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TARGET ARTICLE: Toward a Conceptualization of Optimal Self-Esteem
Abstract
In this article, I present a theoretical perspective on the nature of "optimal" self-esteem. One of my major goals is to show that optimal and high self-esteem are different from each other. High self-esteem can be fragile or secure depending upon the extent to which it is defensive or genuine, contingent or true, unstable or stable, and discrepant or congruent with implicit (nonconscious)feelings of self-worth. Optimal self-esteem is characterized by qualities associated with genuine, true, stable, and congruent (with implicit self-esteem) high self-esteem. A second major goal is to present a conceptualization of the construct of authenticity. I propose that authenticity as an individual difference construct may be particularly important in delineating the adaptive features of optimal self-esteem. Authenticity can be characterized as the unobstructed operation of one's true, or core, self in one's daily enterprise. I argue that authenticity has 4 components: awareness, unbiased processing, action, and relational. Initial data pertaining to these components are highly encouraging. Finally, I discuss some implications of the fragile versus secure high self-esteem distinction for narcissism, defensive processing models, and cross-cultural self-esteem perspectives.
... A theory of research known as the "trait/behavior view" describes authentic leadership in terms of "the traits and behaviors possessed by leaders." Based on optimal self-esteem theory, Kernis (2003) proposed that behavioral authenticity includes awareness of oneself, unbiased information processing, relationship authenticity, and authentic behavior. The definitions and dimensions of authentic leadership proposed by both local and international academics are based on the behavioral authenticity structure proposed by Kernis. ...
... Following Henderson and Hoy (1983), some researchers began to use measurement tools of related constructs to measure authentic leadership. Kernis (2003) proposed that authentic leadership includes four basic elements: self-esteem, balance in information processing, open and authentic relationships with subordinates, and authentic actions (Kernis, 2003). Ilies (2005) integrated the four elements of Kernis' authentic leadership and proposed dimensions such as conscious thinking, fair information processing, and actions that combine knowledge and action (Ilies, Morgeson & Nahrgang, 2005). ...
... Following Henderson and Hoy (1983), some researchers began to use measurement tools of related constructs to measure authentic leadership. Kernis (2003) proposed that authentic leadership includes four basic elements: self-esteem, balance in information processing, open and authentic relationships with subordinates, and authentic actions (Kernis, 2003). Ilies (2005) integrated the four elements of Kernis' authentic leadership and proposed dimensions such as conscious thinking, fair information processing, and actions that combine knowledge and action (Ilies, Morgeson & Nahrgang, 2005). ...
Leadership theory has always been a hot topic in global leadership research. In today's situation where moral crises, malfeasance, and slack management behaviors occur frequently, authentic leadership, as an emerging leadership style, combines the positive factors of various leadership styles and is considered to be a reflection of the regression of properties and process for eternal, true, and basic leadership. This study conducted a relatively systematic review and review of relevant domestic and foreign literature from the aspects of the concept, measurement, and mechanism of authentic leadership, in order to grasp the latest trends and lay the foundation for future related research.
... Rather, certain domains of life are more important for self-esteem (Leary et al., 1995;Pelham, 1995;Tesser, 1988). Although several psychologists have contrasted contingent and non-contingent self-esteem (Deci & Ryan, 1995;Kernis, 2003), Crocker and colleagues (Crocker & Wolfe, 2001;Crocker, Karpinski, et al., 2003; were the first to identify specific domains in the college student population. ...
... Scholars have found contingent self-worth relates to mental health in that fluctuation and instability of self-esteem is a risk factor for depression , and students who draw upon external sources of self-worth suffer from greater anxiety, depression, and suicidality (Crocker, Karpinski, et al., 2003;Lakey et al., 2014;Lopez et al., 2014). Findings suggest that staking one's sense of self-worth in external domains exacts greater costs than in internal domains due to less control and a greater likelihood of fluctuation (Kernis, 2003). For example, longitudinal research on college students has found that self-worth contingent on physical appearance predicts depressive symptoms and disordered eating (Crocker, 2002). ...
... Second, future scale development should take on these suggested changes to account for the multi-faceted nature of self-worth sources in college students. In light of recent research (Bounds et al., 2024b;Kernis, 2003;Pyszcynski et al., 2003;Sargent et al., 2006) suggesting internal sources (e.g., virtue, God, innate worth) are more likely to promote well-being, scholars and practitioners should seek to better understand which of these sources are most beneficial for personal well-being and how to shift contingent self-worth away from external and toward internal domains. We think it would be particularly helpful if researchers would continue to study the relationship between the diverse sources of college students' self-worth that we identified and mental health outcomes. ...
In light of the mental health crisis facing American college students, it has become vital to determine how students derive their self-worth. This endeavor is particularly important because research has found that internal sources of worth correlate with better mental health than self-worth derived from externally contingent sources. Although past work has identified various sources, it did not set forth a comprehensive theory of college student worth sources. Thus, this study engaged a grounded approach to begin that process. We interviewed 142 undergraduate students at eight geographically diverse, four-year institutions and asked, “What makes you feel worthwhile or valuable?” A grounded theory analysis surfaced eight distinct sources of worth ranging along a continuum from more external to more internal sources, including (a) accomplishments or accomplishing, (b) affirmation from others, (c) relationships or relationship support, (d) helping others, (e) relationship with God, (f) contributing to making a difference, (g) innate worth, and (h) virtue (outside of helping others). In addition, we found that most of these only became sources of worth when combined with particular virtues or practices. Thus, we propose a grounded typology that recognizes these nuances. We then make suggestions for how student affairs practitioners can foster internally contingent self-worth.
... It is known that there are different components of authentic leadership in the literature. For example, Kernis (2003) examines the components of authentic leadership under the headings of awareness, unbiased processing, action and relationality; Ilies et al. (2005) under self-awareness, unbiased processing, authentic behaviour/acting and authentic relationship orientation; Gardner et al. (2005) under self-awareness, balanced processing, authentic behaviour and relational transparency, and Walumbwa et al. (2008) under self-awareness, balanced processing, internalised moral perspective and relational transparency. Below are the most widely accepted explanations of Walumbwa et al. (2008) in the literature regarding the components of authentic leadership: ...
... Self-Awareness: Self-awareness, determinative of psychological health, is the awareness of one's own characteristics. In other words, self-awareness means one's understanding of their character, abilities, strengths and weaknesses (Kernis, 2003). Selfawareness, regarded as the main component of authentic leadership, enables leaders to be role models for their employees and pioneer their authentic development ). ...
... Individuals who have developed self-awareness act according to their own inner world and beliefs, not under the direction of others. In other words, the individual's awareness of their value judgements, expectations and personality traits are evaluated within the scope of this dimension (Kernis, 2003;Sparrowe, 2005). ...
This research aims to determine the trends in the studies on authentic leadership carried out between 2010 and 2022 in Türkiye. Descriptive content analysis, one of the systematic review types, was applied in the research. As a result of the reviews made based on the research criteria, 144 studies were obtained. The “Authentic Leadership Publication Classification Form” developed by the researcher was utilised as the data collection tool. Data was analysed using frequencies, percentages, tables and figures (graphs). As a result of the research, it was determined that the studies on authentic leadership were mainly single-author articles and written by male researchers. It was observed that theses on authentic leadership were mostly written at Hacettepe University and İstanbul Sabahattin Zaim University, while the articles were mostly published in the Journal of Academic Social Sciences and the Journal of Procedia-Social and Behavioural Sciences. It was determined that the highest number of studies on authentic leadership were carried out in 2019, the number of studies published in the Turkish language and the field of business administration was higher, and the most studied topics along with authentic leadership were psychological capital, organisational commitment, innovation, organisational citizenship and job satisfaction, respectively. It was also identified that the quantitative method and relational screening model were frequently applied in the research and that the participants mainly consisted of the employees of the companies and enterprises. The sampling method was not mentioned in most of the research, but the studies specifying the sampling method mostly benefited from the random and convenience sampling methods. Moreover, it was noticed that the studies were mostly conducted with varying numbers of participants, ranging from 201 to 300, using surveys and scales as the data collection tools and SPSS as the statistical software.
... Scholarly literature characterizes therapists' safety also beyond strictly attachment-related concepts such as secure self (Kohut, 1971;Steele, 2007), secure identity (Erikson, 1993;Lichtenberg, 2018), secure interpersonal boundaries (Epstein, 1994), secure sense of self-efficacy (Maddux, 2016), and secure self-esteem (Kernis, 2003). These therapists maintain higher levels of internal safety, tend to be more effective in dealing with internal or external difficulties (Epstein, 1994), and exhibit greater resilience compared to those with characteristics of fragility, insecurity, or defensiveness in the self (Kernis, 2003;Kernis et al., 2008). ...
... Scholarly literature characterizes therapists' safety also beyond strictly attachment-related concepts such as secure self (Kohut, 1971;Steele, 2007), secure identity (Erikson, 1993;Lichtenberg, 2018), secure interpersonal boundaries (Epstein, 1994), secure sense of self-efficacy (Maddux, 2016), and secure self-esteem (Kernis, 2003). These therapists maintain higher levels of internal safety, tend to be more effective in dealing with internal or external difficulties (Epstein, 1994), and exhibit greater resilience compared to those with characteristics of fragility, insecurity, or defensiveness in the self (Kernis, 2003;Kernis et al., 2008). ...
Objective
The significance of the psychotherapeutic relationship in promoting psychotherapeutic change is widely recognized. In this paper, we contribute to the relational orientation of psychotherapy through a transtheoretical exploration of safety. We aimed to identify and integrate those relational and change-promoting principles and aspects of safety that are school-independent.
Method
We conducted an overview and synthesis of the clinical-theoretical and empirical literature that we believe has significantly addressed the role of safety in regulating change-promoting therapeutic relationships.
Results
The relational and change-promoting aspects of safety form a dynamic system involving the therapist, the client, and the relationship. These interact, influence each other, and perform multiple homeostatic functions: they allow to resist change, assimilate small changes that do not disrupt the client’s way of functioning, regulate major changes that disrupt and alter the client’s way of functioning, and regulate adjustments in the way the therapist and client work together. From an integrative-relational perspective, a safe therapist is a precondition for co-creating a safe environment. This establishes trust and fosters an affective bond that provides additional sources of safety for the therapeutic relationship and the client. To promote change, however, the relational aspects of safety need to be fine-tuned (calibrated and personalized) for each therapy in terms of intensity, duration, timing, scope, and sources, accommodating developmental, individual, and situational differences. Crucially, the safety of the therapist, the client, and the relationship must be neither perfect, steady, or static, but rather safe enough, adaptive, and dynamic, leaving space not only for self-discovery and self-awareness but also for the co-regulation of tolerable frustrations, disappointments, and insecurities that facilitate the client’s resilience and adaptation.
Conclusions
Focusing on school-independent, safety-based relational principles and understanding how they evolve and adapt over time and across circumstances can make a significant contribution to the current relational orientation in psychotherapy. This has important implications for psychotherapy practice, training, and research.
... Self-esteem is a motivational, cognitive, and emotional characteristic that evaluates an individual's relationship with society and significant others from the perspective of self-concept, reflecting the beliefs and knowledge about the individual's attributes and qualities (Kernis, 2003;Liu et al., 2021;Mann et al., 2004). Individuals with high levels of self-esteem evaluate themselves positively, accept both their shortcomings and abilities, consider the positive and negative aspects of life as a whole, and take responsibility for their actions (Ab Rahman et al., 2020). ...
... Benlik saygısı, bireyin toplumla ve önemli diğer kişilerle olan ilişkilerini benlik kavramı perspektifinden değerlendiren, bireyin nitelik ve özelliklerine ilişkin inanç ve bilgilerini yansıtan motivasyonel, bilişsel ve duygusal bir özelliktir (Kernis, 2003;Liu vd., 2021;Mann vd., 2004). Benlik saygısı düzeyi yüksek olan bireyler kendilerini olumlu yönde değerlendirirler, yeteneklerinin yanı sıra eksikliklerini kabul edebilirler, yaşamda karşılaştığı olumlu ve olumsuz yönlerini bir bütün olarak ele alabilirler ve sorumluluk sahibi bireyler olabilirler (Ab Rahman vd., 2020). ...
State self-esteem focuses on the relatively short-term fluctuations in feelings of self-worth experienced by individuals. The purpose of this study was to examine the psychometric properties of the Short-Form of the State Self-Esteem Scale (SSES-S) in adult Turkish sample. The confirmatory factor analysis, internal consistency, validity, and measurement invariance of the SSES-S in the context of gender through multi-group confirmatory factor analysis (MGCFA) were evaluated with the participation of 405 adult individuals (73.33% female, mean age: 24.53 years). Finally, the test-retest reliability of the SSES-S was tested with 25 participants (88% female, mean age: 22.92 years). The confirmatory of three different factorial structures of the SSES-S was examined and the results of the CFAs showed that the 10-item, three-factor structure of the SSES-S had the best goodness-of-fit values in the Turkish sample. Reliability analyses showed that the SSES-S was within an acceptable reliability range. Convergent validity, criterion-related validity, and discriminant validity indicate that the SSES-S is a valid measurement tool. Furthermore, the findings of the MGCFA confirmed the measurement invariance of the SSES-S in the context of gender. The results confirm that the SSES-S, which consists of 10 items and three factors, is reliable and valid in the Turkish adult sample.
... Research suggests that domains vary in their impact on well-being and morality such that self-worth contingent in internal domains (i.e., virtue, God's love) is better for well-being and morality, whereas self-worth contingent in external domains (i.e., approval, competition) negatively impacts well-being and morality Crocker, 2002;Niiya et al., 2008;Sargent et al., 2006;Shubert et al., 2022). Internal domains are considered better for well-being due to the fact that they are more stable and less prone to fluctuation (Kernis, 2003;Pyszczynski et al., 2003). ...
... The present research supports the notion that internal domains of contingency are more adaptive for well-being (Kernis, 2003; This document is copyrighted by the American Psychological Association or one of its allied publishers. ...
Religion can provide people with a sense of worthiness. The present study takes a person-centered approach to identify profiles of contingent self-worth within a Christian population and describe how profiles associate with well-being and religious outcomes. In two studies (N = 941), latent profile analysis is used to identify hidden subtypes of people based on different constellations of self-worth contingent domains. Profiles are compared on distal well-being and religious outcomes. Six discriminant profiles of self-worth contingent domains differentially related to outcomes. (1) Internal-Social Contingents (high in internal and social domains) reported good well-being and highest religiosity, donated the most in a behavioral measure of generosity, and reported the greatest religious fundamentalism. (2) Internal Contingents (high only in internal domains) reported the highest well-being and moderate religiosity. (3) High Contingents (high in all domains) reported low well-being and high personal religiosity but also negative religious outcomes. (4) Medium Contingents (moderate in all domains) reported the worst well-being, moderate personal religiosity, and highest negative religious outcomes. (4) Low Contingents (low in all domains) reported moderate well-being, low personal religiosity, and moderate negative religious outcomes, and (6) External Contingents (high only in external domains) reported low well-being, lowest levels of religiosity, lowest levels of religious fundamentalism, and gave the least in a behavioral measure of generosity. Certain external domains in combination with internal domains can be beneficial for well-being, generosity, and positive religious outcomes. Profiles with moderate levels of religious contingent self-worth may be most at risk for ill-being and negative religious outcomes.
... Relational transparency refers to how transparently and truly the leaders communicate with others; it is the exposure of one's own real and genuine self in contrast to an inaccurate, biased and fake self ). By demonstrating their true self, leaders can easily gain the trust of their followers and enhance their commitment to the organization and leadership Kernis, 2009). Relationally transparent leaders do not hide anything but rather say exactly what they mean to say; realize their mistakes if committed; invite others' comments and criticism on their own decisions, actions and personality; propagate truth and possess harmony in their emotions and feelings (Bakari et al., 2017). ...
... Balanced processing, as the name suggests, is concerned with the leaders' behavior, characterized by their ability to process true and relevant information objectively before inferring any conclusion during decision-making (Walumbwa et al., 2008). This is related to transparent decision-making based on the objective analysis of data, incorporating views from all relevant quarters, inviting and welcoming opposite thoughts that may challenge their long-rooted beliefs, being impartial while processing information and avoiding exaggeration and distortion of facts Kernis, 2009). Balanced processing results in the integrity of decision-making, followers' sense of supportiveness of their leaders and followers' psychological capital (IsIlies, Morgeson & Nahrgang, 2005). ...
Abstract
Purpose
(1) This research aims to identify the relationship between authentic leadership (AL) and job engagement (JE) perceived by university teachers and (2) to investigate the relationship between AL and JE by the mediation of occupational self-efficacy (OSE).
Design/methodology/approach
This research is descriptive in nature, and thus, a quantitative research method is used to find the impact of AL on employee work engagement and the mediating role of employee trust and OSE. In this research, convenience sampling technique was used, a type of non-probability sampling method where the sample is taken from a group of people who are easily accessible. The sample chosen for this research comprised of 95 employees working at different universities in Bangladesh. Primary and secondary data collection methods are being used in this research. The data are collected from primary sources through questionnaires with close-ended questions.
Findings
The findings of this study support the previous studies Hassan and Ahmed (2011) indicate that the authentic behavior of leaders promotes healthy work environment that fosters the trust level of employees. When leaders are authentic, genuine and honest toward their employees and maintain transparency in an organization, it influences and motivates employees' work engagement. Furthermore, the results are supported by Hsieh and Wang’s (2015) research, which found that the relational transparency behavior exhibited by authentic leaders influences employees' self-efficacy (SE). When a leader openly shares ideas, opinions and clearly states what is expected from them, it will increase employees’ OSE and makes them more willing to get themselves engaged.
Research limitations/implications
The limitations of this study were the shortage of time constraints, due to which a quantitative method was adopted to gather the data. The sample size was comprised of 95 respondents and does not represent the entire population of Bangladesh. To analyze the data, we have used the convenience sampling technique, which does not cover every sector of Bangladesh. Moreover, employees were reluctant to provide accurate data. This study is based on the perspective of university teachers only and does not explore AL from supervisors’ perspectives. Further research is required to explore this relationship from the perspective of both supervisor and employee. The sample size should be increased to cover the other regions of Bangladesh in order to represent the population. Cultural variables may also be included for future research purposes to examine the relationship between AL and work engagement because the culture of an organization determines the leadership style of a leader.
Practical implications
Despite the recent attention from government universities to develop the performance of public sector teaching staff, scientific public management research is developing unfortunately restricted (Osborne, 2016). Moreover, the findings of this study depict the importance to understand the constructions like leaders' authenticity that lead to the promotion of confidence in their employees and, as such, an increase in their JE and performance. In managerial implication, this study has provided useful information to the management of the private and public sectors. With this information, the management will be able to know how to increase the engagement and commitment of employees. This research will help academic professionals in public and private sector universities to know how AL style positively influences employees’ engagement.
Originality/value
This is an original work with practical value.
... More recently, scholars such as Marsh and Craven (2006) have advocated for considering self-esteem both as a global and contextspecific construct, emphasizing the importance of examining daily fluctuations in selfesteem. According to Kernis (2003), self-esteem is a central component of individuals' daily experiences. The way people feel about themselves on a given day impacts their interactions with their environment and the people around them (Kernis, 2003). ...
... According to Kernis (2003), self-esteem is a central component of individuals' daily experiences. The way people feel about themselves on a given day impacts their interactions with their environment and the people around them (Kernis, 2003). This conceptualization of self-esteem as a dynamic relational and interactional construct can be traced back to sociometer theory (Leary et al., 1995), which posits that self-esteem acts as a gauge of social acceptance that is influenced by and responsive to contextual clues, illustrating the context-specific nature of self-esteem. ...
Latine university students represent 21.7% of the U.S. undergraduate student body, yet limited research explores their experiences with cultural stressors, self-esteem, and identity. This study examines the relationship between daily self-esteem and negative context of reception, moderated by two identity processes: normative identity style to host society and country of origin. Using multilevel models, we found that perceived negative context of reception one day predicts lower self-esteem the next day. Normative identity style to country of origin significantly moderated this relationship, exacerbating the impact, while normative style to host society showed no significant effect. These findings highlight the importance of identity processes in understanding self-esteem fluctuations among Latine students. ARTICLE HISTORY
... Relational transparency means to openly share and communicate with followers about one's true emotions, opinions and self-related aspects. Authentic leadership is based on the multidimensional concept of authenticity by Kernis (2003). The dimensions self-awareness, balanced processing of information, and relational transparency of authentic leadership correspond to the dimensions awareness, unbiased processing, and relational authenticity of Kernis' concept of authenticity (Helmuth et al., 2023). ...
... Regarding the first point, Helmuth et al. (2023) suggested that conceptualizing authentic leadership only as a positive or morally-based leadership style does not do justice to the construct. This is also emphasized, as the dimensions of authentic leadership differ from the conceptualization of the underlying construct of authenticity (Helmuth et al., 2023;Kernis, 2003). Hence, the concept of authentic leadership may be in need of a revision (Alvesson & Einola, 2023), as it could be framed in a neutral way and more strongly focused on observable (i.e., measurable) actions (Helmuth et al., 2023). ...
... Secondly, the present research did not consider other aspects of self-esteem such as contingent self-esteem, which is considered to be a less healthy and unstable form of self-esteem dependent upon extrinsic factors such as success and approval (Kernis, 2003). Previous studies have found evidence to suggest that both perfectionistic strivings and perfectionistic concerns are linked with higher levels of contingent selfesteem Sturman et al., 2009), though certain indicators of perfectionistic strivings-such as pure personal standards (DiBartolo et al., 2004)-have shown non-significant relationships with contingent self-esteem (Sturman et al., 2009). ...
Previous research into two forms of perfectionism known as perfectionistic concerns and perfectionistic strivings suggests that while perfectionistic concerns are associated with lower levels of self-esteem, perfectionistic strivings are associated with higher levels of self-esteem. However, the factors that explain why these two forms of perfectionism differ in their relationships to self-esteem remain unclear. The present research—involving two studies—used a self-determination theory perspective to investigate the possibility that three basic psychological needs for competence, autonomy, and relatedness explain the relationships between the two forms of perfectionism and self-esteem. In Study 1 (N = 255) perfectionistic strivings were associated with higher levels of needs satisfaction and lower levels of needs frustration, while perfectionistic concerns were associated with lower levels of needs satisfaction and higher levels of needs frustration. In Study 2 (N = 260) needs satisfaction mediated the positive association between perfectionistic strivings and self-esteem, and needs frustration mediated the negative association between perfectionistic concerns and self-esteem. Taken together, these findings suggest that the basic psychological needs for competence, autonomy, and relatedness play an important role in explaining why some forms of perfectionism are beneficial to self-esteem and some forms of perfectionism are harmful to self-esteem.
... Authentic behaviour means that leaders possess social sensitivity regarding the ways to express themselves in various situations and understanding the impact their actions can have on other people (Ilies et al., 2005;Kernis, 2003). However, leaders also differ in how openly they express their thoughts and how much they monitor and control their actions in social situations (Ilies et al., 2005). ...
This study focused on Finnish leaders who participated in a training program called “Positive Leadership Training”. The purpose of this study was to enhance the general understanding regarding the emergence of positive leadership in leaders, as they themselves described. A narrative research approach was chosen, and the data were collected from leaders’ diaries (N = 12) that they maintained and updated during the training program. The analysis of narratives and narrative analysis were conducted. The analysis of the narratives was divided into four categories, each representing the way leaders described the emergence and development of their positive leadership. While some leaders described strong empowerment, others seemed to be searching for their own identities as positive leaders. Furthermore, leaders also described positive leadership in terms of action, and deliberation and courage were the core categories in their leadership narratives. The narrative analysis revealed the following four leadership types: humane thinker, enthusiastic developer, courageous experimentalist, and identity worker, typifying the variations between empowered and emerging leadership narratives and between prudence and the active execution of leadership. The results highlighted the role of authenticity in leadership development and the benefits of positive leadership training for leaders with different backgrounds.
... Specifically, if a person perceives themselves positively, with high self-esteem and a good opinion of themselves, they are more likely to perceive meaning in life [55] and consequently experience psychological well-being. Conversely, if a person has low self-esteem and a negative view of themselves, they are more likely to experience distress, which affects their pursuit of long-term goals [85,86]. Considering our results, self-satisfaction, more than the other two factors, may require adaptation towards the limitations imposed by the disability and positive self-perception. ...
Following Wright’s theory, the process of acceptance of disability helps persons with an acquired disability to change their attitudes toward it. Consequently, a sense of self-satisfaction was developed, a de-emphasis on disability salience was placed, and compensatory behavioral qualities were acquired. Together, these factors promote an individual’s adjustment according to disability-related strengths and difficulties. Our cross-sectional study examines how acceptance of disability influences flourishing, characterized by high well-being and low distress. Due to the exploratory nature of the study, two research questions were formulated: Would each factor of acceptance of disability positively predict each dimension of well-being? (RQ1); Would each factor of acceptance of disability negatively predict distress? (RQ2). Additionally, we considered gender effects. 107 Italian adults with acquired physical disabilities [Myear (SD) = 48.12 (14.87)] filled out an e-survey. Measures of acceptance of disability, well-being, and distress were used. The results indicate that self-satisfaction is a key predictor of flourishing while de-emphasizing disability salience only predicts purpose in life. Compensatory behavioral qualities predicted personal growth, positive relationships, life purposes, and self-acceptance. Gender did not significantly affect outcomes. Despite being preliminary, these initial results support the acceptance of disability as a personal resource for promoting flourishing. They suggest the potential for interventions to help individuals with disabilities process grief and accept their new self-representation.
... Amaç: Kişinin kendisini olduğu gibi ve özgür bir şekilde ortaya koyması olarak ifade edilen (Kernis, 2003) otantik davranış, kişinin gerçek benliğiyle uyumlu bir şekilde yaşama ve davranma yetisidir. Kişinin değerlerine, inançlarına, duygularına ve kendi kimliğine sahip çıkması anlamına gelmektedir (Kernis & Goldman, 2006). ...
... First, self-compassion is an individual's emotional response to their own attitudes, which involves the adoption of coping mechanisms to alleviate one's suffering (Strauss et al., 2016). In contrast, self-esteem is concerned with cognitive evaluations of the self, and does not inherently contain any coping strategies (Kernis, 2003). Secondly, self-esteem is often built on the feeling of being unique and standing out among others. ...
Although previous studies have shown that self-compassion is associated with self-esteem and depressive symptoms, little is known about the intra-individual processes and the temporal dynamics of these variables. This study used a longitudinal design to explore the association between self-compassion, self-esteem and depressive symptoms among 5785 college students (aged 17–22 years; Mage = 18.63, SD = 0.88; 48.2% females). The participants were assessed six times in a six-month interval over three years. The random intercept cross-lagged panel models (RI-CLPMs) were used to disentangle within-person processes from stable between-person differences. Results of RI-CLPMs indicated that at the within-person level, self-compassion can positively predict subsequent self-esteem and negatively predict subsequent depressive symptoms, and vice versa. Self-esteem played a longitudinal mediating role in the prediction from self-compassion to depressive symptoms at the within-person level. These results indicate that cultivating self-compassion in college students is crucial as it can bolster their self-esteem and alleviate depressive symptoms.
... SMCSE derives from perspectives on authenticity of the self (Deci & Ryan, 1995;Hodgins & Knee, 2002;Kernis, 2003). Based on these theories, contingent self-esteem emerges when basic psychological needs for autonomy, competence, and relatedness are frustrated (rather than supported) by one's social environment. ...
How social media influences users depends largely on motivations for its use and how the user interprets social media-facilitated interactions. Contingent self-esteem, a construct rooted in self-determination theory (Deci & Ryan, 2000), can account for differential effects, including addictive use. Three preregistered studies (ntotal = 822) derived social media contingent self-esteem (SMCSE) and examined the factor structure and associations with social media use, addiction, and disorder criteria. Study 1 (N = 412) analyzed exploratory and confirmatory factors. Study 2 (N = 230) examined associations with other domains of contingent self-esteem, basic psychological needs satisfaction and frustration, and measures of social media use and addiction. Study 3 (N = 192) examined associations between SMCSE, identity bubble reinforcement (echo chambers), and social media outcomes. SMCSE was associated with greater social media use and intensity, identity bubble reinforcement, social media addiction, and disorder criteria. Exploratory support was found for mediation models in which identity bubble reinforcement predicted greater SMCSE, which in turn predicted a greater likelihood of social media addiction and disorder.
... Perfectionism not only exhibits significant associations with well-being but also plays a role in influencing self-esteem and self-worth. According to Kernis (2003), Explicit selfesteem is frequently described as one's conscious emotions of self-liking, self-value, and selfacceptance. ...
This study aimed to investigate the impact of perfectionism on first-year students' Academic English learning experiences at KIMEP University. Employing qualitative methods, including a Google Form survey with 53 participants and five online interviews, it examined the relationship between perfectionism and students' learning journey. The findings revealed a dual nature of perfectionism: while it fosters discipline and grammatical accuracy, it also leads to negative consequences such as procrastination and self-criticism. Despite its positive correlation with academic achievements like class participation and GPA maintenance, perfectionism also poses challenges like demotivation, procrastination, and mental health issues such as anxiety and eating disorders. Furthermore, the study revealed that procrastination emerges as a significant issue linked to perfectionism, negatively affecting work quality and motivation. However, students tend to overlook its detrimental effects on language learning and class participation.
The study also addressed the need to enhance support systems at KIMEP University by increasing awareness of available campus resources. Results indicated that many students are unaware or uncertain about these services, with privacy concerns hindering their utilization. Students emphasize the value of professor encouragement and advocate for mentorship programs. By increasing awareness and accessibility of support resources, the university can create a more conducive learning environment that addresses the challenges associated with perfectionism among first-year students.
... According to the conceptualization of Walumbwa et al. (2008), authentic leadership is a higher-order construct that comprises self-awareness, relational transparency, internalized moral perspective, and balanced processing. Self-awareness refers to the degree to which a person makes sense of the world and is aware of his or her strengths as well as weaknesses (Kernis, 2003;Rego et al., 2012;Walumbwa et al., 2008). According to Rego et al. (2012), relational transparency is ''the degree to which the leader presents his/her authentic self (as opposed to a false or distorted self) to others, open shares information, and expresses his/her true thoughts and feelings, reinforcing a level openness with others that provides them with an opportunity to be forthcoming with their ideas, challenges, and opinions'' (p. ...
The influential roles of supervisor’s leadership in the context of a small store are not studied and it is unclear how it affects the attitudinal and behavioral outcomes of frontline service employees. Drawing on the social exchange theory, the purpose of this study is three folds. First, this study aims to examine the role of supervisors’ authentic leadership and supervisor ostracism on frontline service employees’ perceived supervisor trust. Second, this study investigates the effects of frontline service employees’ perceived supervisor trust on commitment to customer services and store affective commitment. Finally, the positive role of store affective commitment on frontline service employees’ commitment to customer services is examined. A survey-based was used to collect 203 responses from frontline service employees of coffee shops in Korea. Covariance-based structural equation modeling (CB-SEM) was conducted to test the hypotheses. The results indicated that a supervisor’s authentic leadership is positively whereas supervisor ostracism is negatively associated with supervisor trust. Similarly, supervisor trust has a significant positive effect on the frontline service employee’s commitment to customer services and store affective commitment. Finally, frontline service employees’ store affective commitment has a significant positive effect on the commitment to customer services. This research offers practical implications for managers of frontline service employees, particularly in the selection, training, promotion, and socialization process of supervisors of small stores in general and in coffee shops in particular. Practitioners interested to increase frontline service employees’ commitment to customer services and store affective commitment can leverage the findings of this study.
... One's value does not depend on one's accomplishments or even characteristics, but is derived from the simple fact of being a sentient being. Such an attitude is strongly related to concepts such as true, noncontingent self-esteem (Deci & Ryan, 1995;Kernis, 2003) and self-compassion (Neff, 2003;Neff & Vonk, 2009). In our studies, this dimension may have partly been reflected by the constructs of self-esteem and possibly also the construct of refusal insofar it reflects self-compassionate self-care. ...
Objectives
Mindfulness meditation has been claimed to decrease aspects of egoic functioning (EF). However, empirical evidence is largely lacking or is suggesting the reverse. Therefore, the aim was to examine the associations between mindfulness, mindfulness interventions, egoic functioning, and emotional well-being using different designs.
Method
We conducted three studies: (i) a cross-sectional study in the general population (n = 796), (ii) an experiment in a student population (n = 84) where we manipulated mindfulness meditation, and (iii) an intervention in self-enrolled individuals from the general population receiving a standard 8-week Mindfulness-Based Stress Reduction (MBSR) program (n = 165).
Results
In the cross-sectional study, most mindfulness facets showed positive (mainly with self-enhancement) or nonsignificant associations with facets of EF. In the experiment, participants in the mindfulness meditation (vs. control) condition exhibited lower self-enhancement of positive characteristics. In the intervention, some aspects of EF decreased (e.g. demanding control), whereas some increased (e.g. refusal to comply) after MBSR, and these changes correlated meaningfully with changes in self-reported mindfulness and well-being.
Conclusions
The results suggest that aspects of EF are differentially associated with aspects of self-reported mindfulness and differentially respond to a brief mindfulness manipulation and an 8-week MBSR intervention. We formulated two dimensions on which various relevant self-concept constructs may be positioned: competition-based versus compassion-based.
Preregistration
The studies are not preregistered.
... S elf-esteem is a person's comprehensive evaluation of their worth. It is widely recognized as a relatively stable trait consisting of both motivational and cognitive components (Kernis, 2003). Despite its perceived stability, self-esteem is inherently dynamic and subject to fluctuations, which reflect changes in an individual's underlying self-esteem level (Rosenberg, 1986). ...
Self-esteem plays a crucial role in the psychological development of college students. Based on four-wave longitudinal data, this study empirically investigated the longitudinal trajectories of self-esteem, related predictors, and the impact on depression in a sample of Chinese college students. Piecewise growth mixture modeling was utilized to identify potential self-esteem trajectories. Furthermore, multinomial logistic regression models were employed along with the Kruskal‒Wallis test to analyze the factors that influence self-esteem development trajectories and assess variations in depression. The results showed that college students’ self-esteem trajectories can be divided into three categories: slowly decreasing (81.04%), rising then falling (16.94%), and falling then rising (2.02%). Various personal factors (e.g. ethnicity, family residence, self-reported health status, extroversion) and socioeconomic factors (e.g. closeness with classmates, family economic level, family social status, and the mother’s educational level) can influence the classification of students’ self-esteem development trajectories. Moreover, notable differences in depression were observed among students in different self-esteem trajectory groups. The results emphasize the imperative of implementing interventions to enhance self-esteem among college students.
Leader exemplification involves implicit and explicit claims of high moral values made by a leader. We employed a 2 × 3 experimental design with samples of 265 students in Study 1 and 142 working adults in Study 2 to examine the effects of leader exemplification (exemplification versus no exemplification) and ethical conduct (self-serving, self-sacrificial, and self-other focus) on perceived leader authenticity, trust in leader, and organizational advocacy. In Study 1, we found that exemplification produced elevated levels of perceived authenticity, trust, and advocacy in the form of employment and investment recommendations. We also showed that leader ethical conduct moderated this effect, as ratings were highest following a leader’s self-sacrificial conduct, lowest for self-serving conduct, and moderate for conduct reflecting self-other concerns. In Study 2, we replicated these findings for perceived authenticity and trust, but not organizational advocacy, which yielded mixed results. The leadership implications and future research directions are discussed.
This research examines the impact of divestiture socialization on the well-being, authenticity, and work creativity of newcomer frontline employees. It is proposed that authenticity will mediate the effect of divestiture socialization on well-being and creativity while self-monitoring personality’s two dimensions of “other directedness” and “public performance” differently moderate the influence of divestiture socialization. “Public performance” can buffer the negative impact of divestiture socialization on authenticity, while “other directedness” can exacerbate the negative impact. The indirect effects of divestiture socialization on employees’ well-being and creativity through the expression of authenticity are also proposed to be moderated by the effects of self-monitoring dimensions. The study sample includes 217 newcomer frontline employees working in hospitality firms in the United Arab Emirates (UAE). A time-lagged research design is used to collect the data. The moderated mediation analyses support the proposed relationships. Theoretical and practical implications of the findings are discussed.
Despite its popularity, authentic leadership remains enigmatic, with both advantages and disadvantages. The connection between authenticity (an internal process) and leadership (an external influence process) is complex. We introduce a theory that connects these processes through self-regulation, suggesting that authenticity results from managing multiple identities regulated by factors such as active self-identity. Using ironic processes theory, we propose a model that encourages leaders to focus on their active self rather than suppressing misaligned aspects. We present authenticity as a dynamic process, adaptable across individual, relational, and collective levels, with self-identity shifting contextually. This perspective offers insights into developing leader authenticity, addresses the limitations of the authentic leadership approach, and provides a roadmap for future research.
Scholarly and practitioner interest in authentic leadership has grown at an accelerating rate over the last decade, resulting in a proliferation of publications across diverse social science disciplines. Accompanying this interest has been criticism of authentic leadership theory and the methods used to explore it. We conducted a systematic review of 303 scholarly articles published from 2010 to 2023 to critically assess the conceptual and empirical strengths and limitations of this literature and map the nomological network of the authentic leadership construct. Results indicate that much of the extant research does not follow best practices in terms of research design and analysis. Based on the findings obtained, an agenda for advancing authentic leadership theory and research that embraces a signaling theory perspective is proposed.
Introduction and aim Periodontal disease, initiated by dental biofilm and influenced by various local and systemic factors, includes stress as a potential contributor to its progression. Despite associations with severe forms like acute necrotizing ulcerative gingivitis, a comprehensive large-sample study linking stress to periodontal disease is lacking. This study aims to investigate the relationship between mental health and periodontal disease. Materials and Methods Leveraging data (secondary dataset) from the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES) from 2011–2012 and NHANES 2013–2014 cycles, relevant information was extracted. Mental health was the exposure variable, and periodontal disease, assessed through indices following Eke et al.’s definition, served as the outcome. Covariates (demographical characteristics) impacting periodontal disease were considered, and disease status analyses employed the Rao-Scott chi-squared test. A logistic regression model assessed mental health’s impact on periodontal disease. Results Among the 2764 Participants, more than a quarter (29.1%) were aged over 60 years, 52% were females. Logistic regression indicated higher odds of periodontal disease among individuals feeling bad about themselves for more than half of the day (OR 1.170, 95% CI 0.533-2.474), though statistical significance was not reached. Periodontitis prevalence significantly varied based on marital status, with 6.6% of married and 10.8% of unmarried Participants affected. Notably, a statistically significant difference in periodontitis prevalence existed between Participants with health insurance (8.3%) and those without (16.5%). Conclusion Our findings suggest trends in periodontal disease prevalence linked to mental health, marital status, and access to health insurance. However, the absence of statistically significant findings calls for caution in interpreting these relationships. We recommend that future studies further investigate these potential associations to provide a clearer understanding.
As the number of publications demonstrating the benefits and risks of being authentic at work grows, so does the variety of interpretations of what it means to be authentic—and with it increasing inconsistencies and contradictions in conceptualizations of authenticity and its outcomes. We propose that the reasons for these inconsistencies stem from differing underlying assumptions on what authenticity is and thus what it means to be “true to self”. To better understand these differences, we conducted a systematic review of authenticity constructs in organization science, concentrating on the divergence among definitions and underlying theoretical assumptions of authenticity constructs. We identified two dimensions underlying authenticity constructs’ assumptions. First, constructs differed in whether the self was oriented more toward independence (emphasis on the self as distinct from others) or toward interdependence (self as relationally oriented). Second, constructs ranged in their perspectives on the self as fixed (self as stable) to more malleable (self as changing). In this review, we delineate the different ways of “staying true to one’s self” at work and show the inherent complexities in the process of being authentic in the workplace, explaining how these differences may lead to seemingly contradictory work-related outcomes of authenticity.
This study utilized piecewise linear growth mixture analysis to examine the developmental heterogeneity of school burnout among a sample of 513 (67.6% females) Finnish students as they transitioned from upper secondary school to higher education (ages 17-25 years). Encompassing five measurement points (two before the transition and three after), our results revealed four distinct burnout trajectory profiles, including (a) High and Decreasing (Profile 1), (b) Moderate and Decreasing (Profile 2), (c) Low and Increasing (Profile 3), and (d) Low and Stable (Profile 4). High initial levels of self-esteem and mastery-extrinsic goals served as personal resources and high-performance goals served as personal risk factors, making students more likely to belong to more (i.e., Profile 4) or less (e.g., Profile 1) adaptive profiles of burnout trajectories, respectively. Profile 4 displayed the lowest and most stable levels of burnout, thus protecting students from adverse outcomes like school dropout, underachievement, and substance use. Conversely, Profile 1 displayed the highest and least stable levels of burnout and was associated with higher risk of burnout, lower academic achievement, greater alcohol use and problems, and higher drug use relative to the other trajectory profiles. Together, these findings offer novel person-centered, longitudinal insight into the developmental heterogeneity of burnout across the transition to higher education and lend support for the self-equilibrium hypothesis in the context of school burnout. Importantly, our results underscore the importance of early intervention efforts aimed at increasing mastery goals and self-esteem to prevent burnout and its associated consequences.
There is a wide range of leadership approaches, and it is important to measure the types and impact of leadership in nursing. This study aimed to adapt the Authentic Leadership Questionnaire and test its suitability in the Turkish nursing context. Employing a two‐phase cross‐cultural research design in accordance with STROBE guidelines, language adaptation was conducted following ISPOR guidelines. Subsequently, data were collected from a sample of 382 nurses across three hospitals in İzmir, Turkey. The confirmatory factor analysis confirmed the four sub‐scale structures and indices revealed an adequate fit. The content validity index score was 0.97 for the questionnaire and greater than 0.80 for its items, demonstrating excellent validity. The intraclass correlation coefficient obtained was 0.80, indicating a good level of reliability. The findings confirm the questionnaire has the potential to determine the extent and impact of authentic leadership being practiced in hospital settings. It could be used in a range of hospital settings to ensure that accurate evidence concerning authentic leadership is gathered and used to inform the further development of nursing leadership more widely.
Objective. Psychometric validation of the Russian-language short version of the Authenticity in Relationships Scale (AIRS), which allows you to assess the degree of authenticity in various contexts: partners, parents, friends and colleagues.
Background. The basis of close relationships as an absolute value for different cultures is honest self-presentation, which contributes to a person’s psychological well-being and increases satisfaction with communication. Authentic relationships include unacceptability of deception and intimate risk taking. In authentic relationships, there should be no desire to produce and maintain ideas about oneself and one’s partner that do not correspond to reality. They also imply a desire for more open, close communication, i.e., revealing one’s real self to another person. To measure this quality, the Authenticity in Relationships Scale was developed in the USA and GB, which has not yet been subjected to systematic psychometric testing, although there are no analogues to this instrument in Russia, which determined the relevance of this study. Study design. Standard psychometric validation of the methodology was carried out for each of the four contexts: partners, parents, friends, colleagues. The Cronbach coefficient alpha was analyzed on the full sample of respondents; half of the respondents’ answers were selected for exploratory factor analysis, the other half for confirmatory factor analysis.
Participants. The study involved 449 respondents aged 18 to 60 years (10% male, 90% female; average age – 27 years (min = 17, max = 60)). The study participants are Russian–speaking citizens of the Russian Federation, representatives of different professions.
Measurements. The main method was a short version of the Authenticity in Relationships Scale, which included 10 statements for each context. Data were collected online using the 1ka.si service. Jamovi (v. 2.3.21.0) was used for data processing.
Results. The scale is applicable only to the context of a romantic relationship. For other contexts, the original model has not been confirmed.
Conclusions. The methodology can be applied in research and in psychological counseling to study the authenticity level of romantic relationships. The scale's applicability to other social contexts requires further testing.
Цель. Психометрическая проверка русскоязычной краткой версии Шкалы аутентичности в отношениях (ШАО), позволяющей оценить степень аутентичности в различных контекстах: с партнерами, родителями, друзьями и коллегами.
Контекст и актуальность. Основой близких отношений как абсолютной ценности для разных культур является честное самопредъявление, которое способствует психологическому благополучию человека и повышает удовлетворенность общением. Аутентичные отношения включают неприемлемость лжи и обмана, а также принятие рисков интимности. Так, в аутентичных отношениях не должно быть стремления продуцировать и поддерживать несоответствующие реальности представления о себе и о своем партнере. Они также предполагают желание более открытого, близкого общения, то есть раскрытия своего настоящего Я другому человеку. Для измерения этого качества в США и Великобритании разработана краткая версия Шкалы аутентичности в отношениях, которая до сих пор не была подвергнута систематической психометрической проверке, хотя аналогов этому инструменту в России не существует, что и обусловило актуальность данного исследования.
Дизайн исследования. Проводилась стандартная психометрическая проверка методики для каждого из четырех контекстов. Анализ надежности проводился на полной выборке респондентов, половина ответов респондентов была выбрана для эксплораторного факторного анализа, другая половина – для конфирматорного.
Участники. В исследовании приняли участие 449 респондентов в возрасте от 18 до 60 лет (10% мужского пола, 90% женского пола; средний возраст – 27 лет (min = 17, max = 60)). Участники исследования – русскоязычные граждане Российской Федерации, представители разных профессий. Методы (инструменты). Основным методом была краткая версия Шкалы аутентичности в отношениях, включающая 10 утверждений для каждого из контекстов. Данные собирались онлайн при помощи сервиса 1ka.si. Программа Jamovi (v. 2.3.21.0) применялась для обработки данных. Результаты. Шкала оказалась применима только к контексту романтических отношений. Для других контекстов исходная модель не подтвердилась.
Основные выводы. Методика может быть использована в научных исследованиях и в психологическом консультировании для измерения аутентичности романтических отношений. Возможность использования шкалы применительно к другим социальным контекстам требует дополнительной проверки.
The aim of this study was to develop the Brief Implicit Association Test for Autonomous Self-Esteem for Lower Grade Children (IAT-ASE-LGC) using emoticon stimuli and examine the reliability and validity. The test was a paper-and-pencil version that is applicable to groups of children. Participants were 2nd-grade (in Study 1) and 1st-grade (in Study 2) elementary school children. The reliability was examined in terms of a test-retest method utilizing Pearson’s correlations. Home-room teachers assessed their children’s behaviors to examine the criteria-related validity. The results showed moderate levels of positive correlations (r＝.68 in Study 1; r＝.70 in Study 2) in the test-retest reliability. Moreover, children with higher scores of the IAT-ASE-LGC were evaluated as having characteristics of higher autonomous self-esteem in terms of behaviors depicting autonomous and heteronomous self-esteem. These results illustrated the validity of the IAT-ASE-LGC. Taken together, these finding revealed that the IAT-ASE-LGC was developed as a reliable and valid test. Limitations and future perspectives were discussed.
Social entrepreneurship (SE) demand has increased globally, highlighting the importance of understanding the activities and processes involved to enhance entrepreneurial awareness and social well-being. This study examines the experience of a social entrepreneur in Japan who manages twin parenting and transportation, aiming to clarify the development of social entrepreneurial competency. The entrepreneur’s eight-year state-up experience was shared through a book in 2022, a narrative lecture observed in November 2023, and interviews conducted in April and May 2024. These data were analyzed using Trajectory Equifinality Modeling (TEM). Throughout the creation of a bicycle for parents of twins, the entrepreneur faced conflicts with a partner during the prototype development and created a community for parents of twins through SNS and face-to-face events. The effectuation in these processes considers the essence of who you are, what you know, and whom you know. The entrepreneur focused on affordable loss, partnership creation, and maintaining flexibility despite unexpected challenges. She overcame these issues by studying social welfare at a university and business at community learning schools. Twin bicycles are a tool not only for transportation, but also for life. They are a symbol of an open-free mind given the constraints of society and are joyful in their own warm place for twin children, parents, and their communities.
The aim of our study is to investigate the mediating role of self-compassion in the relationship between authenticity and alexithymia by examining the relationships between authenticity, alexithymia and self-compassion. The data collected via email by using three scales from the students of a foundation university in Istanbul/Turkey in the spring semester of 2022–2023. The data collection method was a descriptive cross-sectional study and the data were collected on a voluntary basis. Since it was thought that there would be a difference between the departments, data were collected from three different departments. The sample included 263 participants, 139 were English Language Teaching, 107 were Guidance and Psychological Counseling, and 17 were Elementary Mathematics Teaching students. The average age of the participants was 22.11 ± 3.59, 257 of them were single and 6 of them were married. The data were evaluated by using the SPSS 22.0 and LISREL 8.80 programs. While descriptive analyses were used in the evaluation, the mediating role of self-compassion in the relationship between authenticity and alexithymia was tested with Structural Equation Modeling. When the measurement model was examined, it was seen that there was a relationship between authenticity and alexithymia (r = −.40; p < .000), between self-compassion and alexithymia (r = − .85; p < .001) and between self-compassion and authenticity (r = .43; p < .001). When the structural equation model was examined, it was found that the relationship between authenticity and alexithymia in the measurement model (r = −.40) decreased to (β = − .05; p > .005) when the mediating role of self-compassion was examined and the relationship was found to be insignificant. When this path was removed from the model and the model was re-examined, the goodness of fit values of the model were χ2/df (71.12/51) ratio = 1.174; RMSEA = .039; SRMR = .050; CFI= .99; NFI = .96; NNFI = .98; IFI = .99; RFI = .95 and GFI = .96. In the study, it was found that self-compassion has a full mediating role in the relationship between authenticity and alexithymia in three departments. The relationship between authenticity and alexithymia goes through self-compassion.
Background : Pickleball has grown tremendously in recent years, yet little evidence exists regarding pickleball-related injuries. This scoping review extends current work on pickleball participation by identifying positive and negative health effects associated with the sport. We summarize how pickleball impacts the health and well-being of adult participants. Methods : Searches were conducted on MEDLINE, CINAHL, ProQuest Nursing, ERIC, SPORTDiscus, PsycINFO, Scopus, CBCA Complete, Cochrane Central Register of Controlled Trials, Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews, and ProQuest Dissertations and Theses. Selected studies considered aspects of health and/or well-being of adult pickleball participants. Using the population/concept/context framework, participants were healthy, able-bodied adults 18 years of age or over, who had played pickleball at least once. The positive and negative outcomes of pickleball on participants’ health and well-being (concept) within the context of pickleball participation were examined. Full-text articles written in English since 2013 were included. Extracted data were tabulated, and a descriptive summary with thematic analysis was completed. Results : This scoping review comprised 27 articles that met the inclusion criteria. Pickleball is promising as an exercise intervention for all adults, and there is evidence of positive social and psychological effects, and health and fitness benefits to participating in pickleball by older adults. Conclusions : Although we are still in the early stages of studying pickleball, there have been some documented health benefits of using the sport as a physical exercise intervention for adults. More research is needed on the types, prevalence, and severity of pickleball injuries and the sport’s impact on younger players.
L’accélération du télétravail due à la Covid-19 érige la transformation digitale en exigence pour la survie de la PME. D’où la nécessité d’un leadership authentique. Toutefois, l’adoption de la technologie étant sujette à des influences culturelles, cet article a analysé l’influence de la culture nationale sur la relation leadership authentique-transformation digitale via le modèle d’adoption technologique de Bass. Notre méthodologie a reposé sur une analyse systématique de la littérature. Nos résultats ont montré que, le respect de la parole donnée et l’entraide-solidarité sont dans une culture collectiviste des leviers à mobiliser par le leadership authentique dans sa stratégie digitale. À l’opposé, le conformisme est à proscrire. Cependant, le mythe du chef et le culte du secret, aux influences mitigées, doivent être traités sainement au risque de conduire la transformation digitale à l’échec et l’entreprise au déclin.
This research aims to discover the nature of the impact of authentic leadership on the acceptance of authority, for a sample of workers in the healthcare field. A total of 80 questionnaires were distributed, 72 of which were valid for analysis, and 8 were invalid, resulting in a response rate of 90%. Authentic leadership was expressed as an independent variable through four dimensions: self-awareness, internalized moral perspective, transparent relationships, and balanced processing, based on the scale developed by Avolio et al. (2007). Meanwhile, the acceptance of authority was expressed as a dependent variable through five dimensions: legitimacy of authority, effectiveness of authority, fairness and justice, compliance and obedience, respect, and interpersonal trust, based on the scale by Rigby (1986), with some modifications to suit the Iraqi social environment. Several measurement tools were used in the practical aspect, relying on the Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS) program to calculate means, standard deviations, linear regression analysis, and correlation, in addition to using the T-test. The research concluded with several findings, the most important of which was that the level of authentic leadership among the officials in the studied organization was moderate according to the opinions of the research sample members. The research also presented several recommendations, the most important of which was the necessity of enhancing all dimensions of authentic leadership in organizations due to its significant role in creating sound administrative leadership, fostering a positive and constructive work environment that ensures an integrated organizational unit.
L’apparence physique est l’un des premiers critères de discrimination en France. Pourtant, peu de travaux s’intéressent à la discrimination et l’inclusion des personnes tatouées en France, contrairement à la littérature anglo-saxonne. Face à cette absence de littérature, nous avons cherché à comprendre de quelle manière le tatouage, en tant que composante manipulable de l’apparence physique, est accepté dans le monde du travail en France. Notre étude exploratoire qualitative auprès de personnes tatouées et de recruteurs montre que les personnes tatouées cachent majoritairement leurs tatouages de peur des préjugés sociaux et de leurs conséquences. Le discours des recruteurs, par effet miroir, montre que le tatouage n’est pas un problème. tant qu’il ne se voit pas. Cette dialogique entre le visible et l’invisible crée un conflit entre le soi interne et le soi externe. Ceci amène les personnes tatouées à adopter une authenticité que nous qualifions d’entravée et questionne le fait d’être authentiquement soi au travail avec des conséquences sur l’engagement et le bien-être au travail de ces personnes. Cela constitue une discrimination discrète mais réelle à leur encontre, révélatrice de dissonances entre les discours et les pratiques d’inclusion des organisations. En conséquence, il apparait nécessaire pour les organisations d’intégrer le tatouage dans leurs politiques d’inclusion et de réfléchir aux composantes et aux limites de l’authenticité de soi au travail pour être véritablement inclusives. Les recherches sur l’inclusion doivent également à l’avenir mieux intégrer la dimension de l’apparence physique et celle du tatouage.
Purpose
Using a sample of about 323 Italian companies and 423 managers from July 2020–March 2021, the work tests hypotheses on reliability of The Open MOOd Questionnaire. Data collected are analyzed by a psychometric model and a latent trait is found. Results are verified and validated. Moreover, external robustness is assured by comparing the Rasch Analysis results with other statistical methods.
Design/methodology/approach
The purpose of this paper is to measure the level of openness of managers through the Open MOOd Questionnaire. Which aspects allow us to identify different management styles, and if the “openness” characterizes specific clusters of managers.
Findings
The study shows that the openness attitude in the professional activity of the managers is very high. The Open MOOd Questionnaire can be improved by considering some dichotomic items.
Practical implications
The study highlights the model proposed identifies the Open Manager’s competencies, and identifies teaching methods for their development.
Originality/value
The authors propose a new model to study openness. Diagnostic tools of consolidated statistical methods show that the Open MOOd Questionnaire is an effective tool to evaluate the openness.
Objective
This study aimed to investigate the relationships between childhood maltreatment, shame, and self-esteem among juvenile female offenders and to explore the potential influencing factors on their criminal behavior.
Methods
Using a stratified cluster sampling method, 1,227 juvenile female offenders from 11 provinces in China were surveyed using the Childhood Trauma Questionnaire (CTQ), Self-Esteem Scale (SES), and a self-developed Shame Questionnaire for Juvenile Offenders. Data were analyzed using descriptive statistics, correlation analysis, chi-square tests, t-tests, and structural equation modeling with mediation analysis.
Results
(1) Childhood maltreatment have a significant potential influencing factors on criminal behavior; (2) Childhood maltreatment was positively correlated with self-esteem(β = 0.351, p < 0.001); (3) shame (β = 0.042, p < 0.001) mediate the relationship between Childhood maltreatment and self-esteem (childhood maltreatment → shame → self-esteem (95% Cl: 0.033, 0.052)).
Conclusion
This study demonstrates that childhood maltreatment is a significant predictor of criminal behavior among juvenile female offenders. childhood maltreatment can directly influence of self-esteem, which can also affect juvenile female offenders’self-esteem indirectly through shame. The findings suggest that shame are important variables that mediate the effect of the juvenile female offenders’childhood maltreatment on their self-esteem.
Singapore’s Ministry of Social and Family Development’s definition of “persons with disability” are those with physical and mental impairments, therefore resulting in reduced opportunities towards a higher quality of life in terms of education, employment, and recreation (MSF, 2023). This identification of a disability is rooted on the affliction rather than the person. Mental health approaches have traditionally followed a linear deficit approach pathway as well, with the prescription that the termination of problems would in default result in a healthy state of mental health (Torres, 2021) and past policies and efforts were made to mitigate the affliction, in the view that the quality of life will improve in the absence of mental illness or the reduction of disability. Therefore, such endeavours on rehabilitation thrusts need to be revisited and revised, to accommodate the broader context children with special needs are part of. The present literature review seeks to explore the relationship of strength-based approaches on three variables, namely, self-esteem, self-concept and self-perception and its effect on overall well-being. These two variables were selected for two reasons. The first being their centrality to theories of positive psychology and have been long explored as indictors of wellbeing and scholastic levels (Baumeister, 2003). Second, these variables seem to have good predictable validity of self-views (Swann et al., 2007).
This study was designed to investigate the relationship between authentic behavior and job satisfaction among child welfare caseworkers in Pennsylvania. Confirmatory factor analysis was conducted to validate the domains of the Authentic Behavior Scale (balanced processing, relational transparency, and internalized morality) and Job Satisfaction Scale, and the results provided consistent support for the factorial structure of the scales across child welfare caseworkers. The findings of this study revealed a positive correlation between authentic behavior and job satisfaction. To further explore this relationship, a path model was developed that included the elements of authentic behavior, job satisfaction, and demographic variables. The results indicated an association between the type of agency and internalized morality, impacting job satisfaction. Private workers showed a higher level of authentic behavior compared with public workers, with authentic behavior associated with greater job satisfaction. The findings suggest that authentic behavior can play a crucial role in social work practice and warrants considerable attention.
This study aims to determine the role of organizational-based Psychological Ownership (PO) in the relationship between Authentic Leadership (AL), Islamic Workplace Spirituality (IWS) and Affective Commitment (AC) of Kiai’s followers/subordinates in Pesantren in Yogyakarta, Indonesia. Regarding the direct relationship between variables, some of the findings in this study include: AL is positively and significantly related to PO and AC; so is the relationship between IWS and PO; and the relationship between IWS and AC is found to be insignificant. As for the mediating role, PO is proven to fully mediate the relationship between AL - AC, and IWS - AC. This indicates that PO is one of the key factors in the formation of AC, especially in the relationship between IWS and AC. At the same time, as a novelty in this study, PO as a mediating variable between AL and AC is a new finding that previous studies have not used. This study also proposes some theoretical and practical implications that can be expected to benefit researchers and organizational leaders.
The authors argue that persons derive in-group expectancies from self-knowledge. This implies that perceivers process information about novel in-groups on the basis of the self-congruency of this information and not simply its valence. In Experiment 1. participants recalled more negative self-discrepant behaviors about an in-group than about an our-group. Experiment 2 replicated this effect under low cognitive load but not under high load. Experiment 3 replicated the effect using an idiographic procedure. These findings suggest that perceivers engage in elaborative inconsistency processing when they encounter negative self-discrepant information about an in-group but not when they encounter negative self-congruent information. Participants were also more likely to attribute self-congruent information to the in-group than to the out-group, regardless of information valence. Implications for models of social memory and self-categorization theory are discussed.
Reactions to trait self-enhancers were investigated in 2 longitudinal studies of person.perception in discussion groups. Groups of 4-6 participants met 7 times for 20 rain. After Meetings 1 and 7, group members rated their perceptions of one another. In Study 1, trait self-enhancement was indexed by measures of narcissism and self-deceptive enhancement. At the first meeting, self-enhancers made positive impressions: They were seen as agreeable, well adjusted, and competent. After 7 weeks, however, they were rated negatively and gave self-evaluations discrepant with peer evaluations they received. In Study 2, an independent sample of observers (close acquaintances) enabled a pretest index of discrepancy self-enhancement: It predicted the same deteriorating pattern of interpersonal perceptions as the other three trait measures. Nonetheless, all self-enhancement measures correlated positively with self-esteem.
Conventional wisdom has regarded low self-esteem as an important cause of violence, but the opposite view is theoretically viable. An interdisciplinary review of evidence about aggression, crime, and violence contradicted the view that low self-esteem is an important cause. Instead, violence appears to be most commonly a result of threatened egotism--that is, highly favorable views of self that are disputed by some person or circumstance. Inflated, unstable, or tentative beliefs in the self's superiority may be most prone to encountering threats and hence to causing violence. The mediating process may involve directing anger outward as a way of avoiding a downward revision of the self-concept.
Traditional conceptions of interpersonal flexibility emphasize two critical components: (a) a wide range of interpersonal responses and (b) situational appropriateness. Most current measures are based on standard trait ratings, which cannot address situational adjustment. In place of trait ratings, we suggest the use of capability ratings, that is, self-reports of the ease of performing social behaviors when required by the situation. Our proposed index of flexibility, the Functional Flexibility Index (FFI), is the composite of 16 interpersonal capabilities. In Study 1, factor analyses indicated that the FFI is distinct from other widely used flexibility measures. Study 2 supported the validity of the FFI by showing substantial correlations with peer ratings of interpersonal flexibility. In Studies 3 and 4, the FFI outperformed other flexibility measures in predicting adjustment. Another form of interpersonal variability, situationality, is the tendency to view one's personality as being dependent on the situation. Situational individuals reported lower self-esteem than nonsituational individuals. Measures of functional flexibility and situationality were found to be orthogonal.
The authors examined the extent to which self-esteem (SE) stability relates to self-regulatory styles, self-concept clarity (SCC), and goal-related affect. The results supported the notion that individuals with unstable SE are not likely to possess a strong sense of self. Specifically, unstable as compared to stable SE was associated with (a) self-regulatory styles reflecting lower levels of self-determination, (b) lower SCC, and (c) goal-related affect characterized by greater tenseness and less interest. Theoretical implications are discussed.
The authors examined whether stability and level of self-esteem interact with daily hassles in predicting severity of depressive symptoms. As predicted, Time 2 depression scores (with Time 1 scores controlled) were highest among individuals with unstable self-esteem who reported considerable daily hassles. By contrast, self-esteem level did not interact with daily hassles to predict Time 2 depressive symptoms. These findings held even after negative self-concept items were eliminated from the depressive symptom inventories. Additional analyses revealed that self-esteem stability accounted for variance independent of the tendency to over generalize following failure or negative event attributional style. These findings support the contention that unstable self-esteem reflects fragile feelings of self-worth that exacerbate depressive symptoms under certain circumstances.
Personality assessment measure for global self-esteem and components (sources) of self-esteem (e.g., competence, lovability, body appearance).
Recent interest in the implicit self-esteem construct has led to the creation and use of several new assessment tools whose psychometric properties have not been fully explored. In this article, the authors investigated the reliability and validity of seven implicit self-esteem measures. The different implicit measures did not correlate with each other, and they correlated only weakly with measures of explicit self-esteem. Only some of the implicit measures demonstrated good test–retest reliabilities, and overall, the implicit measures were limited in their ability to predict our criterion variables. Finally, there was some evidence that implicit self-esteem measures are sensitive to context. The implications of these findings for the future of implicit self-esteem research are discussed.
I: Background.- 1. An Introduction.- 2. Conceptualizations of Intrinsic Motivation and Self-Determination.- II: Self-Determination Theory.- 3. Cognitive Evaluation Theory: Perceived Causality and Perceived Competence.- 4. Cognitive Evaluation Theory: Interpersonal Communication and Intrapersonal Regulation.- 5. Toward an Organismic Integration Theory: Motivation and Development.- 6. Causality Orientations Theory: Personality Influences on Motivation.- III: Alternative Approaches.- 7. Operant and Attributional Theories.- 8. Information-Processing Theories.- IV: Applications and Implications.- 9. Education.- 10. Psychotherapy.- 11. Work.- 12. Sports.- References.- Author Index.
Two studies addressed parallel questions about the correlates and consequences of self-enhancement bias. Study 1 was conducted in a laboratory context and examined self-enhancing evaluations of performance in a group-interaction task. Study 2 assessed students' illusory beliefs about their academic ability when they first entered college and then followed them longitudinally to test claims about the long-term benefits of positive illusions. Both studies showed that self-enhancement bills was related to narcissism. ego involvement, self-serving attributions, and positive affect. Study 2 found that self-enhancement was associated with decreasing levels of self-esteem and well-being as well as with increasing disengagement front the academic context. Self-enhancement did not predict higher academic performance or higher graduate rates. Thus, the findings suggest that self-enhancing beliefs may be adaptive in the short term but not in the long term.
In 2 studies, college students evidenced differing levels of the "Big-Five" traits in different roles, supporting social-contextualist assumptions regarding trait expression. Supporting organismic theories of personality, within-subject variations in the Big Five were predictable from variations in the degree of psychological authenticity felt in different roles. In addition, two concepts of self-integrat ion or true selfhood were examined: 1 based on high consistency of trait profiles across roles (i.e., lowself-concept differentiation; E. M. Donahue, R. W. Robins, B. W. Roberts, & O. P. John, 1993) and 1 based on high mean levels of authenticity felt across roles. The 2 self-integration measures were found to be independent predictors of psychological and physical well-being indicating that both self-consistency and psychological authenticity are vital for organized functioning and health.
This paper has two purposes. First, I discuss three interactionist approaches to aggression that can be found in the literature. Most attention is given to an approach that interprets aggression as punishment for perceived wrongdoing, since that approach has never been fully explained. I argue that each approach is useful but limited in its ability to account for how aggressive encounters develop. Then, using some of the ideas developed in the theoretical section, I analyze self-reports of aggressive encounters of different levels of severity. An attempt is made to describe in a theoretically informed way what occurs in interactions that culminate in an aggressive attack.
The book, Letters from Jenny, by Gordon All port (1965) presented a series of letters written over an extended period by a woman named Jenny to her son, Ross. Jenny was a poor, hard-working woman who sacrificed almost everything she had for Ross. She supported him in an affluent lifestyle at an Ivy League college, while she barely had enough to eat. All that mattered to her was his well-being. Yet, she failed miserably in bringing fulfillment and happiness to him as well as to herself. When Ross began to form relationships with other women, Jenny disowned him, very likely contributing to his early death. She then derived more happiness from his memory than she had from his presence.
This study examined three orientations toward the relation between peer approval and global self-worth among young adolescents: (a) Self-worth is based upon peer approval of the self, a looking glass self-orientation; (b) self-worth is viewed as preceding approval from others; and (c) no connection is reported between self-worth and peer approval. A number of liabilities of a looking glass self-orientation were hypothesized and supported by the findings. Participants basing their self-worth on peer approval reported the greatest preoccupation with peer approval, they were most likely to be distracted from their schoolwork by peers (according to teachers' reports), they perceived the greatest fluctuations in both classmate approval and their self-worth, and they reported lower levels of classmate approval (confirmed by teachers) and self-worth, compared to those reporting that self-worth precedes approval. Findings were discussed in terms of the need for a model that will elucidate the precursors of these three orientations and their correlates.
W. James (1890) argued that the importance people attach to their self-views determines the impact of these self-views on people's global feelings of self-worth. Despite the intuitive appeal of this position, most research on the relation between people's specific self-views and their global self-esteem has failed to support this assertion. B. W. Pelham and W. B. Swann (1989) provided evidence in support for W. James's assertion, but H. W. Marsh (1993) criticized this evidence. In this article, further evidence is presented for W. James's (1890) assertion. In addition, the favorability of people's specific self-views is identified as a moderator of the extent to which belief importance is related to self-esteem. The theoretical implications and limitations of these findings are discussed.
A critical question in self-esteem research is whether people's reactions to success and failure are guided by their global self-esteem level or by their more specific beliefs about their abilities and attributes. To address this issue, the authors led participants to experience success or failure on an alleged test and then assessed their cognitive and emotional reactions to these outcomes. In Experiment 1, specific self-views predicted participants' cognitive reactions to their performance outcomes, whereas global self-esteem predicted participants' emotional reactions to their performance outcomes. In Experiment 2, global self-esteem predicted participants' emotional reactions to their performance outcomes even after participants' beliefs about their more specific abilities and attributes were taken into account. These findings suggest that when it comes to understanding people's emotional reactions to success and failure, the effects of global self-esteem are not reducible to the way people think about their constituent qualities.
Four studies sought to differentiate between self-enhancement and self-protection as motivations self-handicapping. High-self-esteem participants self-handicapped to enhance success, whereas low-self-esteem participants self-handicapped to protect against the esteem-threatening implications of failure. This was supported with 2 different forms of self-handicapping and corroborated by attributional statements regarding the implications of handicaps for performance outcomes. Thus, different people use the same (self-handicapping) strategy for different reasons. Also, patterns of social motivation vary with level of trait self-esteem.
Four experiments supported the hypothesis that people see themselves as having rich, multifaceted, and adaptive personalities that result in the perceptions that they possess more traits than other people and are less predictable than other people. Experiment 1 showed that people perceived themselves as having more of opposing pairs of traits than they perceived others as having when they rated both self and an acquaintance on each trait in the pair separately, (e.g., serious and carefree). When the ratings were made on bipolar scales (e.g., serious vs. carefree), the self was rated as closer to the midpoint than was the acquaintance. Experiment 2 showed that the latter result reflects people's belief that they possess both traits in opposing pairs. Subjects in Experiment 2 also rated their behavior as less predictable than that of others. Experiment 3 replicated Experiment 2 and showed that people perceive that they have both members of pairs of opposing traits independent of the social desirability and observability of the traits. Experiment 4 indicated that familiar and liked persons are perceived to have more traits than unfamiliar and disliked persons.
This article examines the association between evaluative and knowledge components of the self. Four studies tested the hypothesis that the self-concepts of low-self-esteem (LSE) people are characterized by less clarity or certainty than those of high-self-esteem (HSE) people. LSE Ss exhibited less extremity and self-reported confidence when rating themselves on bipolar trait adjectives (Study 1), less temporal stability in their trait ratings over a 2-month interval (Study 2), less congruence between their self-concepts and their subsequent perceptions of situation-specific behavior and memory for prior behavior (Study 3), and less internal consistency, lower self-rated confidence, and longer reaction times when making me/not me responses to pairs of opposite traits (Study 4). Alternative accounts of the results and the implications of self-concept clarity for understanding the pervasive impact of self-esteem on behavior are discussed.
Individuals who rated themselves favorably or unfavorably on the dimensions of creativity and intelligence (or high or low in global self-esteem) in a mass-testing situation subsequently received either positive or negative feedback pertaining to their performance on a ''creative intelligence'' task. Immediately following, participants rated themselves on dimensions related to task performance as well as on unrelated dimensions (e.g., rude, shallow, polite, neat). Half the participants were asked to base their ratings on how they typically felt about themselves (typical self-appraisals); the rest were asked to base their ratings on how they currently felt (current self-appraisals). As predicted, whereas typical self-appraisals did not differ as a function of the feedback received, current appraisals did, but only among individuals who had previously rated themselves as relatively low in creativity and intelligence. Moreover, these differences emerged on trait dimensions that were unrelated to creativity and intelligence as well as on those that were related. Among individuals who had previously rated themselves unfavorably, self-esteem related affect also differed as a function of the feedback they received. When global self-esteem was used as the grouping factor, the results differed somewhat, but still supported the basic conclusion that feedback has a greater effect on the current appraisals of low than of high self-esteem individuals. Discussion centered on the existence of both stable and unstable components of self-evaluations, different forms of feedback generalization, and individual differences in self-appraisal responsiveness to evaluative information.
The aim of this study was to determine whether an individual's defense style significantly influences his or her relationship satisfaction in the transition to parenthood. Questionnaire measures of relationship satisfaction and personality (including defense style) were administered in the midtrimester of pregnancy to 157 couples expecting their first child. Follow-up assessments of relationship satisfaction were conducted at 4 and 12 months postpartum. The strongest predictor of current relationship satisfaction for both mothers and fathers was prior relationship satisfaction. In addition, measures of defense style were found to contribute significantly to the prediction of relationship satisfaction at both postpartum assessments. The results support the usefulness of models of defense style for understanding processes of coping and adjustment in normal adults. Methodological issues in the measurement of defense style and gender differences in defense functioning are discussed.
Considerable controversy has surrounded the issue of whether self-evaluations are relatively stable or subject to substantial moment-to-moment shifts. In this article, we suggest that there is both a stable and an unstable component of self-evaluations. We propose that the stable component is reflected in one's TYPICAL self-appraisals and that the unstable component is reflected in one's CURRENT self-appraisals. We reasoned that typical appraisals would change little, if at all, following an evaluative event, whereas current appraisals would show substantial change. To test this hypothesis, we had subjects rate themselves along specific dimensions based on how they would evaluate themselves right now and how they would typically evaluate themselves. These ratings were made both before and after subjects received positive, negative, or no evaluative feedback. The results indicated that current self-appraisals declined substantially following negative feedback and became more positive following either positive or no evaluative feedback. Typical appraisals were much more resistant to change, although they did show an overall pattern of change similar to current appraisals. The relationship of self-appraisal change to emotional reactions was also assessed. Correlational analyses revealed that the magnitude of change in current, but not typical appraisals, was strongly related to emotional reactions. This was particularly true following negative feedback. Theoretical implications are discussed.
Self-affirmation processes are being activated by information that threatens the perceived adequacy or integrity of the self and as running their course until this perception is restored through explanation, rationalization, and/or action. The purpose of these constant explanations (and rationalizations) is to maintain a phenomenal experience of the self-self-conceptions and images as adaptively and morally adequate—that is, as competent, good, coherent, unitary, stable, capable of free choice, capable of controlling important outcomes, and so on. The research reported in this chapter focuses on the way people cope with the implications of threat to their self-regard rather than on the way they cope with the threat itself. This chapter analyzes the way coping processes restore self-regard rather than the way they address the provoking threat itself.
The authors examined the extent to which level and stability of fifth-grade children's self-esteem predicted intrinsic motivation and related achievement behaviors, and reasons for anger. The findings indicated that the more unstable the children's self-esteem, the lower their scores on measures of curiosity/interest and preference for challenge. In addition, the lower the children's self-esteem, the lower their preference for challenge. Additional analyses indicated that (a) self-evaluations of scholastic competence mediated the effects of both stability and level of self-esteem and (b) day-to-day variability in self-evaluations of scholastic competence was so intertwined with stability of self-esteem that neither uniquely predicted either curiosity/interest or preference for challenge. Finally, the more unstable the children's self-esteem, the greater the likelihood that they reported that they would become angry because of the self-esteem-threatening aspects of aversive interpersonal events. Theoretical implications are discussed.
The preceding comments from studies of young people by myself and colleagues are personally very distressing. Theoretically, they are perplexing. It is commonly asserted in the literature that the self-concept is a theory, a cognitive construction, and that its architecture—by evolutionary design—is extremely functional (see Allport, 1961; Bartlett, 1932; Brim, 1976; Damon & Hart, 1988; Epstein, 1973, 1981, 1991; Greenwald, 1980; Harter, 1983; Kelly, 1955; Lecky, 1945; Lynch, 1981; Markus, 1980; Piaget, 1965; Rogers, 1951; Sarbin, 1962). One such widely touted function is to maintain high self-esteem. Considerable evidence now exists that most people do exhibit a modest self-enhancing bias (Taylor & Brown, 1988).
In contrast to measures of explicit self-esteem, which assess introspectively accessible self-evaluations, measures of implicit self-esteem assess the valence of unconscious, introspectively inaccessible associations to the self. This experiment is the first to document a relationship between individual differences in implicit self-esteem and social behavior. Participants completed either a self-relevant or a self-irrelevant interview, and were then rated bythe interviewer on their anxiety. When the interview was self-relevant, apparent anxiety was greater for participants low in implicit self-esteem than for participants high in self-esteem; implicit self-esteem did not predict anxiety when the interview was self-irrelevant. Explicit self-esteem did not predict apparent anxiety in either interview, but did predict participants' explicit self-judgments of anxiety. Self-handicapping about interview performance was greater for participants low in both explicit and implicit self-esteem than for those high in these measures. The experiment provides direct evidence that effects of implicit and explicit self-esteem may be dissociated.