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TARGET ARTICLE: Toward a Conceptualization of Optimal Self-Esteem
Abstract
In this article, I present a theoretical perspective on the nature of "optimal" self-esteem. One of my major goals is to show that optimal and high self-esteem are different from each other. High self-esteem can be fragile or secure depending upon the extent to which it is defensive or genuine, contingent or true, unstable or stable, and discrepant or congruent with implicit (nonconscious)feelings of self-worth. Optimal self-esteem is characterized by qualities associated with genuine, true, stable, and congruent (with implicit self-esteem) high self-esteem. A second major goal is to present a conceptualization of the construct of authenticity. I propose that authenticity as an individual difference construct may be particularly important in delineating the adaptive features of optimal self-esteem. Authenticity can be characterized as the unobstructed operation of one's true, or core, self in one's daily enterprise. I argue that authenticity has 4 components: awareness, unbiased processing, action, and relational. Initial data pertaining to these components are highly encouraging. Finally, I discuss some implications of the fragile versus secure high self-esteem distinction for narcissism, defensive processing models, and cross-cultural self-esteem perspectives.
... More recently, however, studies have shown that self-report measures of selfesteem do not capture the full scope of behaviors and attitudes that emerge after academic threats (Andrade & Buckingham, 2017;Buckingham, Lam, Andrade, Boring, & Emery, in press;Lambird & Mann, 2009;Zeigler-Hill et al., 2013). Specifically, self-esteem has 2 been shown to be a heterogeneous construct composed not only of explicit feelings about oneself, but of implicit ones as well (Kernis, 2003), both of which influence how people respond to threats to self-esteem (Andrade & Buckingham, 2017;Buckingham et al., in press;Kernis, Lakey, & Heppner, 2008;Lambird & Mann, 2009). For example, having a combination of high explicit but low implicit self-esteem is related to decreased interest in self-improvement after an academic threat, whereas having high explicit and implicit self-esteem is not (Andrade & Buckingham, 2017). ...
... One reason for this contradiction appears to be the sole reliance on explicit measures of self-esteem as a gauge of people's attitudes toward themselves (Greenwald & Farnham, 2000;Zeigler-Hill, 2006). Specifically, while explicit measures of selfesteem capture self-referent attitudes that are consciously perceived, other self-attitudes are automatic and non-conscious (Greenwald & Banaji;1995;Greenwald & Farnham, 2000;Kernis, 2003). Thus, rather than openly reported, as is the case of explicit selfesteem, implicit self-esteem spills over and influences people's responses without their conscious intent (Jones, Pelham, Mirenberg, & Hetts, 2002). ...
... Individuals with self-esteem that is both implicitly and explicitly high (i.e., secure high self-esteem) can better accept themselves without the need to create positive illusions, and tend to have attitudes toward themselves that are realistic and resistant to threats. Consequently, this type of self-esteem is often classified as genuine or secure (Jordan, Spencer, Zanna, & Hoshino-Browne, 2003;Kernis, 2003). ...
... SDT poses that individuals are primarily intrinsically motivated when they follow autonomous motivations which are driven by their own interest of gaining new knowledge, reaching new goals or witnessing new emotional and physical sensations (Carbonneau et al., 2012;Gillet et al., 2012;Tóth-Király et al., 2019). As opposed to autonomous motivations, individuals acting with controlled motivations, which are extrinsically motivated, often possess insecurities with their self-perception which results in a need to defend and demonstrate their sense of self-worth (Hodgins & Knee, 2002;Kernis, 2003;Lewis & Neighbors, 2005). This can lead them to choose activities and environments Needs, Passions and Loot Boxes -Exploring Reasons for Problem Behaviour in Relation to Loot Box Engagement 9 which provide them with their desired approval. ...
... This can limit or even prevent adaptive self-processes and can lead to maladaptive outcomes. The type of internalisation process that occurs determines the resulting type of passion, of which there are two (Chandler & Connell, 1987;Deci & Ryan, 1985;Kernis, 2003;Ryan & Deci, 2000Sheldon, 2002;Vallerand, 1997Vallerand, , 2015. Crucially, and relating to SDT, passions often result from activities which satisfy our needs and consequently are more likely to be valued (Vallerand, 2015). ...
... Since need frustration acted as a mediator in the study by Mills et al. (2021) this would be equally applicable to the proposed scenario, with the in-game need frustration leading to psychological distress as well as problem gambling or problem gaming, in the form of opening loot boxes in the hope of receiving better rewards or playing the game incessantly. This would also align with the notion that individuals who act with controlled motivations have a need to demonstrate their self-worth, here, in form of their status in-game (Hodgins & Knee, 2002;Kernis, 2003;Lewis & Neighbors, 2005). ...
Research on the convergence of gaming and gambling has been around since the 1990s. The emergence of loot boxes in video games in the mid 2010s, a game mechanic with a chance-based outcome that shares structural and psychological similarities to gambling, caused public controversy and lead to the inception of a new field of study, loot box research. Since then, various studies have found a relationship between loot box engagement and problem gambling as well as problem gaming. Due to the cross-sectional nature of this data, however, inferences about causality are limited. While loot box research has extensively investigated the relationship between loot box engagement and problem behaviour, little research has been done to explain the underlying motivations of players that drive them to interact with loot boxes. The goal of this thesis is to provide possible explanations for the relationship between loot box engagement and problem gamblers or problem gamers. In doing so, it draws upon two prominent psychological theories. Self-Determination Theory and the Dualistic Model of Passion. Self-Determination Theory's concept of psychological needs and their satisfaction or frustration is hereby used to explain the development of harmonious or obsessive passions, which are introduced in the Dualistic Model of Passion. These obsessive passions have been shown to be possible antecedents of behavioural addictions, such as problem gambling or problem gaming. Thus, the interplay between needs, passions and loot box opening could elucidate the aforementioned correlations between loot box engagement and problem behaviour. However, further research, especially utilising longitudinal data, is needed to better understand these processes.
... Authenticity is relational in nature (Gardner et al., 2005;Kernis, 2003) and manifested in one's words and actions (Endrissat et al., 2007). Researchers in business and service domains commonly consider an authentic individual to be open, genuine, reliable, and truthful toward others and demonstrate that by, for example, communicating openly, disclosing personal information, and expressing genuine emotions and perceptions (McShane & Cunningham, 2012;Yagil & Medler-Liraz, 2013). ...
... Another rationale for examining professional authenticity as a moderator concerns its role in facilitating relationship building and relational norms from the professional side, which can not only contribute to reduce conflicts in professional-client relationships that result from role-based image discrepancies, but also increase clients' perceived integrity of professionals, key inputs for strengthening clients' level of trust in professionals. Specifically, according to the literature on authenticity and relational exchange theory, when customers perceive service providers as being authentic, personal connection bonds are likely to be cultivated (Kernis, 2003;Yagil & Medler-Liraz, 2013), which in turn would make customers feel more confident and comfortable with service providers, and thus limit the level of conflicts between the two parties (Davies et al., 2011). This suggests that those professionals who are perceived by clients as engaging in authentic behaviors are also likely to facilitate relationship building and personal connections with clients, which in turn would ease professional-client relationships and consequently, the negative effects of role-based image discrepancies are likely to be managed and buffered (Vough et al., 2013). ...
... This suggests that those professionals who are perceived by clients as engaging in authentic behaviors are also likely to facilitate relationship building and personal connections with clients, which in turn would ease professional-client relationships and consequently, the negative effects of role-based image discrepancies are likely to be managed and buffered (Vough et al., 2013). Furthermore, Kernis (2003) noted that individuals who talk and act authentically would be perceived as having more integrity, as others view their words and deeds as in alignment. This signals that professionals who are perceived as exhibiting authenticity during the interactions are likely to facilitate clients' perceptions that professionals have role integrity which is defined as the provision of predictability for exchange partners (Kaufmann & Dant, 1992). ...
This research aims to contribute to the literature in professional services by offering a validated instrument that measures role-based image, followed by exploring how role-based image discrepancy affects client loyalty and the boundary conditions that attenuate this relationship. The moderated mediation model from this study examined professional trustworthiness as a mediator; perceived professional authenticity and customer-oriented behaviors were moderators. The target population for this study comprises professionals and clients. Survey data were collected from 347 professionals and 367 clients. Results showed that the discrepancy in role-based image of professional work role between professionals and clients is associated with reduced clients’ perceived professional trustworthiness, which negatively affects client loyalty. In addition, the findings of this research also suggested that professionals can attenuate this detrimental effect by demonstrating a higher level of authenticity and customer-oriented behavior during their interactions with clients. Underpinned by the perspective of role-based image and relational exchange, this work is among the first to simultaneously investigate the mediating processes and boundary conditions for the effects of role-based image discrepancy on client loyalty.
... Drawing upon the symbolic interactionist perspective on identity, we propose that leader humor, as a form of positive social interaction (Cooper, 2005(Cooper, , 2008, can stimulate task i-deals and job crafting of employees by influencing their authentic self-expression, which is defined as the free and natural expression of individual's true self (Kernis, 2003). The core idea of the symbolic interactionist perspective on identity is that individuals' identities are not only shaped by themselves but also by their social interactions with primary groups and significant others (Serpe & Stryker, 2011;Stets & Serpe, 2013). ...
... Authenticity is the free and natural expression of core feelings, motives, and inclinations (Kernis, 2003). As it reflects human beings' ideals and desires, authenticity can help employees achieve self-fulfillment by expressing a true inner self through actions in the external world (Cable et al., 2013;Guignon, 2004). ...
Employee proactivity has been shown to play an important role in contemporary organizations. In the present study, we intended to understand the predictors of employees’ proactive work design behaviors, such as task i-deals and job crafting, based on the symbolic interactionist perspective on identity. Specifically, we investigated the effects of leader humor on employees’ task i-deals and job crafting behaviors through the mediating mechanism of authentic self-expression and the moderating role of receiving negative workplace gossip from an identity perspective. The four-wave data were collected from a sample of 320 employees to test the hypotheses. The results confirmed that leader humor as a form of positive social interaction promoted employees’ proactive behaviors by influencing the levels of authentic self-expression. In addition, the effect of leader humor became more pronounced in a gossipy work environment. The theoretical and practical implications of these findings are discussed.
... The first body of literature points to personal self-esteem and individual narcissism having distinct nomological networks (separate correlates among psychological variables, Hyatt et al., 2018), distinct phenotypes, consequences, developmental trajectories, and origins (Brummelman et al., 2016). Personal self-esteem is a belief that one is of a high value and the pride one takes in their own strengths (Brummelman et al., 2016;Kernis, 2003), while individual narcissism is an inflated view of oneself that requires continual external validation (Emmons, 1987;Morf & Rhodewalt, 2001cf Sedikides, 2021, see Chapter 1 for a more detailed discussion). In contrast to self-esteem, narcissism is defined by vanity, grandiosity, and self-entitlement, including entitlement to admiration and recognition from others. ...
... The second body of literature differentiates forms of self-esteem that are optimal for psychological functioning from those that are problematic and associated with negative outcomes and negative emotionality: stable vs. unstable (Kernis, 2003), true vs. fragile (Deci & Ryan, 1995), non-contingent vs. contingent (Crocker & Park, 2004), or defensive vs. secure (Jordan et al., 2003) self-esteem, respectively. Analogously, the intergroup literature differentiates "constructive" and "destructive" forms of ingroup favoritism. ...
... There is a substantial body of scholarship that shows that positive self-esteem advances optimal functioning, higher efficacy, development (self-enhancement), happiness, satisfaction with life, better performance, and persistence at tasks. Conversely, negative self-esteem has been shown to be strongly associated with mental disorders, malfunctioning, antisocial behavior, suicidal tendencies, aggression, delinquency, and general traits and effects opposite to those generated by positive self-esteem (Bandura, 1977(Bandura, , 1982Crocker & Bylsma, 1995;Crocker & Park, 2003;Donnellan et al., 2005;Kernis, 2003;Maslow, 1970, p. 45;Pyszczynski et al., 2004a;Sites, 1990). There is also agreement that positive self-esteem reduces anxieties, and vice versa (Crocker & Nuer, 2004;DuBois & Flay, 2004;Leary, 2004;Pyszczynski et al., 2004aPyszczynski et al., , 2004bPyszczynski & Cox, 2004;Ryan & Deci, 2004;Sheldon, 2004). ...
... Given the crucial importance of positive self-worth to well-being, it is not surprising that social-psychological studies find that pursuit of positive self-worth (self-esteem) is a universal human characteristic. Although self-worth is pursued differently in different societies, it is prevalent in modern societies and prestate societies, as well as in Western-individualistic cultures and Eastern-collectivist cultures (Barkow, 1989;Baumeister & Leary, 1995;Crocker & Bylsma, 1995;Kernis, 2003;Leary, 1999Leary, , 2004Pinker, 2003, pp. 326 -329, 439;Pyszczynski et al., 2004a;Pyszczynski & Cox, 2004;Sedikides et al., 2003Sedikides et al., , 2005Sheldon et al., 2001;Sheldon, 2004;Yamaguchi et al., 2007). ...
The concept of human dignity is a central concept in many legal systems. Yet the increasing and sometimes excessive use of this concept has generated a number of serious problems which have only recently become clear in empirical research and court rulings showing that the meanings of dignity have become contradictory and can no longer advance human rights protections. This paper offers a way out of the deadlock. We offer an approach which is anchored in the psychology of the self, specifically in the human need for maintaining positive self-worth. We elaborate on what this conceptualization means in terms of violations of dignity, emphasizing dignity's antonym, humiliation, as well as other closely related aspects of social exclusion, lowering of social status, and denials of recognition more generally. We then demonstrate that this approach has in fact been applied in a range of important legal cases, often establishing constitutional precedents. We illustrate this through a comparative review and analysis of judgments from the United States Supreme Court, the European Court of Human Rights, and the Supreme Court of Israel. We argue that this psychological approach to human dignity can bring logic and consistency back into its meaning and usages.
... Daneben gehören zu dem Konstrukt des Selbstwertes das Vertrauen in die eigenen Fähigkeiten, Respekt und Wertschätzung gegenüber sich selbst (Coopersmith, 1959(Coopersmith, , 1967Ryeng et al., 2013). Dabei kann der Selbstwert verschiedene Ausprägungen und Formen haben (Rosenberg, 1965a (Jünemann, 2015;Kernis, 2003). ...
... Zusammenfassend erscheint ein optimaler Selbstwert dann erreicht, wenn eigene Unzulänglichkeiten akzeptiert und stark ausgeprägte positive Selbstwertgefühle verinnerlicht wurden (Kernis, 2003). ...
... Self-mastery, therefore, allows a leader to discover herself/ himself/their selves and master her/his/their focused choices, capabilities and be comfortable with the consequences of choice which, in turn, stimulates interpersonal synergies with, and trust in, others (as leaders begin to really know themselves, they often want to and do get to know others better). Such learning about personal motives, values, ethics, strengths, and weaknesses engenders an intrapersonal trust, necessary for overall well-being (April et al., 2013;Kernis, 2003). April et al. (2006) go further by adding that, in addition to learning, leaders have to also unlearn and ultimately relearn. ...
... A critical enabler of authentic leadership is self-regulation . Self-regulation includes methods whereby people apply selfcontrol through: (i) self-determination-managing actions through internal monitoring processes, (ii) unbiased processing, (iii) relational transparency, (iv) establishment of personal principles, (v) evaluating inconsistencies between principles and actions, and (vi) determining activities for addressing discrepancies (April et al., 2013;Deci & Ryan, 2000;Gardner et al., 2005;Kernis, 2003;Stajkovic & Luthans, 1998). Workplace performance-related constructs can be conceptualized as part of the well-being concept, with 'burnout' being the prominent example of such an inclusion of performance-related constructs within the well-being concept. ...
The dynamic landscape of modern organizations necessitates the cultivation of authentic leaders to drive success and ensure sustainability. Effective leader development is characterized by self-awareness, relational transparency, balanced processing, and an internalized moral perspective. This chapter explores the intricate relationship between leader growth and development, and authenticity, offering insights into some key enablers and stumbling blocks of authenticity. The identified enablers that were discussed include: self-awareness, personal vision, ethics and morals, openness and deep care, intentions and imperfection, self-efficacy and self-confidence, and self-regulation. The identified stumbling blocks that were discussed include: societal expectations, contingent self-esteem, inability to process negative feedback, and mimicking and acculturation. In discussing the enablers and stumbling blocks, various developmental approaches that facilitate the cultivation of authentic leadership are identified, including transformative learning and unlearning, reflective and contemplative practices, the role of feedback, as well as the need for therapy and coaching. Ultimately, authenticity is about the enactment of important beliefs, values, principles, and identities of leaders, since they affect relationships with subordinates, colleagues, and the broader stakeholder community.KeywordsSelf-awarenessSelf-efficacySelf-regulationPersonal visionAuthenticityPersonal masteryValues and moralsBoundariesLeader
... In contrast to explicit selfesteem, it is less distorted by self-presentation mechanisms [39], but it is more susceptible to experimental manipulation and less stable over time than its explicit counterpart. Fragile self-esteem is a situation in which high explicit self-esteem is accompanied by low implicit self-esteem [40,41]. It is possible that in the studied group, there were people with fragile self-esteem and the situation of the surgery influenced the change in the implicit level, which translated into worse functioning and its perception by these people after surgery. ...
... People with fragile self-esteem are often unaware of having conditional self-esteem [28]. Meanwhile, according to the concept of optimal self-esteem by Kernis [40], the mere knowledge of being dependent on external conditions-which is common in cancer patients, particularly those undergoing surgery-may pose a threat to high self-esteem. ...
Self-esteem is an important factor determining QoL after surgical procedures leading to bodily deformities associated with cancer treatment. However, there are few data on which components of self-esteem are most closely related to QoL. The article presents two studies that aim to fill this gap. Study 1 concerns changes in global self-esteem and QoL in patients treated surgically for oral cancer (n = 35); Study 2 concerns changes in explicit and implicit self-esteem and QoL in women with breast cancer undergoing mastectomy (n = 96). The study was longitudinal with two measurements: before and after surgery. Both studies used the EORTC QLQ-C30 and Rosenberg’s SES questionnaires. In Study 2, the Implicit Association Test (IAT) was additionally performed. The patients’ global QoL and self-esteem deteriorated after surgery. In Study 1, patients with higher initial self-esteem showed a greater range of decreased self-esteem and QoL than patients with initially low self-esteem. In Study 2, the largest decreases in various dimensions of QoL and explicit self-esteem were observed in women with fragile self-esteem. A group of women with high explicit and implicit self-esteem showed the best QoL after mastectomy. Cancer patients with high, fragile self-esteem are at risk of the greatest deterioration in QoL and self-image after cancer surgery. These people should be given special psycho-oncological care.
... Authentic leadership influences employee outcomes through followers' identification with leaders and affect-based trust (Alilyyani, Wong, & Cummings, 2018;Lux et al., 2023). The transparency component of authentic leadership represents the value for openness in one's relationship, where leaders and followers openly communicate and share information about each other's' real thoughts and feelings (Kernis, 2003). As a result of fostering higher levels of openness or transparency, the leader and followers should have higher trust levels with one another (Walumbwa et al., 2008). ...
... For authentic leadership, a reflective measurement was used to model the four authentic leadership behaviors as first-order latent variables, in which the formative measurement was used to create a second-order authentic leadership construct. The four authentic leadership behaviors are based on the seminal article by Kernis (2003), which identifies four individual difference components for authenticity; a person demonstrates authenticity when at least all four capacities are present and working together effectively (Figure 2). note: m = mean, sD = standard deviation, aVe = average variance extracted, ω 1 = omega coefficient before item deletion, ω 2 = omega coefficient after item deletion if applicable (na = not applicable), cr = composite reliability, Httm: heterotrait-monotrait ratio of correlations; square root of aVe is on the diagonal, inter-correlations are below the diagonal, Httms are above the diagonal. ...
... The researcher used as variables for authentic leadership four components of authentic leadership -self-awareness, relational transparency, balanced processing, and internalized moral perspective (George, 2003;Ilies et al., 2005;Kernis, 2003;Kulophas, 2017;Luthans & Avolio, 2003;Seligman & Csikszentmihalyi, 2000;Shamir & Eilam, 2005;Sikkhaphan, 2014;Walumbwa et al., 2008). ...
The study about the leadership model of local government administration in promoting well-being of the people relies on both quantitative and qualitative researches to develop the causal relationship of the leadership model. The quantitative research is based on the development of the structural equation modeling through the questionnaires with 400 participants. By using the cases of Thai subdistrict administration organizations, the qualitative research was conducted through the group conversation meeting. The results showed that the last variable affecting the results of the model was well-being, and the local administration variable influenced the last results of the model the most, followed by authentic leadership and social capital. There is the congruence between quantitative and qualitative data, leading to the simulation of leadership model for local government administration under PIKSA MODEL (P: participate in the project, I: internal ethical perspective, K: the dimension of knowledge, S: social factor, A: adaptability culture).
... Both styles focus on self-awareness and authenticity, but AL uniquely integrates positive psychological capital, well-developed organizational contexts, and selfregulation (Walumbwa et al. 2008). Authentic leaders naturally transcend self-alignment (Braun and Nieberle 2017;Ilies et al. 2005;Walumbwa et al. 2008) as they have a clear awareness of all relevant actors' thoughts, feelings, desires, strengths, and weaknesses (Kernis 2003). These insights enable leaders to interact more transparently with followers while considering their beliefs and values (e.g., Avolio et al. 2004;Gardner et al. 2005;Walumbwa et al. 2008). ...
Leadership is crucial in organizational life. Positive leadership is marked by transparent, trust-based leader–follower relationships that significantly boost employees’ dedication and engagement. Work engagement stems from a positive bond between workers, their job, and their organization. Authentic leadership, in particular, has been found to enhance work engagement, but this relationship is quite complex. Prior studies have explored the psychological processes linking organizational context and work-related attitudes and provided intriguing insights, such as that employees consider work to be part of their identity and that positive work experiences enrich family life. This research more closely examined authentic leadership’s impact on work engagement, including the mediating effect of meaningful work and work–family enrichment. A cross-sectional study was conducted with data from various organizations’ employees (number = 292). Multiple regression analyses’ results support the theoretical model, confirming a significant positive link between perceived authentic leadership and work engagement. These variables are directly and indirectly related through the proposed mediators. Implications for human resource management are discussed, especially strategies that increase work environments’ positive impacts on work engagement.
... Numerous empirical studies show a fundamental role of self-esteem and shyness in the individual's functioning (Asendorpf, 1990;Cheek & Buss, 1981;Ericsson, 2018;Kernis, 2003;Miller, 1995). At the same time, they indicate that shy individuals have many problems in social functioning, and in establishing and maintaining interpersonal relations (Baker & McNulty, 2010;Doey et al., 2014). ...
Background
The relation between shyness and self-esteem in women has not been fully elucidated. Shyness is a source of many problems in social interactions, although it may be positively evaluated by women as a stereotypically female trait. The aim of the study was to examine relations between shyness, self-esteem, its dimensions, and contingencies of self-worth in women. It also compared the self-esteem and contingencies of self-worth in shy and bold women.
Participants and procedure
The study was conducted in a sample of 1020 Polish women, aged 18-73. The Revised Cheek and Buss Shyness Scale, the Multidimensional Self-Esteem Inventory, and the Contingencies of Self-Worth Scale were used.
Results
The results of linear multiple regression showed that predictors of shyness were dimensions of self-esteem related to likea-bility, personal power, lovability, body functioning, academic/professional competences, and self-worth conditioned by oth-ers’ approval and God’s love. Shy women had significantly lower global self-esteem in comparison to bold women. Shy women evaluated themselves lower than bold women did, in all the dimensions of self-esteem. Both shy and bold women find family support and academic/professional competencies the main contingencies of self-worth, and God’s love was indi-cated the least.
Conclusions
The results illustrated the importance of shyness for women’s self-esteem, and also have implications for understanding how shy and bold women may express themselves in social life.
... Perceived self-esteem refers to the judgment of the integrity of self-knowledge formed by people via the judgment of their own ability and value and the degree of respect for an individual's sense of self that is triggered by this judgment [41]. The external context and internal emotions influence the direction of an individual's self-esteem perception change. ...
Well-being is an ordinary life goal that many people strive to achieve. Recently, there has been a growing interest in academic research on how consumption can enhance well-being. Hedonic sports consumption, which is associated with positive emotions, can positively impact an individual’s subjective well-being by providing both physical and mental enjoyment and relieving the stresses of everyday life. However, there is a need for more comprehensive research on the mechanisms that connect meaningful sports consumption behaviors, which may also be accompanied by negative emotions, to the mental health of individuals. Therefore, the primary objective of this study was to explore the potential mechanisms of meaningful sports consumption behaviors and eudaimonic well-being in individual mental health. Based on the SOR theory, this study develops a comprehensive conceptual model to examine the impact of sports consumption behavior on individuals’ eudaimonic well-being. The study’s results indicate that engaging in meaningful sports consumption behaviors can positively influence individuals’ eudaimonic well-being. Additionally, the study finds that perceived social support and perceived self-esteem among sports consumers significantly and positively impact their eudaimonic well-being. Finally, the study reveals that perceived social support and perceived self-esteem mediate the pathway through which meaningful sports consumption behaviors affect eudaimonic well-being. These findings contribute to our understanding of how to enhance sports consumers’ eudaimonic well-being and promote meaningful sports consumption behaviors. Therefore, it is recommended that sports marketers focus on providing meaningful sports service offerings, fostering consumer–society connections, and increasing respect and appreciation for consumers. These marketing insights can be valuable in promoting positive sports consumption experiences.
... Studien zeigen, dass ein Gefühl der Kontrolle über das eigene Leben Selbstbestimmung und das Treffen von Entscheidungen, das Wohlbefinden und die psychische Gesundheit fördern kann [37]. Auch ein angemessenes und stabiles Selbstwertgefühl, das auf realistischen Selbsteinschätzungen beruht, kann positive Auswirkungen auf das psychische Wohlbefinden und das Verhalten haben [24]. Allen Grundbedürfnissen liegt die Annahme einer Promotion-(Lustgewinnorientierung) und Prävention-Fokussierung (Unlustvermeidung) zugrunde [19]. ...
Die zunehmende Nutzung sozialer Medien birgt neue Herausforderungen und Möglichkeiten für die Lageerkundung im Krisenmanagement. Das Hauptziel dieses Beitrags besteht darin, die Sicht der Bevölkerung auf die Nutzung sozialer Medien zur Mitteilung der individuellen psychischen Verfassung zu beleuchten. Aufbauend auf zwei unabhängig voneinander durchgeführten Umfragen werden eine Reihe von Faktoren, bspw. Alter und Geschlecht, hinsichtlich ihres Einflusses auf die Einstellungen zum Mitteilungsverhalten berücksichtigt. Die Stichproben umfassen insgesamt 1.888 Personen aus Deutschland, darunter unmittelbar Betroffene der Flutkatastrophe 2021 im Kreis Euskirchen, Nordrhein-Westfalen. Die Ergebnisse deuten darauf hin, dass die Nutzung von sozialen Medien im Alltag von der Nutzung in Krisen- und Katastrophensituationen abweicht. So werden soziale Medien bspw. als Ressource bei Traurigkeit im Alltag genutzt, während dies für Krisen- und Katastrophensituationen nicht gezeigt werden konnte. Zudem konnte in der Stichprobe ohne Ereignisbezug festgestellt werden, dass jüngeren Menschen die öffentliche Kommunikation bei einem Gefühl allein zu sein mehr hilft als älteren, während sich für die Flutkatastrophe 2021 ein umgekehrter Zusammenhang zeigt. Vor dem Hintergrund der Erhebungen scheint es demnach sinnvoll, Krisenstäbe und Einsatzleitungen mit dem Verhalten unterschiedlicher Bevölkerungsgruppen in sozialen Medien vertraut zu machen. Auch wenn öffentlich verfügbare Daten sozialer Medien allein keine hinreichende Basis zur Erstellung eines psychosozialen Lagebildes darstellen, bieten sie vor allem Potenzial zur Einschätzung der Selbsthilfefähigkeit der Bevölkerung.
... For instance, it is worth noting the potential overlap between symbolic selfcompletion and the maintenance of contingent self-esteem (e.g., Crocker & Wolfe, 2001;Crocker & Knight, 2005). According to Crocker and colleagues' theorization on the maintenance of contingent self-esteem (see Deci & Ryan, 1995;Kernis, 2003;Kernis & Waschull, 1995, for definitions and the early theoretical framework), people want to succeed and avoid failures in domains of contingencydomains in which the individual believes they must succeed to feel worthy and valuable. The more people's self-esteem is contingent on a specific domain (e.g., medicine-related career), the more their self-esteem increases when experiencing domain-specific successes and decreases when experiencing domain-specific failures. ...
The present research applies symbolic self completion theory (SCT) to explain online behaviors and predict what users will post on Instagram. Across three experiments, we tested whether medical and law students who sense incompleteness with respect to their professional identity goals engage in compensatory self-symbolizing by increasing their online posting of respective indicators of goal attainment (e.g., medical coats, court clothes). Study 1 found that incomplete medical students post more medicine-related symbols. Study 2 replicated this effect in a sample of law students and clarified that students’ self-symbolizing posts specifically relate to their incomplete goal (law career) and not to other non-pertinent domains (university life). Finally, Study 3 demonstrated that incomplete medical students only engage in self-symbolizing when their incompleteness refers to their career goal and not to other careers they do not aspire to (a law career). Implications for understanding online behavior, preventing negative consequences of self-symbolizing on social media, and deepening the study of self-completion processes are discussed.
... Regarding self-esteem, two types of self-esteem have been proposed in recent years (e.g., Deci & Ryan, 1995;Kernis, 2003;Yamasaki, Uchida, & Yokoshima, & Kaya, 2017). According to Yamasaki et al. (2017), one type is undesirable, such as heteronomous self-esteem, which is detrimental to health and adaptation, while the other is desirable, such as autonomous self-esteem, which enhances health and adaptation. ...
Schoolteachers in Japan frequently suffer from mental health problems, resulting in a high rate of leaves of absence from work. Considering the poor condition of Japanese teachers, this study aimed to develop a questionnaire to assess self-esteem in the teaching profession for students in teacher training courses at university. As self-esteem is generally associated with health and adaptation, improving teachers’ working conditions and enhancing their self-esteem are expected. First, we created an original version of the questionnaire taking into consideration the content validity. Thereafter, a web-based survey was conducted among registered participants of a survey company in Japan. The final sample for analysis consisted of 422 participants (176 males and 246 females). The results showed factorial validity through exploratory and confirmatory factor analyses, along with internal consistency and an undistorted distribution of scores for the normal distribution. Thus, the “Self-Esteem Questionnaire in the Teaching Profession (SEQ-TP)” that includes twelve items with the score range of 12 to 84 was completed for future study. Finally, the limitations of this study are discussed, along with possibilities for future research.
... Sensitivity is proposed to be a genetic trait involving a deeper cognitive processing of stimuli that is driven by higher emotional reactivity. The authors claim that high sensitivity manifests in: (a) strong emotional reactivity (physiological stress reactivity, or arousability: it may be seen as an obstacle (Kernis, 2003) or an advantage (Baumeister et al., 2007) of deeper processing and general learning); (b) depth of cognitive processing (the highly sensitive individuals process internal and external stimuli more deeply than not sensitive people (Ahadi & Basharpoor, 2010;Jagiellowicz et al., 2010); (c) sensitivity to subtle detail (people with high levels of SPS are more observant of subtle features of their environment and as a result can be disturbed by high levels of stimulation, such as a loud noise, bright light, etc. (Aron, 2004); (d) susceptibility to excessive stimulation (it may manifest as a tendency to sensory overload and a desire to minimize a sensory stimulation (Benham, 2006;Evers et al., 2008). Aron and Aron (1997) developed a special inventory-the Highly Sensitive Person Scale (HSPS) to measure sensitivity (Aron & Aron, 1997). ...
The proliferation of digital technology has provided considerable connectivity benefits for young people due to the growth of social media platforms and applications. However, there is growing concern regarding the online behaviour ‘digital self-harm’. This study explored perceptions of digital self-harm held by key stakeholders—mental health practitioners and parents of adolescents. Semi-structured one-to-one interviews were conducted with five mental health practitioners and four parents of adolescents (aged 11–19 year-olds). Reflexive thematic analysis identified three themes: (a) online power, (b) effective support, and (c) morality and shame. The results suggest that parents and practitioners perceive digital self-harm as a behaviour with a cause and desired effect for young people—a means for adolescents to address power imbalances (e.g., structural, familial, or individual) and express their insecurities. Structured time and open communication are seen as essential for providing effective support for young people who engage in digital self-harm. Digital self-harm is perceived as being morally wrong and even shameful. The findings are discussed in relation to practical implications, especially the need to support parents and practitioners to support young people who may be engaging in digital self-harm.
... Sensitivity is proposed to be a genetic trait involving a deeper cognitive processing of stimuli that is driven by higher emotional reactivity. The authors claim that high sensitivity manifests in: (a) strong emotional reactivity (physiological stress reactivity, or arousability: it may be seen as an obstacle (Kernis, 2003)oran advantage (Baumeister et al., 2007) of deeper processing and general learning); (b) depth of cognitive processing (the highly sensitive individuals process internal and external stimuli more deeply than not sensitive people (Ahadi & Basharpoor, 2010;Jagiellowicz et al., 2010); (c) sensitivity to subtle detail (people with high levels of SPS are more observant of subtle features of their environment and as a result can be disturbed by high levels of stimulation, such as a loud noise, bright light, etc. (Aron, 2004); (d) susceptibility to excessive stimulation (it may manifest as a tendency to sensory overload and a desire to minimize a sensory stimulation (Benham, 2006;Evers et al., 2008). Aron and Aron (1997) developed a special inventory-the Highly Sensitive Person Scale (HSPS) to measure sensitivity (Aron & Aron, 1997). ...
(Aron and Aron, Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 73:345–368, 1997) developed a personality construct of high sensitivity, characterized by a physiologically predetermined sensory processing sensitivity. Their unidimensional scale, the Highly Sensitive Person Scale (HSPS), measures the level of sensory processing sensitivity and can predict the negative emotional, social, behavioral outcomes such as social phobia, anxiety, depression, low self-efficacy, etc. However, previous research questioned the nature of the HSPS questionnaire, and proposed its division into two- or three-factor models. In a large body of studies SPS is seen as a trait that influences a life satisfaction of a person, but there is no clear evidence about the relationship of SPS with psychological well-being. Two studies (N = 860) extended previous findings in terms of the inner structure of sensory processing sensitivity and its connection with life outcomes. The objective of the study was to give the first evidence of the Highly Sensitive Person Scale’s psychometric properties in a Russian-speaking population alongside the Aron and Aron scale and to describe the relations of sensitivity with the Psychological Well-being Scale (Riff, 1989). A sample of 860 respondents participated in the study: 350 undergraduate university student volunteers and 510 social media users (613 females and 247 males aged 15–43, M age = 20.8, SD age = 3.5). They filled out two questionnaires. Results did not confirm the initial linear model nor the three-factor solution. The hierarchical cluster and confirmatory analyses suggest that sensory processing sensitivity (SPS) can be described in a two-factor model consisting of ‘Ease of Excitation’ and ‘Low Sensory Threshold’ subscales. The t-test showed that only one subscale of Psychological well-being (personal growth) is disconnected with high sensitivity. Highly sensitive individuals are characterized by difficulties in relationships with others, limited number of interpersonal contacts, dependence on opinions and assessments of others, conformity, and low self-esteem therefore high sensitivity may be seen as a factor of psychological well-being decrease. Future studies should expand research on SPS as a sensitivity marker to both positive and negative outcomes, more research is needed that manipulates the positive or negative impact of SPS on life satisfaction and well-being and the study of dynamic changes in SPS in connection to psychological well-being. Lastly, the construct of sensitivity and views on its structure need further substantive concretization.KeywordsSensory processing sensitivity (SPS)Psychological well-beingEase of excitationLow sensory threshold
... Specifically, in the authenticity space, there is a debate between whether authenticity should take a "best self" perspective or a "true self" perspective. While the best self perspective represents the qualities and characteristics an individual displays when they are at their best (Roberts et al., 2009), the true self approach takes a morally neutral stance and focuses on the individual knowing themself and acting consistently with that self (Kernis, 2003). The authentic leadership field has overwhelmingly been in the "best self" camp due to the ALQ while many other authenticity constructs rely on a true self approach (e.g., authentic personality, Wood et al., 2008; authentic functioning, Kernis & Goldman, 2006; psychological authenticity climate, relational authenticity, Ostermeier et al., 2022;role authenticity, Sheldon et al., 1997). ...
The aim of the present study was to illuminate the causal relationships between self‐esteem and test anxiety, as well as between general self‐efficacy and test anxiety using two‐wave longitudinal research design with a sample of 252 Chinese college students. After controlling for gender, grade and autoregressive effects, the results revealed that (1) self‐esteem at T1 did not significantly predict test anxiety at T2; (2) general self‐efficacy at T1 did not significantly predict test anxiety at T2; (3) test anxiety at T1 significantly and negatively predicted self‐esteem at T2; and (4) test anxiety at T1 marginally significantly and negatively predicted general self‐efficacy at T2. These results suggest that test anxiety is more likely to affect self‐esteem and general self‐efficacy rather than vice versa, and that the causal relationship between self‐esteem and test anxiety are clearer than the causal relationship between general self‐efficacy and test anxiety. However, given the limitation of the longitudinal research using cross‐lagged analysis for revealing causality, these results should be viewed with caution.
Research on voice endorsement has predominantly focused on factors that predict whether supervisors will react favorably to subordinate suggestions. Beyond considering its antecedents, however, it is equally pertinent to understand how such positive social feedback affects voicers and their relations with others. Drawing from appraisal theories of emotion and the dual-faceted, functional conceptualization of pride, we develop and test a model in which supervisor voice endorsement elicits divergent effect patterns—one underscoring relationship maintenance, and the other relationship impairment. To test our hypotheses, we collected multi-wave data from 414 voicing subordinates and their 112 supervisors employed in a high-tech company. Regarding the relationship maintenance pathway, our results demonstrate that voice endorsement positively relates to future supportive voice toward supervisors, and this effect is mediated by voicers’ felt authentic pride. Meanwhile, for the relationship impairment pathway, endorsement also positively relates to voicer hubristic pride and, in turn, greater interpersonal conflict with coworkers, but only among voicers higher in narcissism. Our results demonstrate that endorsement is a potent tool affecting voicers’ emotions and work behavior, while also highlighting how endorsement reactions may differ in important ways depending on voicers’ dispositions.
This study investigated the relationship between traumatic experiences during peacekeeping operations in Lebanon (UNIFIL) between 1978 – 1998 and post traumatic growth (PTG), recalled and measured 17-38 years after, in a sample of 11 633 Norwegian military. Specifically, the study investigated how victim traumas (lethal danger) and moral traumas (moral failure) related to PTG, measured by the Posttraumatic Growth Inventory (Cann et al., 2010). Emotional distress experienced during the traumas served as a potential mediator of this relationship, and leadership by closest superior a potential moderator of the mediation. The results showed a significant positive relationship between number of victim traumas and PTG, while number of moral traumas did not contribute to explain variance above this effect. The trauma - PTG relationship was partially mediated by emotional distress, but authentic- and laissez faire leadership did not moderate this mediation. In sum, the veterans with most traumatic experiences, as recalled 17-38 years later, had higher PTG, and emotional distress related to trauma mediated this growth. The findings indicate that traumatic experiences may represent a resource for growth and subsequent hope for recovery. Given the retrospective study-design which might have hindered accurate measurement of PTG, advice on future research approaches is included.
L’articolo presenta e discute i risultati della valutazione degli effetti di un intervento di rafforzamento delle competenze socio emotive realizzato in Colombia nel 2019 nell’ambito del progetto di cooperazione internazionale “La Paz Unica Esperanza Para el Desarrollo Economico y Social” (PUEDES). La valutazione è effettuata con il metodo difference-in-difference, su un gruppo di 754 adolescenti di età compresa tra i 10 e i 18 anni, frequentanti la scuola secondaria nel Dipartimento del Putumayo. Le competenze oggetto di valutazione sono: autostima, regolazione delle emozioni positive e negative ed empatia. I risultati mostrano come gli effetti siano stati positivi in tutte le competenze e, osservando l’effetto differenziato per genere, si è riscontrata la sua maggiore intensità tra le ragazze rispetto ai ragazzi. Inoltre, i risultati mostrano come i processi partecipativi abbiano in generale contribuito ad accrescere gli effetti positivi soprattutto nelle ragazze, in particolare per quanto riguarda la gestione delle emozioni negative, confermando la rilevanza della variabile di genere in questo tipo di processi.
Background
Numerous studies have demonstrated that low, unstable, or contingent self-esteem negatively affects youth development and is linked to adolescent psychopathology. However, most previous studies have applied variable-oriented approaches, and less is known about the natural combination of self-esteem facets in school-aged adolescents, how parental conditional regard affects self-esteem profiles, and how these profiles relate to self-kindness, self-judgement, and life satisfaction.
Methods
By employing a longitudinal person-oriented approach (i.e., latent profile analysis and latent transition analysis) on two-wave longitudinal data from 587 German secondary school students (52.3% female, Mage=13.52 years), this study aims to (1) identify adolescents’ self-esteem profiles based on the level, stability, and contingency of self-esteem; (2) examine the impact of parental conditional regard on the self-esteem profiles explained using self-determination theory; and (3) examine these profiles’ relationship with self-kindness, self-judgement, and life satisfaction.
Results
Four self-esteem profiles were derived: optimal-secure (~ 8%), good (~ 18%), average (~ 36%), and low-insecure (~ 38%). The results reveal a concerningly high proportion as well as a high stability of low-insecure self-esteem (~ 98%) and indicate the strong negative influence of parental conditional regard on the development of optimal-secure self-esteem. Furthermore, the results demonstrate strong correlations between optimal-secure self-esteem, highly developed self-kindness, and high life satisfaction.
Conclusions
Using a longitudinal person-oriented approach, it was possible to identify a group with highly vulnerable self-esteem, characterised by particularly low self-kindness, strong self-judgment, and lower life satisfaction. The findings of this study support the need for prevention and intervention targeting adolescents with low-insecure self-esteem.
The research on leadership has typically sought to investigate 'good' leadership and the best characteristics of leadership (i.e., transformational leadership, ethical leadership, authentic leadership). Current research indicates a 'bad' or 'dark' side of leadership. The outcomes of destructive leadership have been raising interest in leadership research. Within the research, destructive leadership has been revealed to have severe outcomes for employees and organizations. This literature review seeks to expand the literature to consider destructive leadership and its association with job-related outcomes. The review will examine forms of destructive leadership related to specific job-related and organizational-related outcomes. The exploration of destructive leadership and its effect on job-related outcomes is essential to the success of organizations. This review contributes to the growing body of knowledge related to leadership.
The aim and intended goal of the chapter is to contribute to the body of knowledge about followership, which is inherently implicit in leadership, from a perspective other than that of the majority of literature written by White males and produce an amplified depiction of the importance of race and culture on the subject matter and from a perspective of those who the mainstream literature currently lacks. The chapter provides a tangible understanding of leadership, followership, race, and culture, along with comprehensive examples of race and culture’s vitality and mitigating factors on followership and the total leadership system. The chapter highlights how followers’ antecedents contribute to the enactment of followership. It also provides variables and implications of culture providing examples of how they affect followers(ship). Finally, we put forth the necessity of moving beyond cultural agility for effective followership and give the critical competencies to accomplish the task.KeywordsFollowershipCultureRaceCultural agility and intelligence
The aim of this study was to examine the extent to which high school students' sense of purpose explained variance their self-esteem. Life purpose is a multidimensional construct that encompasses long-term goals, commitments, and intentions to fulfill aspirations that are meaningful to self and have consequences for the world beyond-the-self. For this study, we explored the role of three distinct dimensions of awareness of purpose, awakening to purpose, and altruistic purpose in predicting students' self-esteem. High school students' (N = 234) between 14 and 18 years, completed surveys on self-esteem and sense of purpose. A structural model was tested, in which the three latent factors of awakening to purpose, awareness of purpose, and altruistic purpose were specified to predict a latent factor of self-esteem. Analyses were conducted using maximum likelihood estimation method. Findings showed that both awareness of purpose and altruistic purpose contributed positively to adolescents' self-esteem. Awakening to purpose, on the other hand, was not significantly related to adolescents' self-esteem once their awareness of purpose and altruistic purpose were taken into account. This study expanded the growing body of research on the role of purpose in contributing to school students' personal wellbeing and development. We have discussed the findings of this study and previous literature in the context of practical implications that could support school personnel, teachers, and counselors to engage in wellness-oriented approaches that could strengthen students’ sense of purpose, and thereby their self-esteem.
Purpose
This research aims at examining how authentic leadership impacts social workers' withdrawal behaviors through two intermediate mechanisms: sense of calling and job satisfaction.
Design/methodology/approach
A cross-sectional survey was distributed among social workers from 26 social work organizations in the cities of Guangzhou, Shanghai, and Shenzhen in China ( N = 667). SPSS was used to conduct preliminary analyses and structural equation modeling (SEM) was used to test the hypotheses developed.
Findings
This study found that authentic leadership has a negative direct effect on social workers' turnover intention. In addition, social workers' sense of calling and job satisfaction mediate the relationship between their perceptions of authentic leader behaviors and turnover intention.
Practical implications
Based on this study's findings, the authors suggest social work organizations to invest in authentic leadership development to promote employees' psychological capacities and prevent employee turnover. Social work organizations need to foster employees' sense of calling to the field which improves the workplace outcomes.
Originality/value
This study is among those few empirical studies which help to validate the role of authentic leadership within social service organizations in China and shed light on understanding the underlying mechanisms through which authentic leaders affect organizational outcomes.
Purpose
This study aims to propose a model to examine the relationship between authentic leadership (AL), civility and burnout among health-care employees. This model proposes that civility mediates the relationship between AL and burnout.
Design/methodology/approach
Data were collected from 360 (72% response rate) registered health-care employees working in two large public hospital centers in Lisbon, Portugal. The sample was predominantly female (79.4%). The instruments used to measure the variables were the AL inventory, workplace civility scale and Maslach Burnout Inventory-General Survey. Hayes’ PROCESS macro for mediation analysis in SPSS was used to test the hypothesized model.
Findings
The results suggest that AL has a positive direct effect on civility, adding to the negative effect of the aforementioned variables on burnout. Furthermore, civility was found to have a mediating effect on AL and burnout.
Research limitations/implications
This study may be useful for hospital management and the health-care sector as a whole, underlining the importance of AL and civility in preventing detrimental effects of burnout among health-care employees.
Originality/value
Considering that mainstream literature on AL mainly focuses on nurses, there is a scarcity of literature integrating the relationship between AL, civility and burnout among a wide range of occupational groups in the health-care sector. Furthermore, the research model has not been previously introduced when considering the mediating role of civility in the relationship between AL and burnout.
In Judo, one of the combat sports, athletes must endure high intensity, long-term training sessions that extend for long durations to achieve outstanding performances. Authentic leadership plays an essential role in this combat sport by supporting players who may experience slower growth and in enduring the rigorous and long-term training. Despite this leadership type being essential for fostering development and success in judo, few studies have been conducted on authentic leadership in the context of sports. This study investigated the relationship between judo coaches’ authentic leadership and judo athletes’ self-management and perceived performance; it also investigated the mediating effects of self-management on the relationship between authentic leadership and perceived performance. We used a convenience sampling method to recruit 274 Korean judo athletes. We conducted frequency analysis, confirmatory factor analysis, reliability analysis, correlation analysis, and structural equation modeling. The results showed that judo coaches’ authentic leadership had a significant effect on athletes’ self-management, but no significant effect on their perceived performance. Additionally, judo athletes’ self-management had a significant effect on perceived performance. Further, self-management had a mediating (complete) effect on the relationship between judo coaches’ authentic leadership and athletes’ perceived performance. Our results show that judo coaches’ authentic leadership does not directly affect athletes’ perceived performance, but has an indirect effect through the mediating effect of self-management. In other words, judo coaches’ authentic leadership can directly enhance athletes’ self-management and indirectly enhance athletes’ perceived performance, thereby suggesting that it is an important factor in athletes’ performance progress.
Purpose: The main purpose of this study is to evaluate whether perceived authentic leadership has a mediating role in the relationship between employees’ emotional intelligence levels and their self- compassion perceptions.
Design/methodology/approach: All data in the research were obtained from 175 employees in 12 different tea factories. In the study, in which the descriptive and cross-sectional method was followed, the analysis of the data was made with Hayes’ (2013) simple mediation analysis approach within the scope of structural equation modeling.
Findings: The results of the analysis show that authentic leadership perceptions of employees are positively related to their emotional intelligence levels and self-compassion perceptions, and that perceived authentic leadership plays a mediating role in this relationship.
Research limitations/implications: The research has some limitations. First, the findings obtained in the course of the analyses are not generalized to the whole population, as they are collected from a specific sample. It should be mentioned that the results were obtained from different institutions. It can be said that the perceived authentic leadership approach plays a role in the relationship between individual-oriented positive attitudes such as emotional intelligence and self-compassion. Therefore, it is anticipated that the results obtained from the study contribute to the literature. In addition, handling the statistical aspect of the research only with the mediation analysis approach constitutes a separate limitation. Different statistical approaches can be adopted for future studies.
Originality/value: This study presents a fragment of the results of structural equation modeling conducted for tea industry employees in Turkey on the topic of authentic leadership.
JEL: L20, M12, M21
Creativity is a critical determinant of organizations’ abilities to compete and perform in rapidly changing and complex contexts. Though scholars have identified several contextual factors, such as leadership, that motivate employees’ creative performance, the psychological mechanisms and boundary conditions underpinning this relationship are relatively unknown. Drawing on social exchange theory, we propose that a proactive orientation, a psychological state rooted in the cognitive and behavioral process of setting a proactive goal and striving to achieve it, is a critical mechanism linking authentic leadership to employees’ creativity. Across two field studies of working professionals in Central Europe and the U.S., we show how authentic leadership fuels employees’ creative performance through a proactive orientation and introduce leader–member exchange (LMX) as an important moderator of this mediated relationship. In Study 1, using a sample of European manufacturing employees, we find support for the mediating role of a proactive orientation linking authentic leadership to creative performance, above, and beyond the effects of ethical leadership. In Study 2, using a sample of university staff, we replicate this finding and extend it by highlighting the moderating role of LMX on the authentic leadership-proactive orientation relationship.
The study of leadership is a rapidly evolving, multi-faceted field. Leadership is conceptualized as a social and cultural phenomenon, which cannot be fully understood from a single perspective. The leader, the follower, the context, and the interactions amongst these elements must all be considered. The Oxford Handbook of Leadership explores the complex relationship between leader, led, and the environment that constitutes leadership. Divided into five parts, it provides comprehensive coverage of the field, exploring the roles individual attributes, training, and development play in generating a leader who is capable of performing effectively. The book also examines the relationship between leadership and contextual factors in terms of an organizational role, one's culture, and a specific setting (e.g. military, higher education, and presidential). It furthermore takes a critical look at the extent to which leader and follower behavior in a social and/or organizational context are tied. The book also gives a consideration of what leader effectiveness means (i.e., what differentiates effective from ineffective leadership, including insights and scholarship that have emerged regarding this issue). A concluding chapter provides some overall comments concerning the current state of leadership research and some thoughts about potentially fruitful directions. Leadership research has come a long way, but the inherent dimensionality of the field leaves room for new insights and new directions.
Purpose
The purpose of the present study is to contribute to the debate on innovative work behaviour (IWB). Employees are expected to exhibit innovative behaviour that can realize, sustain and implement new ideas. This study explores the role of workplace spirituality (WPS) in advancing employees' innovative work behaviour (IWB). Furthermore, this study investigates how employees' perceived working conditions moderate the relationship between WPS and IWB.
Design/methodology/approach
The sample comprised 516 employees working in different supply chain companies in India. The researchers used correlation, hierarchical regression analysis and the PROCESS macro in SPSS.
Findings
The results highlighted that the four measurements of WPS (Swadharma, a sense of community, authenticity and Lokasangraha) significantly predict IWB among employees of selected companies. Also, the results suggested the significant moderating effects of decision authority, social support and autonomy on IWB.
Originality/value
Drawing from broaden and build theory and theory of intangible resources, the present study demonstrates that WPS positively impacts the employee's IWB. Further, this paper also shows the moderating effects of three dimensions of perceived working conditions between WPS and IWB, which is under-explored in previous research.
In cultures where organizational codes of structure embed deeper historical and traditional values,
specifically in Asia, existing mainstream leadership styles like the paternalistic one may present challenges
for the servant-driven philosophy of leadership to propagate the empowerment of followers. Thus, whether
followers respect a servant leader in high power-centric cultures still represents a literature gap. This paper
presents an exploratory review of the interplaying factors influencing respect for leaders, where servant
leadership and authoritarian style within paternalism meld, in Asian high-power distance cultures, as part
of a larger study aimed at determining how leaders may better understand the process of gaining followers’
respect. The servant leadership diffusion in Asia and critique, continued by a deeper understanding of the
Asian followers, their relationship to authority, and the influence of cultural expectations are illustrated, as
the basis to build a case for servant leadership theory in Asia, toward a focus area for future research.
The authors conducted a review of seminal and current theories of a servant, respectful, and authoritarian
leadership styles, power, as well as followership literature, with a specific focus on followers’ respect for
the leader in Asian high-power distance cultures. The initial criteria for inclusion involved a sample indexed
in databases of EBSCO, ProQuest, and Google Scholar. Key search term of servant leadership was used in
the title, abstract, or keywords, written in English. A total of 111 articles were found relevant, of which 8
were excluded. The final research corpus was comprised of 103 papers published between 2001 to 2023.
To the best of the authors’ knowledge, this is one of the first literature reviews to have a specific focus on
followers’ respect for the servant leader in Asian high-power distance cultures
Bu çalışmada, otantik liderliğin hem iş-yaşam dengesi hem de yetenek yönetimi üzerindeki ve yetenek yönetiminin iş-yaşam dengesi üzerindeki etkileri ile otantik liderliğin iş-yaşam dengesi üzerindeki etkisinde yetenek yönetiminin aracılığının olup olmadığı da araştırılmıştır. Araştırmanın evrenini, Konya merkez ilçelerdeki araştırma hastaneleri oluşturmaktadır. Araştırma AMOS’ta gerçekleştirilmiş olup, elde edilen sonuçlar neticesinde bu üç değişken arasındaki ilişkinin olup olmadığının değerlendirmesi yapılmıştır. Çalışmanın sonuçlarına göre, otantik liderliğin, hem iş yaşam dengesi üzerinde hem de yetenek yönetimi üzerinde pozitif ve anlamlı etkisi varken, yetenek yönetiminin de iş-yaşam dengesi üzerinde pozitif ve anlamlı etkisi vardır. Yine otantik liderliğin iş-yaşam dengesi üzerindeki etkisinde yetenek yönetimin kısmi aracılığının olduğu sonucuna ulaşılmıştır. AMOS’ta yapılan analizler sonucunda üçlü etki elde edilmiş olduğundan, hem otantik liderlik ve iş-yaşam dengesi hem otantik liderlik ve yetenek yönetimi hem de yetenek yönetimi ve iş-yaşam dengesi arasında pozitif ve anlamlı ilişkinin olduğu tespit edilmiştir. Anahtar Kelimeler: Liderlik, Otantik Liderlik, İş-Yaşam Dengesi, Yetenek, Yetenek Yönetimi
The authors argue that persons derive in-group expectancies from self-knowledge. This implies that perceivers process information about novel in-groups on the basis of the self-congruency of this information and not simply its valence. In Experiment 1. participants recalled more negative self-discrepant behaviors about an in-group than about an our-group. Experiment 2 replicated this effect under low cognitive load but not under high load. Experiment 3 replicated the effect using an idiographic procedure. These findings suggest that perceivers engage in elaborative inconsistency processing when they encounter negative self-discrepant information about an in-group but not when they encounter negative self-congruent information. Participants were also more likely to attribute self-congruent information to the in-group than to the out-group, regardless of information valence. Implications for models of social memory and self-categorization theory are discussed.
Reactions to trait self-enhancers were investigated in 2 longitudinal studies of person.perception in discussion groups. Groups of 4-6 participants met 7 times for 20 rain. After Meetings 1 and 7, group members rated their perceptions of one another. In Study 1, trait self-enhancement was indexed by measures of narcissism and self-deceptive enhancement. At the first meeting, self-enhancers made positive impressions: They were seen as agreeable, well adjusted, and competent. After 7 weeks, however, they were rated negatively and gave self-evaluations discrepant with peer evaluations they received. In Study 2, an independent sample of observers (close acquaintances) enabled a pretest index of discrepancy self-enhancement: It predicted the same deteriorating pattern of interpersonal perceptions as the other three trait measures. Nonetheless, all self-enhancement measures correlated positively with self-esteem.
Conventional wisdom has regarded low self-esteem as an important cause of violence, but the opposite view is theoretically viable. An interdisciplinary review of evidence about aggression, crime, and violence contradicted the view that low self-esteem is an important cause. Instead, violence appears to be most commonly a result of threatened egotism--that is, highly favorable views of self that are disputed by some person or circumstance. Inflated, unstable, or tentative beliefs in the self's superiority may be most prone to encountering threats and hence to causing violence. The mediating process may involve directing anger outward as a way of avoiding a downward revision of the self-concept.
Traditional conceptions of interpersonal flexibility emphasize two critical components: (a) a wide range of interpersonal responses and (b) situational appropriateness. Most current measures are based on standard trait ratings, which cannot address situational adjustment. In place of trait ratings, we suggest the use of capability ratings, that is, self-reports of the ease of performing social behaviors when required by the situation. Our proposed index of flexibility, the Functional Flexibility Index (FFI), is the composite of 16 interpersonal capabilities. In Study 1, factor analyses indicated that the FFI is distinct from other widely used flexibility measures. Study 2 supported the validity of the FFI by showing substantial correlations with peer ratings of interpersonal flexibility. In Studies 3 and 4, the FFI outperformed other flexibility measures in predicting adjustment. Another form of interpersonal variability, situationality, is the tendency to view one's personality as being dependent on the situation. Situational individuals reported lower self-esteem than nonsituational individuals. Measures of functional flexibility and situationality were found to be orthogonal.
The authors examined the extent to which self-esteem (SE) stability relates to self-regulatory styles, self-concept clarity (SCC), and goal-related affect. The results supported the notion that individuals with unstable SE are not likely to possess a strong sense of self. Specifically, unstable as compared to stable SE was associated with (a) self-regulatory styles reflecting lower levels of self-determination, (b) lower SCC, and (c) goal-related affect characterized by greater tenseness and less interest. Theoretical implications are discussed.
The authors examined whether stability and level of self-esteem interact with daily hassles in predicting severity of depressive symptoms. As predicted, Time 2 depression scores (with Time 1 scores controlled) were highest among individuals with unstable self-esteem who reported considerable daily hassles. By contrast, self-esteem level did not interact with daily hassles to predict Time 2 depressive symptoms. These findings held even after negative self-concept items were eliminated from the depressive symptom inventories. Additional analyses revealed that self-esteem stability accounted for variance independent of the tendency to over generalize following failure or negative event attributional style. These findings support the contention that unstable self-esteem reflects fragile feelings of self-worth that exacerbate depressive symptoms under certain circumstances.
Personality assessment measure for global self-esteem and components (sources) of self-esteem (e.g., competence, lovability, body appearance).
Recent interest in the implicit self-esteem construct has led to the creation and use of several new assessment tools whose psychometric properties have not been fully explored. In this article, the authors investigated the reliability and validity of seven implicit self-esteem measures. The different implicit measures did not correlate with each other, and they correlated only weakly with measures of explicit self-esteem. Only some of the implicit measures demonstrated good test–retest reliabilities, and overall, the implicit measures were limited in their ability to predict our criterion variables. Finally, there was some evidence that implicit self-esteem measures are sensitive to context. The implications of these findings for the future of implicit self-esteem research are discussed.
I: Background.- 1. An Introduction.- 2. Conceptualizations of Intrinsic Motivation and Self-Determination.- II: Self-Determination Theory.- 3. Cognitive Evaluation Theory: Perceived Causality and Perceived Competence.- 4. Cognitive Evaluation Theory: Interpersonal Communication and Intrapersonal Regulation.- 5. Toward an Organismic Integration Theory: Motivation and Development.- 6. Causality Orientations Theory: Personality Influences on Motivation.- III: Alternative Approaches.- 7. Operant and Attributional Theories.- 8. Information-Processing Theories.- IV: Applications and Implications.- 9. Education.- 10. Psychotherapy.- 11. Work.- 12. Sports.- References.- Author Index.
Two studies addressed parallel questions about the correlates and consequences of self-enhancement bias. Study 1 was conducted in a laboratory context and examined self-enhancing evaluations of performance in a group-interaction task. Study 2 assessed students' illusory beliefs about their academic ability when they first entered college and then followed them longitudinally to test claims about the long-term benefits of positive illusions. Both studies showed that self-enhancement bills was related to narcissism. ego involvement, self-serving attributions, and positive affect. Study 2 found that self-enhancement was associated with decreasing levels of self-esteem and well-being as well as with increasing disengagement front the academic context. Self-enhancement did not predict higher academic performance or higher graduate rates. Thus, the findings suggest that self-enhancing beliefs may be adaptive in the short term but not in the long term.
In 2 studies, college students evidenced differing levels of the "Big-Five" traits in different roles, supporting social-contextualist assumptions regarding trait expression. Supporting organismic theories of personality, within-subject variations in the Big Five were predictable from variations in the degree of psychological authenticity felt in different roles. In addition, two concepts of self-integrat ion or true selfhood were examined: 1 based on high consistency of trait profiles across roles (i.e., lowself-concept differentiation; E. M. Donahue, R. W. Robins, B. W. Roberts, & O. P. John, 1993) and 1 based on high mean levels of authenticity felt across roles. The 2 self-integration measures were found to be independent predictors of psychological and physical well-being indicating that both self-consistency and psychological authenticity are vital for organized functioning and health.
This paper has two purposes. First, I discuss three interactionist approaches to aggression that can be found in the literature. Most attention is given to an approach that interprets aggression as punishment for perceived wrongdoing, since that approach has never been fully explained. I argue that each approach is useful but limited in its ability to account for how aggressive encounters develop. Then, using some of the ideas developed in the theoretical section, I analyze self-reports of aggressive encounters of different levels of severity. An attempt is made to describe in a theoretically informed way what occurs in interactions that culminate in an aggressive attack.
The book, Letters from Jenny, by Gordon All port (1965) presented a series of letters written over an extended period by a woman named Jenny to her son, Ross. Jenny was a poor, hard-working woman who sacrificed almost everything she had for Ross. She supported him in an affluent lifestyle at an Ivy League college, while she barely had enough to eat. All that mattered to her was his well-being. Yet, she failed miserably in bringing fulfillment and happiness to him as well as to herself. When Ross began to form relationships with other women, Jenny disowned him, very likely contributing to his early death. She then derived more happiness from his memory than she had from his presence.
This study examined three orientations toward the relation between peer approval and global self-worth among young adolescents: (a) Self-worth is based upon peer approval of the self, a looking glass self-orientation; (b) self-worth is viewed as preceding approval from others; and (c) no connection is reported between self-worth and peer approval. A number of liabilities of a looking glass self-orientation were hypothesized and supported by the findings. Participants basing their self-worth on peer approval reported the greatest preoccupation with peer approval, they were most likely to be distracted from their schoolwork by peers (according to teachers' reports), they perceived the greatest fluctuations in both classmate approval and their self-worth, and they reported lower levels of classmate approval (confirmed by teachers) and self-worth, compared to those reporting that self-worth precedes approval. Findings were discussed in terms of the need for a model that will elucidate the precursors of these three orientations and their correlates.
W. James (1890) argued that the importance people attach to their self-views determines the impact of these self-views on people's global feelings of self-worth. Despite the intuitive appeal of this position, most research on the relation between people's specific self-views and their global self-esteem has failed to support this assertion. B. W. Pelham and W. B. Swann (1989) provided evidence in support for W. James's assertion, but H. W. Marsh (1993) criticized this evidence. In this article, further evidence is presented for W. James's (1890) assertion. In addition, the favorability of people's specific self-views is identified as a moderator of the extent to which belief importance is related to self-esteem. The theoretical implications and limitations of these findings are discussed.
A critical question in self-esteem research is whether people's reactions to success and failure are guided by their global self-esteem level or by their more specific beliefs about their abilities and attributes. To address this issue, the authors led participants to experience success or failure on an alleged test and then assessed their cognitive and emotional reactions to these outcomes. In Experiment 1, specific self-views predicted participants' cognitive reactions to their performance outcomes, whereas global self-esteem predicted participants' emotional reactions to their performance outcomes. In Experiment 2, global self-esteem predicted participants' emotional reactions to their performance outcomes even after participants' beliefs about their more specific abilities and attributes were taken into account. These findings suggest that when it comes to understanding people's emotional reactions to success and failure, the effects of global self-esteem are not reducible to the way people think about their constituent qualities.
Four studies sought to differentiate between self-enhancement and self-protection as motivations self-handicapping. High-self-esteem participants self-handicapped to enhance success, whereas low-self-esteem participants self-handicapped to protect against the esteem-threatening implications of failure. This was supported with 2 different forms of self-handicapping and corroborated by attributional statements regarding the implications of handicaps for performance outcomes. Thus, different people use the same (self-handicapping) strategy for different reasons. Also, patterns of social motivation vary with level of trait self-esteem.
Four experiments supported the hypothesis that people see themselves as having rich, multifaceted, and adaptive personalities that result in the perceptions that they possess more traits than other people and are less predictable than other people. Experiment 1 showed that people perceived themselves as having more of opposing pairs of traits than they perceived others as having when they rated both self and an acquaintance on each trait in the pair separately, (e.g., serious and carefree). When the ratings were made on bipolar scales (e.g., serious vs. carefree), the self was rated as closer to the midpoint than was the acquaintance. Experiment 2 showed that the latter result reflects people's belief that they possess both traits in opposing pairs. Subjects in Experiment 2 also rated their behavior as less predictable than that of others. Experiment 3 replicated Experiment 2 and showed that people perceive that they have both members of pairs of opposing traits independent of the social desirability and observability of the traits. Experiment 4 indicated that familiar and liked persons are perceived to have more traits than unfamiliar and disliked persons.
This article examines the association between evaluative and knowledge components of the self. Four studies tested the hypothesis that the self-concepts of low-self-esteem (LSE) people are characterized by less clarity or certainty than those of high-self-esteem (HSE) people. LSE Ss exhibited less extremity and self-reported confidence when rating themselves on bipolar trait adjectives (Study 1), less temporal stability in their trait ratings over a 2-month interval (Study 2), less congruence between their self-concepts and their subsequent perceptions of situation-specific behavior and memory for prior behavior (Study 3), and less internal consistency, lower self-rated confidence, and longer reaction times when making me/not me responses to pairs of opposite traits (Study 4). Alternative accounts of the results and the implications of self-concept clarity for understanding the pervasive impact of self-esteem on behavior are discussed.
Individuals who rated themselves favorably or unfavorably on the dimensions of creativity and intelligence (or high or low in global self-esteem) in a mass-testing situation subsequently received either positive or negative feedback pertaining to their performance on a ''creative intelligence'' task. Immediately following, participants rated themselves on dimensions related to task performance as well as on unrelated dimensions (e.g., rude, shallow, polite, neat). Half the participants were asked to base their ratings on how they typically felt about themselves (typical self-appraisals); the rest were asked to base their ratings on how they currently felt (current self-appraisals). As predicted, whereas typical self-appraisals did not differ as a function of the feedback received, current appraisals did, but only among individuals who had previously rated themselves as relatively low in creativity and intelligence. Moreover, these differences emerged on trait dimensions that were unrelated to creativity and intelligence as well as on those that were related. Among individuals who had previously rated themselves unfavorably, self-esteem related affect also differed as a function of the feedback they received. When global self-esteem was used as the grouping factor, the results differed somewhat, but still supported the basic conclusion that feedback has a greater effect on the current appraisals of low than of high self-esteem individuals. Discussion centered on the existence of both stable and unstable components of self-evaluations, different forms of feedback generalization, and individual differences in self-appraisal responsiveness to evaluative information.
The aim of this study was to determine whether an individual's defense style significantly influences his or her relationship satisfaction in the transition to parenthood. Questionnaire measures of relationship satisfaction and personality (including defense style) were administered in the midtrimester of pregnancy to 157 couples expecting their first child. Follow-up assessments of relationship satisfaction were conducted at 4 and 12 months postpartum. The strongest predictor of current relationship satisfaction for both mothers and fathers was prior relationship satisfaction. In addition, measures of defense style were found to contribute significantly to the prediction of relationship satisfaction at both postpartum assessments. The results support the usefulness of models of defense style for understanding processes of coping and adjustment in normal adults. Methodological issues in the measurement of defense style and gender differences in defense functioning are discussed.
Considerable controversy has surrounded the issue of whether self-evaluations are relatively stable or subject to substantial moment-to-moment shifts. In this article, we suggest that there is both a stable and an unstable component of self-evaluations. We propose that the stable component is reflected in one's TYPICAL self-appraisals and that the unstable component is reflected in one's CURRENT self-appraisals. We reasoned that typical appraisals would change little, if at all, following an evaluative event, whereas current appraisals would show substantial change. To test this hypothesis, we had subjects rate themselves along specific dimensions based on how they would evaluate themselves right now and how they would typically evaluate themselves. These ratings were made both before and after subjects received positive, negative, or no evaluative feedback. The results indicated that current self-appraisals declined substantially following negative feedback and became more positive following either positive or no evaluative feedback. Typical appraisals were much more resistant to change, although they did show an overall pattern of change similar to current appraisals. The relationship of self-appraisal change to emotional reactions was also assessed. Correlational analyses revealed that the magnitude of change in current, but not typical appraisals, was strongly related to emotional reactions. This was particularly true following negative feedback. Theoretical implications are discussed.
Self-affirmation processes are being activated by information that threatens the perceived adequacy or integrity of the self and as running their course until this perception is restored through explanation, rationalization, and/or action. The purpose of these constant explanations (and rationalizations) is to maintain a phenomenal experience of the self-self-conceptions and images as adaptively and morally adequate—that is, as competent, good, coherent, unitary, stable, capable of free choice, capable of controlling important outcomes, and so on. The research reported in this chapter focuses on the way people cope with the implications of threat to their self-regard rather than on the way they cope with the threat itself. This chapter analyzes the way coping processes restore self-regard rather than the way they address the provoking threat itself.
The authors examined the extent to which level and stability of fifth-grade children's self-esteem predicted intrinsic motivation and related achievement behaviors, and reasons for anger. The findings indicated that the more unstable the children's self-esteem, the lower their scores on measures of curiosity/interest and preference for challenge. In addition, the lower the children's self-esteem, the lower their preference for challenge. Additional analyses indicated that (a) self-evaluations of scholastic competence mediated the effects of both stability and level of self-esteem and (b) day-to-day variability in self-evaluations of scholastic competence was so intertwined with stability of self-esteem that neither uniquely predicted either curiosity/interest or preference for challenge. Finally, the more unstable the children's self-esteem, the greater the likelihood that they reported that they would become angry because of the self-esteem-threatening aspects of aversive interpersonal events. Theoretical implications are discussed.
The preceding comments from studies of young people by myself and colleagues are personally very distressing. Theoretically, they are perplexing. It is commonly asserted in the literature that the self-concept is a theory, a cognitive construction, and that its architecture—by evolutionary design—is extremely functional (see Allport, 1961; Bartlett, 1932; Brim, 1976; Damon & Hart, 1988; Epstein, 1973, 1981, 1991; Greenwald, 1980; Harter, 1983; Kelly, 1955; Lecky, 1945; Lynch, 1981; Markus, 1980; Piaget, 1965; Rogers, 1951; Sarbin, 1962). One such widely touted function is to maintain high self-esteem. Considerable evidence now exists that most people do exhibit a modest self-enhancing bias (Taylor & Brown, 1988).
In contrast to measures of explicit self-esteem, which assess introspectively accessible self-evaluations, measures of implicit self-esteem assess the valence of unconscious, introspectively inaccessible associations to the self. This experiment is the first to document a relationship between individual differences in implicit self-esteem and social behavior. Participants completed either a self-relevant or a self-irrelevant interview, and were then rated bythe interviewer on their anxiety. When the interview was self-relevant, apparent anxiety was greater for participants low in implicit self-esteem than for participants high in self-esteem; implicit self-esteem did not predict anxiety when the interview was self-irrelevant. Explicit self-esteem did not predict apparent anxiety in either interview, but did predict participants' explicit self-judgments of anxiety. Self-handicapping about interview performance was greater for participants low in both explicit and implicit self-esteem than for those high in these measures. The experiment provides direct evidence that effects of implicit and explicit self-esteem may be dissociated.