating forces behind the development of the Learning Efficiency Test Battery.
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It would be impossible for me, even if I had the capacity to do so, to comment cogently upon all the issues which we have heard discussed and to touch upon all the papers which were presented. Such an attempt would at best lead to a cumbersome catalogue of proceedings. I shall therefore confine my remarks to a small number of papers.
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Let us begin by examining the development of some very simple perceptual functions in normal children. Consider visual acuity as a first example. A number of studies using various methods (Fantz, Ordy, and Udelf, 1962; Gorman, Cogan, and Gillis, 1957; Dayton, Jones, Aiu, Rawson, Steele, and Rose, 1964) find the visual acuity of infants between zero and 1 month of age to be between 20/150 and 20/400 Snellen. It increases over the first several months of age and then rapidly through childhood, reaching maximum (20/20 to 20/15 Snellen) about the age of 10 years (Weymouth, 1963). Consider auditory acuity as a second example. Steinschneider, Lipton, and Richmond (1966) found neonates sensitive to sounds of 70 db or more. Bartoshuk (1964) found that the function relating responsivity and intensity of sound in neonates was similar to that of adults, and Eagles, Wishik, Doerfler, Melnick, and Levine (1963) found auditory acuity increasing slowly and gradually between 5 and 13 years with a slight decrease in sensitivity at 14. Even somewhat more complex perceptual functions such as those involved in size constancy seem to show gradual improvement with age. Typical of these studies is one by Zeigler and Leibowitz (1957). Children between 7 and 9 years of age showed less constancy than a group of adults in adjusting a rod 5 feet away to match the size of one varying from 10 to 100 feet away.
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I first became aware of the need to define the elements of illustration when I was involved with the adult literacy campaign in the UK in the 1970s. The million pounds made available by the British government to help combat the high level of illiteracy identified by Start and Wells (1972), together with the associated publicity, resulted in an unprecedented launch of new visual material, broadcast and printed, designed to help anyone with reading difficulties; and publishers found it a challenge to produce books with low readability levels which would be of interest to teenagers and adults.
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In Experiment 1 children aged about three years were studied in rural areas of Ghana (N=34) and Rhodesia (N=12), where pictorial material is rare. Subjects were trained to identify a set of common objects; on subsequent testing with coloured photographs the overall correct recognition rate was 86%. Experiment 2 was carried out in a small urban area in Ghana with thirty-nine children, of whom twenty-five attended a pictorially rich model nursery school. Photographs only were presented, and the rates of correct identification were almost exactly the same for attenders and non-attenders. These results confirm the conclusions of Hochberg and Brooks (1962), lending no support for the view that differential experience with pictures influences pictorial object recognition.
Article
Originally published in 1972, this second edition in 1981 was fully revised and updated to cover recent developments in the field at the time. Fact and Fantasy in Freudian Theory was written to answer many questions and criticisms surrounding psychoanalysis.
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From the perspective of historical-cultural psychology, we present a historical revision of transcultural psychology studies in the field of perception. From this theoretical standpoint we describe the mechanisms of cultural and historical mediation used in the explanation of the findings of transcultural psychology. We discuss the need to view perception as a constructive process which is a result of the interaction between the subject and his/her physical and cultural context. Perception thus involves the acquisition of ecologically valid habits of inference, which vary according to the experiences of individuals. For this reason, it is important to study the differences in perception processes and to analyse their causes, via the investigation of everyday practices in which individuals participate and develop.
Article
Reading a technical drawing is a complex task requiring an understanding of geometry, familiarity with the coding conventions, and some knowledge of technology. Such skills are likely to vary with the level of vocational education, and with the amount of professional practice. Performance in reading drawings will also vary with the type of rendering. Computer Aided Design (CAD) makes a great variety of graphic renderings available to the draughtsman, including stereoscopic (fully three-dimension projection in a three-dimension space). Such renderings are advertised as much more « realistic » than the usual orthogonal projection three-or two-view technical drawings. However the cognitive gain provided by such a « realism » has been strongly questioned. In connection with the development of an autostereoscopic CAD visual display, an experiment was run to test the effects of types of rendering (R) and level of professional experience (E) upon the understanding of technical drawings. Subjects were 45 draughtsmen belonging to the design office of an automotive industry company and 96 students from a secondary vocational school. Three types of drawing renderings were used : orthogonal two view projection, axonometric two-dimension projection, and autostereoscopic axonometric projection. Each subject was presented with one drawing of the same robot arm, drawn according to one of the three renderings. He was asked to identify : 1 / the kind of mechanism, 2 / the nature of movements possible for the various segments of the arm, 3 / to name the various moving parts of the mechanism, and 4 / to accurately describe the kinematic chain linking the actions of the various parts in the overall movement of the arm. Results did not show any effect of the variables R and E on the first dependant variable, i.e. identification of the overal mechanism. As for the possible actions of each part, only R had an effect : for both draughtsmen and students, the orthogonal projection was the most difficult to read. Regarding variable 3, there was an interaction between R and E. Draughtsmen scored in general better than the students, who, however, in the autostereoscopic condition showed performances equivalent to the professionals'. In the understanding of the kinematic chain, there was no difference between populations. However, the variable R had a significant effect : kinematic was best understood when the drawing was presented in autostereoscopic rendering. Results are discussed in terms of adequacy of rendering of technical drawing to vocational teaching and to the development of CAD visual displays.
Article
The paper examines studies on the difficulties in understanding photographs from a cross-cultural perspective. These difficulties range from the complete failure to recognize a photograph as a representation of objects to the inability to recognize the spacial layout of the objects represented. Two kinds of explanations are offered: observer-specific and medium-specific. It is argued that photography produces pictures in a fairly rough "precultural" state that often sharply contradicts indigenous experiences of seeing and depicting. Adopting the theoretical framework of conventionalism developed by Marx Wartofsky (1980) and others, the paper emphasizes and illustrates the cultural embedding of "visual practice." Following a discussion of other recent related empirical findings, the need is stressed for more detailed and systematic research on the interrelations between culture-specific pictorial traditions and corresponding viewing habits.
Article
The work of trying to understand the difficulties encountered by technology transfers to Industrially Developing Countries (IDCs) is known by the name Anthropotechnology. The many types of operating problems encountered and the methodology used are reviewed in this text. However, to date, anthropotechnology has mainly used ways to analyse cooperative work based on human sciences to explain facts observed in the field, especially Ergonomic Work Analysis. It would be advisable to try find out if the variety of social and cooperative determinants of behaviour is enough to explain the problems encountered at the time of technology transfer or if different cognitive modes could be highlighted as well. The resumption of the work of the Russian school of psychology indicates that Vygotsky's concept of historical and cultural mediators, which was banned and misunderstood for too long, throws light on the respective roles of cultural attainments and of direct confrontation, such as the handling of new technical objects. Moreover, another branch of Russian psychology, developed by Leontiev and known by the name of Activity Theory, provides an interesting and valid theoretical context for a better understanding of the cognitive resources which operators need in order to operate technical systems which are often degraded due to an unfavourable environment. The quality of the immediate working group, like that of the enlarged working community, appears vital for a better understanding of the operator's activity.
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This paper presents a schema that attempts to embrace all graphic language. The essence of the schema is shown in a matrix which presents a number of theoretical possibilities in terms of approaches to graphic language. One axis of the matrix describes the methods of configuration of graphic language, using such terms as pure linear, linear interrupted, list, linear branching, matrix, non-linear directed, non-linear open. The other axis describes the modes of symbolization of graphic language, using four somewhat crude categories: verbal/numerical, pictorial and verbal/numerical, pictorial, schematic. Numerous, examples are shown to clarify terms and the underlying concepts they describe. It is emphasized that the matrix is a device for directing thinking, rather than a means of defining graphic language.
Article
The human visual system has the ability to use the size of familiar objects as a cue to the object's depth in the world. With the advancement of Stereoscopic 3D (S3D) displays, objects can now be displayed with differing size and binocular disparity cues to the depth of the object. We tested, for absolute and relative disparity cues, whether the familiar size or disparity cue was the preferred indication of depth. We found that, when only absolute disparity cues are available, the retinal size of a familiar object has a significant effect on its perceived depth, but with relative disparity the binocular disparity was a strong enough cue to depth that size was not a significant cue in determining the depth of the familiar object.
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Development communication, that motivates rural people to action, must elicit dialogue, should motivate and help people in groups to understand the issues. Based on priciples of the flannelgraph method cheap and effective visual aids can guide the extension staff through development topics and campaigns.
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Published research employing the Hudson Test is critically examined, leading to the conclusion that differences in methods and procedures make direct comparisons of the outcome of different studies inappropriate. Some limitations of the test itself are pointed out, in particular the ignoring of chance expectations, failure to exclude the operation of response sets, and ambiguities about the scoring. Tentative generalizations emerging from previous research are summarized, and the object of the study is to verify them. A newly developed test of three‐dimensional perception is described, which also consists of pictures but requires less reliance upon verbal instructions. Samples of 60 Scottish and 60 Ghanaian primary school children in classes 2, 4 and 6 were tested with both the Hudson and the new test. While results still indicated a significant cultural difference in the performance on both tests, Ghanaian children experienced much less difficulty with the new test and the gap between them and Scottish children was relatively small as compared with the Hudson Test result. It is concluded that measured ability to perceive pictorial depth is in considerable part a function of the specific method used for assessment, and that African shortcomings with regard to this ability have probably been exaggerated in the past.
Article
People who study visual communication commonly assume that the ability to recognize the content of still or moving images requires prior familiarity with a set of representational conventions. This article argues against this notion. Drawing on recent theoretical developments regarding visual cognition, the article contends that an image's lack of fidelity to visual reality need not impede interpretation by an inexperienced viewer, so long as the image is able to satisfy certain minimal informational requirements of, real-world vision. An outline of these requirements serves as the basis for a set of predictions about inexperienced viewers’ability to make sense of a variety of representational conventions, and these predictions are checked against available empirical evidence. Since there is in fact considerable research with a bearing on the issues examined here, the article's aim is to provide a theoretical synthesis and explanation of the findings of this research.
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This review examines the use of pictograms in health care. Well designed pictograms are simple, clear, graphic symbols able to convey their intended meaning to all patients, including those who are illiterate, elderly or visually impaired. Although some research on the effectiveness of pictograms has not supported the hypothesis that pictograms are beneficial for the acquisition and comprehension of information, most studies investigating health-related applications of pictograms have shown them to be of benefit in the comprehension and recall of instructions on prescription and over-the-counter medicines. However, the success of pictograms as a communication aid in pharmacy depends first on a rigorous design process, followed by well-designed, randomised, controlled trials using an appropriate method of evaluation. The final stage is to investigate the optimal way of using pictograms in practice and to assess their effect on behavioural outcomes, such as compliance. We discuss methodological issues associated with the design process of pictograms, the evaluation of pictograms in practice, reasons for their use in pharmacy and their potential in improving medication compliance. We also report on the positive and negative aspects of various pictograms that have been developed and tested in pharmacy.
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The author elaborates his general theory of the relation between learning and human ability, with learning as a particular case of transfer. He emphasizes environmental factors in the formation of abilities, and infers that different cultural environments lead to the development of different patterns of ability. Abilities emerge through a process of differential transfer.
Article
6 school-going samples (3 white, 3 Negro) and 5 non-school-going samples (1 white, 4 Negro) were tested for 2-dimensional (2D) or 3-dimensional (3D) perception on pictures constructed to contain object size, overlap, and perspective depth cues. Non-school-going samples perceived predominantly 2D, although only 1 sample was illiterate. Dimensional perception was found to be developmental with white primary school pupils. Negro high school pupils and graduates were no better 3D performers than Standard 6 white pupils. Informal training in particular and formal schooling supplied the necessary exposure for the growth of 3D pictorial perception. Cultural isolation retarded it, even in candidates who possessed an advanced level of formal education. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
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An alternative explanation—linguistic relativity—is suggested in explanation of W. Hudson's test results regarding the ability of Bantu to perceive 3-dimensionally. The presence in Bantu languages of a class system requires the speaker to make classifications. Language, while being a product of culture, is simultaneously a screen for cognition and influences what the speaker perceives and the way in which he perceives it. The reason for the failure to perceive pictorial depth under these conditions might be that the Ss had never been required, mentally and linguistically, to perceive such matters. (20 ref.) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Article
Data from 15 societies are presented showing substantial intersocietal differences of two types in susceptibility to geometric optical illusions. The pattern of response differences suggests the existence of different habits of perceptual inference which relate to cultural and ecological factors in the visual environment.
Mental abilities in cross-cultural context. Paper presented to Department of Psychology Colloquium
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