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The Experience of Gambling and its Role in Problem Gambling
Abstract
This paper reports on the results of a psychological study conducted in Ontario, Canada, that attempted to answer the question of why some people develop gambling problems while others do not. A group of social gamblers (n = 38), sub-clinical problem gamblers (n = 33) and pathological gamblers (n = 34) completed a battery of questionnaires. Compared to non-problem gamblers, pathological gamblers were more likely to report experiencing big wins early in their gambling career, stressful life events, impulsivity, depression, using escape to cope with stress and a poorer understanding of random events. We grouped these variables into three risk factors: cognitive/experiential, emotional and impulsive and tested the extent to which each risk factor could differentiate non-problem and pathological gamblers. Each risk factor correctly identified about three-quarters of the pathological gamblers. More than half (53%) of the pathological gamblers had elevated scores on all three risk factors. Interestingly, 60% of the sub-clinical cases had elevated scores on only one risk factor. The results are interpreted in terms of a bio-psycho-social model of gambling addiction.
... People generally demonstrate self-awareness that they are acting irrationally (Delfabbro et al. 2006;Gilbert et al. 1990;Menzel 2013;Risen 2016), and even when provided with disconfirming evidence that renders a belief as inaccurate, many will still fail to reflect on their behaviour and will continue to act irrationally (Delfabbro et al. 2006;Gilbert et al. 1990;Mezirow et al. 1990;Risen 2016;Turner et al. 2006). For example, Ellerby and Tunney (2017) showed that explicitly telling participants that outcomes were random with no predictable pattern had no effect on choice behaviour or apophenia (finding patterns or connections where none exist). ...
... Gaboury and Ladouceur (1989) and Griffiths (1994) have found similar results, with subjects displaying irrational decision-making despite demonstrating knowledge regarding the role of chance and their odds of winning. As problem gamblers have been shown to have a superior understanding of the probability associated with specific gambling activities (compared to social gamblers and the general population) (Turner et al. 2006), an inability to think rationally about chance and probability is unlikely to reflect a lack of knowledge, but rather, an unwillingness to apply contextual knowledge in a productive way. ...
... Gamblers are often aware when their gambling decisions are irrational but tend to proceed regardless (Delfabbro et al. 2006;Gilbert et al. 1990;Menzel 2013;Risen 2016;Turner et al. 2006). Interventions based purely on the superficial content of the belief, that serve to warn against problematic game play, or relate to basic gambling probabilities are therefore unlikely to be effective in sparking enough critical reflection to alter pre-existing beliefs about gambling (Cloutier et al. 2006;Hare 2006;Blaszczynski 2005, 2007;Monaghan et al. 2009). ...
Dual process theory suggests that people use two processing systems to filter information and form judgments that direct a course of action: an intuitive and an analytic system. While the intuitive system is necessary for efficient and effective daily functioning, reliance on fast, intuitive thinking when gambling is likely to result in biased or flawed decision-making. Those who gamble tend to endorse an array of fallacious or irrational beliefs that contribute to risky decision-making and excessive gambling. This paper argues that gambling beliefs may be developed and reinforced through underlying cognitive mechanisms described by dual process theory. More specifically, gamblers tend to apply assumptions and theories developed based on their understanding of the natural world to artificial gambling contexts where such rules do not apply. As a result, gamblers develop biased interpretations and understandings for how gambling works, which tend to align with personal schemas, experiences and gambling motivations. These beliefs are used in future gambling contexts to inform decision-making. Gamblers are often unlikely or unwilling to reflect on the veracity of beliefs as they are often used to justify gambling behaviours. Educating gamblers on how they make decisions and encouraging them to think more analytically may help to reduce the strength with which erroneous beliefs about gambling are endorsed, resulting in safer gambling decisions.
... It is well known that many gamblers lack a real understanding of the nature of random chance, probability, and the house edge. Research has shown that persons with problem gambling have a poorer understanding of the nature of random chance compared to nonproblem gamblers (Ladouceur and Walker 1996;Rogers 1998;Turner et al. 2006Turner et al. , 2008a. In addition, many harbor irrational beliefs, such as an illusion of control, a false notion that they can predict the outcome of a game, and a number of other erroneous beliefs about the games and their ability to beat the odds (Ladouceur and Walker 1996;Rogers 1998;Toneatto et al. 1997;Turner et al. 2008a;Vergura 2016;Wagenaar 1988). ...
... (1) A shortened version of the Random Events Knowledge Test (REKT; Turner et al. 2006). ...
... In addition, the tutorial was evaluated using two pre-test/post-test questionnaires: a content questionnaire and a short version of the REKT (Turner et al. 2006). Confirming hypothesis 2, both clients and counselors showed a significant increase in their scores on the content questionnaire. ...
This paper describes the pilot evaluation of an Internet-based intervention, designed to teach counselors and problem gamblers about how electronic gambling machines (EGMs) work. This study evaluated the tutorial using assessment tools, such as rating scales and test of knowledge about EGMs and random chance. The study results are based on a number of samples, including problem gambling counselors (n = 25) and problem gamblers (n = 26). The interactive tutorial was positively rated by both clients and counselors. In addition, we found a significant improvement in scores on a content test about EGM games for both clients and counselors. An analysis of the specific items suggests that the effects of the tutorial were mainly on those items that were most directly related to the content of the tutorial and did not always generalize to other items. This tutorial is available for use with clients and for education counselors. The data also suggest that the tutorial is equally effective in group settings and in individual settings. These results are promising and illustrate that the tool can be used to teach counselors and clients about game design. Furthermore, research is needed to evaluate its impact on gambling behavior.
... This distortion results from the assumption that the gambler can control the outcome of gambling; in turn, these errors may induce the development or maintenance of problem gambling behaviors (Yakovenko et al., 2016). Hence, it is necessary to correct any misconceptions related to the control of gambling outcomes (Turner, Zangeneh, & Littman-Sharp, 2006;Yakovenko et al., 2016). ...
... Systematic education on preventing gambling, conveying the seriousness of gambling, and teaching how to use money wisely are needed for not only adolescents but also parents. Although the identification of these 3 gambling factors are not new, previous studies have considered them to be meaningful gambling-related information (Delfabbro & Thrupp, 2003;King et al., 2010;Lorenz & Yaffee, 1988;Parker et al., 2008;Potenza et al., 2011;Turner et al., 2006;Welte, Barnes, Tidwell, & Hoffman, 2009), which indicates that the feature selection in this study was correct. Although this study addressed the meaning of and preventative actions for the three gambling factors, it did not mean that only these three factors should be used to train a machine learning model. ...
Background and aims:
Problem gambling among adolescents has recently attracted attention because of easy access to gambling in online environments and its serious effects on adolescent lives. We proposed a machine learning-based analysis method for predicting the degree of problem gambling.
Methods:
Of the 17,520 respondents in the 2018 National Survey on Youth Gambling Problems dataset (collected by the Korea Center on Gambling Problems), 5,045 students who had gambled in the past 3 months were included in this study. The Gambling Problem Severity Scale was used to provide the binary label information. After the random forest-based feature selection method, we trained four models: random forest (RF), support vector machine (SVM), extra trees (ETs), and ridge regression.
Results:
The online gambling behavior in the past 3 months, experience of winning money or goods, and gambling of personal relationship were three factors exhibiting the high feature importance. All four models demonstrated an area under the curve (AUC) of >0.7; ET showed the highest AUC (0.755), RF demonstrated the highest accuracy (71.8%), and SVM showed the highest F1 score (0.507) on a testing set.
Discussion:
The results indicate that machine learning models can convey meaningful information to support predictions regarding the degree of problem gambling.
Conclusion:
Machine learning models trained using important features showed moderate accuracy in a large-scale Korean adolescent dataset. These findings suggest that the method will help screen adolescents at risk of problem gambling. We believe that expandable machine learning-based approaches will become more powerful as more datasets are collected.
... Problem gambling among adolescents can seriously affect adolescents' social, family, academic, and financial lives A recent study [6] reported that 1% of secondary students fell into the "red" category on the Canadian Adolescent Gambling Index (CAGI) indicating that they scored in the range of a severe gambling problem and an additional 3.3% of students scored in the "yellow" category indicating that they had a subclinical level of symptoms. In addition, research has shown that most male severe problem gamblers report starting gambling during adolescence [7][8][9]. ...
... However, we did not find any study that examined the association between problem gambling and TBI in an adolescent sample. This is surprising given the evidence suggesting that TBIs are common among adolescents [31], that problem gambling may have origins in the adolescent years [7,9], and that TBI and gambling share a number of comorbidities (e.g., substance abuse, depression). Interestingly we did find reports of poor performance on gamblingbased decision making tasks in adults [29,30] and in youth [32], and gambling is mentioned as a potential barrier for the treatment of TBI [33]. ...
Traumatic brain injury (TBI) is characterized by a change in brain function after an external force or sudden movement to the head. TBI is associated with risk-taking, impulsivity, psychological distress, substance abuse, and violent crime. Previous studies have also linked problem gambling to TBI, but these studies have not controlled for possible confounding variables such as mental health problems and hazardous drinking which are also linked to TBI. This study examines the relationship between problem gambling and TBI among adolescents. Data were obtained from the 2011, 2013 and 2015 cycles of the OSDUHS, a biennial cross-sectional school-based study of children in grades 7 to 12 (N = 9,198). Logistic regression was used to estimate adjusted odds ratios (AOR) in controlled and uncontrolled analyses. Adjusting for sex and grade only, problem gambling was associated with a history of TBI (AOR = 2.8). This association remained significant after adjusting for hazardous drinking and suicidality (AOR = 2.0). In addition, problem gambling had a statistically significant relationship with being male (AOR = 4.7), hazardous drinking (AOR = 4.5), and suicidality (AOR = 3.1). This study provides further data to suggest a link between TBI and problem gambling. However, research is needed on the causal relationship between these variables and the potential implications for treatment and prevention.
... The house edge e. The cost of play (for amount bet and frequency of play) Many gamblers (both adult and youth) lack a real understanding of the nature of random chance, probability, and the house edge (Turner, Jain, Spence, & Zangeneh, 2008;Turner, Littman-Sharp, & Zangeneh, 2006;Turner, Macdonald, Bartoshuk, & Zangeneh, 2008a;Turner, Macdonald, & Somerset, 2008). Many gamblers of all ages need to be educated to understand basic concepts of random change such as the fact that a machine is never due for a win after a string of losses, that throwing four ''heads'' in a row does not increase the likelihood of ''tails'' coming up on the next throw, and that the gambling establishment ensures that it makes money by having a house edge built into the game. ...
... It is likely that anyone can develop a gambling problem. However, research has found that problem gambling is associated with depression, anxiety, impulsiveness, past wins, and erroneous beliefs (Blaszczynski & Nower, 2002;Turner, Jain, et al., 2008;Turner et al., 2006). Because of issues ranging from retirement to bereavement, older adults are at high risk for depression, anxiety, and other related complications (Ariyabuddhiphongs, 2012;Bergh & Kuhlom, 1994;Bjelde, Chromy, & Pankow, 2008), which in turn increases their risk for gambling problems. ...
The purpose of this research and development project was to describe the complete gambling experience and to develop best practices for the prevention of problem gambling among older adults (55 years and over) in Ontario. The challenging task of developing best practices involved integrated research and development, as well as knowledge translation and exchange (KTE) throughout the project. We developed a large, multi-organizational, multidisciplinary research team, as well as prevention and treatment work groups comprising investigators, KTE personnel, knowledge users, and service providers from key stakeholder organizations. Research dealing specifically with older adults is scarce; thus, research from other age groups was also drawn upon for this report. We incorporated a variety of types of evidence, including empirical, theoretical, expert opinion, practice-based, and normative. To obtain feedback ahead of finalizing the best practices, we disseminated preliminary best practices to key informants and other knowledge users and service providers. This feedback was incorporated into the current document. This paper presents the first set of evidence-based best practices for the prevention of problem gambling among older adults, including evidence sources, commentary, and references. We hope that these best practices help enhance prevention programs, services, and practices. In addition, we hope that this study prompts future research that examines areas that are currently insufficiently researched and helps provoke a dialogue that will lead to a broader knowledge base to guide prevention policies and practices directed at this growing segment of the population. © 2019, Centre for Addiction and Mental Health. All rights reserved.
... In particular, adolescent problem gamblers' factual knowledge of probabilities of events in gambling, and their susceptibility to reasoning biases related to gambling outcomes, has been investigated. It has been found that adolescent problem gamblers are more prone to holding mistaken views about randomness when compared with non-problem gamblers and they have erroneous beliefs about their chances of winning (Delfabbro, Lahn, & Grabosky, 2006;Delfabbro, Lambos, King, & Puglies, 2009;Turner, Zangeneh, & Littman-Sharp, 2006). Additionally, Donati, Chiesi, and Primi (2013) found that the ability to correctly reason about probabilities showed a significant negative relationship with problematic gambling behavior. ...
... The results were in line with previous studies confirming that probabilistic reasoning abilities are related to reasoning about the likelihood of the different options (e.g., Huizenga et al., 2007;van Duijvenvoorde et al., 2010;van Leijenhorst et al., 2008). Probabilistic reasoning also acts as a protective factor against developing problem gambling habits among adolescents (e.g., Delfabbro et al., 2006;Delfabbro et al., 2009;Donati et al., 2013;Turner et al., 2006). Moreover, we confirmed the relationship between probabilistic reasoning ability and cognitive abilities Klaczynski, 2001;Kokis et al., 2002). ...
Probabilistic reasoning skills are important in various contexts. The aim of the present study was to develop a new instrument (the Probabilistic Reasoning Scale - PRS) to accurately measure low levels of probabilistic reasoning ability in order to identify people with difficulties in this domain. Item response theory was applied to construct the scale, and to investigate differential item functioning (i.e., whether the items were invariant) across genders, educational levels, and languages. Additionally, we tested the validity of the scale by investigating the relationships between the PRS and several other measures. The results revealed that the items had a low level of difficulty. Nonetheless, the discriminative measures showed that the items can discriminate between individuals with different trait levels, and the test information function showed that the scale accurately assesses low levels of probabilistic reasoning ability. Additionally, through investigating differential item functioning, the measurement equivalence of the scale at the item level was confirmed for gender, educational status, and language (i.e., Italian and English). Concerning validity, the results showed the expected correlations with numerical skills, math-related attitudes, statistics achievement, IQ, reasoning skills, and risky choices both in the Italian and British samples. In conclusion, the PRS is an ideal instrument for identifying individuals who struggle with basic probabilistic reasoning, and who could be targeted by specific interventions.
... Thiruvalluvar also highlights how the initial gains in gambling will create an allure and false sense of control, ultimately leading to inevitable failure and loss. This observation aligns with literature suggesting that early big wins can predict or associate with future problem gambling (Rockloff & Hing, 2013;Turner, Zangeneh & Littman-Sharp, 2006;Young, 2008). This concept also resonates with the illusion of control theory, suggesting that individuals tend to overestimate their ability to control random events, such as gambling outcomes. ...
Thirukkural, a timeless classic in ancient Tamil literature authored by
Thiruvalluvar, encompasses various aspects of human life and offers profound
insights into moral and ethical conduct. In this paper, we attempt to explore the
themes within the couplets in the gambling chapter of Thirukural through an
inductive thematic analysis approach. The themes that emerged were the negative
consequences of gambling, the addictive nature of gambling, and the prescription
against gambling, offering timeless guidance for navigating the complexities of
gambling behaviors, disorders, and treatments. Additionally, this research
examines the applicability of Thirukkural’s teachings to modern-day gambling
scenarios, considering the evolving nature of gambling practices and the ethical
challenges they present
... Further research is needed to establish such a qualification; however, we can note that gamblers' concern for technical fairness may not even be consistent with other beliefs they hold, due to the same misconception of randomness: Turner and Hobay (2004) and Turner et al. (2022) found that gamblers hold contradictory beliefs making contradictory predictions, such as those affected by GF and believing that the game is biased -due to the GF, they bet on outcomes that are "due", but the bias assumption makes them bet on outcomes which have already occurred. Turner et al. (2006) even found a high correlation between people who select numbers that have not occurred for a while and those who choose numbers on a bias belief. ...
Randomness, a core concept of gambling, is seen in problem gambling
as responsible for the formation of the math-related cognitive distortions,
especially the Gambler’s Fallacy. In problem-gambling research, the concept of
randomness was traditionally referred to as having a mathematical nature and
categorized and approached as such. Randomness is not a mathematical concept,
and I argue that its weak mathematical dimension is not decisive at all for the
randomness-related issues in gambling and problem gambling, including the
correction of the misconceptions and fallacies about probability and statistical
concepts applied in gambling. I distinguish between mathematical and nonmathematical dimensions of randomness (the epistemic, the theoretical-methodological, the functional, and the ethical) falling within the general concept,
and I argue that both the studies having as object the math-related cognitive
distortions among gamblers and the educational programs aiming at correcting
them should employ this distinction in their design and content.
... Risk factors for gambling have been defined as "antecedent conditions that are associated with an increase in the likelihood of onset, greater severity, and longer duration of problem gambling" (Dowling et al., 2021). The most important risk factors associated with pathological or problem gambling include male gender (Jun et al., 2021); low socio-economic status (Barnes et al., 2015); starting to gamble at an early age (Hing et al., 2014); big wins early on (Turner et al., 2006); having family and friends who gamble (Hollén et al., 2020;Mazar et al., 2018); higher levels of impulsivity (Ciobotaru & Clinciu, 2022), sensation seeking (Hollén et al., 2020), and frustration (Gupta et al., 2006); anxiety and depression (Cosenza et al., 2019); antisocial behaviors (Jun et al., 2021); substance use (Richard et al., 2019); lower self-esteem (Abdi et al., 2015); the use of less effective coping strategies (Dickson et al., 2008); lower emotional regulation (Williams et al., 2012); and poorer school/work performance (Vitaro et al., 2018). Some of these risk factors have been explored in the framework of LB use, such as gender, ethnicity, or the presence of emotional disorders (DeCamp, 2021). ...
Background:
Loot boxes (LBs) are virtual objects that players open without knowing the value of the item they will obtain. Because of their features, studies have explored their association with gambling, finding commonalities. However, risk factors have been overlooked. This study examined risk factors associated with gambling as applied to LBs (gambling in the past year, having family/friends who use LBs/gamble, trait impulsivity, and sensation-seeking).
Method:
253 participants (82.2% men) with a mean age of 28 years ( SD = 12.11)—in three groups: gamblers ( n = 89), LB purchasers ( n = 63), and free-LB openers ( n = 101)—completed a self-report.
Results:
Having family/friends who used LBs was related to increased engagement in opening LBs at no cost. However, having gambled in the past year or having family/friends who used LBs or who gambled was not associated with increased purchasing. Gamblers, LB purchasers, and LB openers scored equally highly on impulsivity and sensation-seeking. Because some gamblers used LBs, and LB purchasers also opened free-LBs, further analyses were performed to control for the effects of overlapping groups. Loot boxers had higher scores in sensation-seeking than gamblers.
Conclusions:
The results can contribute to the development of prevention and intervention strategies for LB users.
... It is logical to assume that previous sports gambling experiences affect bettors' motivations and expectations concerning sports betting [31]. A first-time or inexperienced bettor may develop an intention or make a decision to bet based on sports betting commercials and ads or peer word of mouth to a great extent, whereas a repeat or experienced bettor may be more influenced by his/her previous experiences with sports betting. ...
Purpose
Given the risk and increased incidence of problem betting for young adults, the purpose of the current study was to understand what influences college students’ problem sports betting behavior using the theory of planned behavior (TPB).
Methods
An institutional-based cross-sectional study was conducted. Data were collected from 311 college students in the U.S. using a survey questionnaire and primarily analyzed using the partial least squares structural equation modeling (PLS-SEM) technique to investigate the relationships between the study variables. In addition, multi-group SEM analyses were conducted to investigate the moderating roles of betting frequency and impulsive betting tendencies regarding sports betting.
Results
The results suggested that college students’ sports betting intentions (SBI) were associated with attitude towards sports betting, motivation to comply with others, and subjective norm, in this order, but not with perceived behavioral control (PBC). Problem sports betting (PSB) was significantly positively related to their SBI and negatively correlated with PBC. In addition, multigroup analyses found the moderating roles of betting frequency and impulsive betting tendency, especially in the relationship between SBI and PSB. The SBI-PSB relationship was stronger with the infrequent/low-betting group and low-impulse betting group, compared to the frequent/high-betting and high-impulse betting group.
Conclusion
Overall, the results highlighted the importance of peer influence and attitude formation concerning sports betting. Recognizing what influences PSB and the roles of habitual and impulse sports betting in this population are recommended in developing proper public health programs to mitigate PSB issues.
... Moreover, we argue these patterns are relevant with respect to various cognitive biases in gambling behaviour. Early wins and winning streaks for example are more commonly reported in people with gambling problems (Turner, Littman-Sharp, & Zangeneh, 2006, 2008c. Problem gamblers commonly hold erroneous beliefs about random chance (Ejova, Delfabbro, & Navarro, 2015;Goodie & Fortune, 2013;Leonard, Williams, & Vokey, 2015;Toneatto, Blitz-Miller, Calderwood, Dragonetti, & Tsanos, 1997), and people in general hold biases to frequent or recent information (Tversky & Kahneman, 1990). ...
Objective and Method
Electronic gambling machines are a prominent cause of significant gambling harms globally. We use simulations of a simplified video poker game to show how changes in game volatility, defined primarily by the size of the main prize, affect patterns of wins and losses as well as winning streaks.
Results
We found that in low- and medium volatility games the proportion of winning players quickly drops to zero after about 30 h of play, while in the high volatility game 5% of players are still winning after playing for 100 h. However, the proportion of winning streaks was significantly higher in the low- and medium volatility games compared with high volatility: the simulated players were on a winning streak about 26.3, 25.6 and 18% of the time in the low-, medium- and high volatility games, respectively.
Conclusions
Fast-paced video poker with varying volatility levels but identical return-to-player rates and win frequencies can yield highly different result patterns across individuals. These patterns may be counter-intuitive for players and difficult to realize without simulations and visualizations. We argue that the findings have relevance for responsible gambling communication and for building a better understanding of how cognitive biases influence gambling behaviour.
... In light of a recent meta-analysis, the experience of the significant win at the beginning of the play is not significantly related to problem gambling in the later period [25]. Most studies support this relationship [26][27][28]. ...
Research on the relationship between wins and gambling behavior often focuses on winning considerably large amounts of money. It seems, however, that it is not the amount of the win, but the significance that the player assigns to the win, that exerts a decisive influence on gambling behavior. Therefore, in this study we adopted the concept of significant win: a win perceived by gamblers as important to them. The research aimed to discover what kind of wins are experienced as significant and what factors explain experiencing wins as significant. This study, conducted in Poland (N = 3,143) and France (N = 5,692), also had a comparative goal: discovering intercultural differences in experiencing significant wins. A computer-assisted web survey was administered to gamblers who engaged in pure-chance gambling, where the participant does not influence the outcome of the gamble after the initial bet is placed—selected from representative samples in both countries. We used logistic regression models to examine predictors of significant win experience in both countries and the differences between the countries. The results demonstrated that Polish gamblers more frequently considered a win significant when it was accompanied by strong, often negative emotions and was higher in monetary value normalized in terms of average monthly personal income, than French gamblers. French gamblers more frequently associated a significant win with a positive experience. The common predictors of a significant win experience in both countries were: being in debt, experiencing the win of a close person, gambling in a game of pure chance other than lotteries, more systematic pursuit of gambling, self-enhancement motivation, and coping motivation to gamble. Age at initiation into gambling was a significant predictor only in the French sample, whereas a financial motivation was a significant predictor in the Polish one. The results confirmed that the subjective perception of gambling wins is only partially related to the amounts of wins, which has practical implications for planning prevention strategies.
... Irrational beliefs about gambling are risk factors of problem gambling in youth (e.g., Delfabbro et al., 2009). Indeed, adolescent problem gamblers have erroneous beliefs about their chances of winning, and are susceptible to biases related to gambling outcomes (e.g., Turner et al., 2006). Specifically, they have cognitive biases such as the perception of gambling as an activity involving a considerable element of skill, and the belief that they can exercise control over the slot machines they play. ...
Preventive efforts are necessary to reduce the risk for problem gambling among adolescents, especially among more at-risk youth. However, only a small proportion of the preventive initiatives implemented in the field of adolescent problem gambling are based on robust theoretical models and have been evaluated in their efficacy. By referring to the dual-process model of human functioning, especially to the mindware concept, the goal of this study was to develop and evaluate a school-based preventive intervention based on teaching probabilistic reasoning ability and explaining biases in reasoning with probability. Indeed, research with adolescents found that poor probabilistic reasoning ability is associated with gambling-related cognitive distortions that, in turn, are a risk factor for problem gambling. The study aim was to reduce gambling-related distortions by working on the concept of randomness and probability. A pre- and post-test design was performed with 72 adolescents randomly assigned to a Training group and a No Training group. Results showed a significant reduction of cognitive distortions at the post-test only in the Training group. Findings suggest that teaching probability can serve to reduce the susceptibility to gambling-related distortions and should be pointed out in the training process of the intervention providers in the gambling field.
... Currently unknown is whether financially focused self-concept plays a role in the remission from disordered gambling. Some research (e.g., Morasco et al., 2007;Turner et al., 2006) suggests that people who are seeking treatment for disordered gambling often express that their self-worth ebbed and flowed depending on whether they were winning money whilst gambling. Additionally, relapse has been shown to be associated with optimism about winning money as well as the perceived need to win money (Hodgins & El-Guebaly, 2004). ...
In the Pathways Model, there are three distinct etiological subtypes of disordered gambling (Behaviourally Conditioned, Emotionally Vulnerable, and Anti-Social Impulsive Risk-Taker). The Pathways Model also posits that erroneous gambling beliefs are a maintenance factor of disordered gambling across the subtypes. Yet, etiological factors and erroneous beliefs have largely been examined separately when determining disordered gambling sub-type. Moreover, there may be heretofore unexamined maintenance factors that span the disordered gambling subtypes. In the current research, we addressed this gap by using latent profile analyses to assess the role both erroneous beliefs and financially focused self-concept (a novel maintenance factor) play in the determination of disordered gambling sub-type. In Study 1, community members with gambling problems (n = 215) completed the Gambling Pathways Questionnaire and Financially Focused Self-Concept Scale. In Study 2 (n = 290), participants also completed the Gambling Beliefs Questionnaire. Results from both studies revealed three profiles that coincide with the subtypes in the Pathways Model as providing the best fit to the data. The three profiles were largely distinguished by low, medium, or high scores on the etiological factors, which is consistent with the disordered gambling subtypes being on different parts of the same continuum of psychopathology severity. Financial focus (Studies 1 and 2) and erroneous gambling beliefs (Study 2) were elevated across the three profiles, and both were higher among profiles with more severe psychopathology. Findings support a dimensional understanding of gambling disorder psychopathology and suggest that a financially focused self-concept may be a maintenance factor of disordered gambling.
... In exploratory analyses, we also identified a group whose net winnings were disproportionately high compared to the rest of the sample. This group is important to examine because their winnings might be indicative of playing especially long odds, or experiencing at least one "big win", which some speculate can be a trigger for gambling problems (see Kassinove & Schare, 2001;Turner, Zangeneh, & Littman-Sharp, 2006). However, in our sample, this group looked similar to those in the total wagered MIB group. ...
Background and aims
Online sports wagering is a popular and still growing gambling activity around the world. Like other types of gambling, it can lead to problems that include devastating financial, social, and health-related harms. The first analysis of actual online sports wagering activity (LaBrie et al., 2007) suggested that levels of financial and time involvement were more moderate than anticipated from earlier self-report studies. However, these findings are now more than a decade old.
Methods
The current study examined actual online sports wagering activity of a similar cohort of 32,262 gamblers who subscribed to a European online betting platform in February 2015 to understand how sports betting might have changed in ten years. Measures included subscriber characteristics, betting activities, and transactional activities.
Results
Players placed a median of 15 bets during the 8-month study period, made a median of 2.5 bets per betting day, had a median bet size of 6.1 euros, and experienced a median net loss of 25 euros. We were able to distinguish highly involved bettors in the top 2% of total wagered, net loss, and number of bets, whose behavior differed from that of the rest of the sample.
Discussion and Conclusions
Sports wagering behavior has remained relatively stable over time despite legislative changes and an increase in popularity, with a small subset of subscribers exhibiting disproportionately high engagement, transactional activity, and in-game betting. Further investigation of individual trajectories of wagering behavior and engagement with different types of sports wagering products is merited.
... Researchers have also shown that having a low tolerance for boredom is a significant factor in repetitive gambling behaviour (Blaszczynski et al., 1990). Researchers also report that being more susceptible to boredom and problem gambling may be in part a maladaptive coping strategy to deal with boredom and to escape dysphoric mood (Blaszczynski et al., 1986(Blaszczynski et al., , 1990Turner et al., 2006). ...
Slot machines are a very popular form of gambling in which a small proportion of gamblers experience gambling-related problems. These players refer to a trance-like state that researchers have labelled ‘dark flow’—a pleasurable, but maladaptive state where players become completely occupied by the game. We assessed 110 gamblers for mindfulness (using the Mindful Attention Awareness Scale), gambling problems (using the Problem Gambling Severity Index), depressive symptoms (using the Depression, Anxiety, and Stress Scale), and boredom proneness (using the Boredom Proneness Scale). Participants played both a multiline and single-line slot machine simulator and were occasionally interrupted with thought probes to assess whether they were thinking about the game or something else. After playing each game, we retrospectively assessed dark flow and affect during play. Our key results were that the number of “on-game” reports during the multiline game were significantly higher than the single-line game, and that we found significantly greater flow during the multiline game than the single-line game. We also found significantly lower negative affect during the multiline game than the single-line game. Using hierarchical multiple regression, we found that dark flow accounted for unique variance when predicting problem gambling severity (over and above depression, mindfulness, and boredom proneness). These assessments help bolster our previous assertions about escape gambling—if some players are prone to having their mind-wander to negative places, the frequent but unpredictable reinforcement of multiline slot machines may help rein in the wandering mind and prevent minds from unintentionally wandering to negative thoughts.
... However, other EGM features can provide free spins or bonus credits, which can similarly boost the potential winnings from any given wager (Livingstone et al., 2008). People classified as problem gamblers can be especially attracted by large potential wins (Kyonka & Schutte, 2018;Ring et al., 2018), and often report big wins early in their gambling careers (Custer & Milt, 1985;Turner, Zangeneh, & Littman-Sharp, 2006), so the potential for a gambling form to create bets with long odds is a key structural characteristic. ...
Background and aims
A literature exists on the structural characteristics of electronic gambling machines (EGMs), which are design innovations that can promote spending excessive time and money on these games. Fixed-odds sports betting products, where bettors place sports bets against a bookmaker, have also seen significant innovations in recent years. Despite some differences between these gambling products, similar structural characteristics could also be relevant to sports betting. The aim was to review previous research on contemporary fixed-odds sports betting products, and to identify whether structural characteristics from the EGM literature are also relevant to sports betting.
Methods
Structural characteristics uncovered by two influential reviews of EGMs were identified, and their relevance to fixed-odds sports betting products discussed via a narrative review.
Results
Structural characteristics of payout interval and potential betting frequency (in-play betting), multiplier potential (accumulators, complex bets, multis), win probability and payout ratio (all bets), bettor involvement (custom sports betting products, cash out), skill required (all bets), and near-misses (accumulators, complex bets, multis) were all identified in modern fixed-odds sports betting products.
Discussion and conclusions
Fixed-odds sports betting products have increasingly incorporated structural characteristics previously found in EGMs. Future research could further assess the extent to which these structural characteristics contribute to fixed-odds sports bettors spending excessive amounts of time and money while betting. These findings can help guide further sports betting research, contribute to an improved understanding of the potential universality of gambling product design, and inform policy.
... Researchers have observed reports of early big wins among as many as half of gamblers with problems in clinical settings, and suggested that they play a role in early persistence in gambling, due in part to distorting the gambler's perception of his or her ability to determine outcomes (Lesieur & Custer, 1984). Although there is very limited prospective empirical evidence about these clinical claims, many researchers have suggested that early big wins play a role in the development of gamblingrelated problems, particularly among young people (Derevensky & Gilbeau, 2015;Griffiths & Auer, 2016;Turner et al., 2006Turner et al., , 2008Williams et al., 2015). ...
Objective:
Early big wins might have a psychological impact upon gamblers that increases their likelihood of intemperate gambling; however, there has been a paucity of empirical research examining this effect using actual gambling data.
Method:
We assessed the effects of daily fantasy sports (DFS) big wins on subsequent play by analyzing a prospective dataset from a major DFS provider (N = 34,596 DFS subscribers) representing over 18 million entries into DFS contests.
Results:
We found that experiencing a big win in DFS is associated with subsequently increased DFS engagement (i.e., increased contest entry fees and contest entries) and losses (i.e., higher net loss). However, the effect of a big win on engagement and losses decays over time. Whereas theorists have highlighted the effects of early big wins, our analyses indicated that later big wins had a relatively stronger effect on DFS engagement. Sensitivity analyses confirmed the robustness of most results, with somewhat greater support for big wins' effects on engagement metrics than losses.
Conclusion:
Our results collectively indicate the existence of a big win effect in DFS. For some players, big wins might instill unrealistic expectations about future probabilities of winning and lead to increased-and potentially excessive-engagement. Explanations from cognitive psychology (e.g., the illusion of control) and behavioral psychology (e.g., operant conditioning) might help to explain the big win effect. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2021 APA, all rights reserved).
... Higher volatility (and less frequent larger rewards) could potentially strengthen the partial reinforcement extinction effect (PREE) (Ferster & Skinner, 1957;Horsley et al., 2012;Skinner, 1953) and make players more resistant to extinction or periods without reward (Capaldi, 1957). The prospect of larger wins may also have the effect of encouraging chasing behavior (O'Connor & Dickerson, 2003) and may be more highly reinforcing particularly for higher risk gamblers (Knutson et al., 2001;Turner et al., 2006). This body of research suggests that gamblers, if exposed to schedules with varying degrees of volatility, should typically display greater behavioral persistence (or longer sessions) when exposed to less frequent wins (or more volatile schedule exposures). ...
Volatility refers to the variability of bet outcomes in gambling and has been recognized as a potentially important influence on behavior. The research literature has developed competing ideas for how different behavioral responses to volatility might influence player risk. However, few empirical studies have investigated how volatility influences player behavior in a live-play, real-money environment. This paper studies 4,281 regular online slot players from two operators in the UK-one casino-focused, one bingo-focused. Longitudinal panel regressions analyze variation in players' daily session time, financial loss and declined deposits as they switched among slots games with different volatilities relative to their usual play. The findings indicate that the relationship between game volatility and player behavior is complex and often non-linear. For slots players in the casino-focused sample, lower levels of volatility than usual were typically associated with lower than average losses, declined deposits and session time. However, significant relationships were not detected in the bingo-focused operator sample. Collectively, these findings suggest that while volatility may be an important influence on behavior, this influence is not necessarily uniform or easily generalized from one population of players to another.
... However, other EGM features can provide free spins or bonus credits, which can similarly boost the potential winnings from any given wager (Livingstone et al., 2008). People classified as problem gamblers can be especially attracted by large potential wins (Kyonka & Schutte, 2018;Ring et al., 2018), and often report big wins early in their gambling careers (Custer & Milt, 1985;Turner, Zangeneh, & Littman-Sharp, 2006), so the potential for a gambling form to create bets with long odds is a key structural characteristic. ...
Background and aims: A literature exists on the structural characteristics of electronic gambling machines (EGMs), which are design innovations that can promote spending excessive time and money on these games. Fixed-odds sports betting products, where bettors place sports bets against a bookmaker, have also seen significant innovations in recent years. Despite some differences between these gambling products, similar structural characteristics could also be relevant to sports betting. The aim was to review previous research on contemporary fixed-odds sports betting products, and to identify whether structural characteristics from the EGM literature are also relevant to sports betting.Methods: Structural characteristics uncovered by two influential reviews of EGMs were identified, and their relevance to fixed-odds sports betting products discussed via a narrative review.Results: Structural characteristics of payout interval / potential betting frequency (in-play betting), multiplier potential (accumulators, complex bets, multis), win probability and payout ratio (all bets), bettor involvement (custom sports betting products, cash out), skill required (all bets), and near-misses (accumulators, complex bets, multis) were all identified in modern fixed-odds sports betting products.Discussion and conclusions: Fixed-odds sports betting products have increasingly incorporated structural characteristics previously found in EGMs. Future research could further assess the extent to which these structural characteristics contribute to fixed-odds sports bettors spending excessive amounts of time and money while betting. These findings can help guide further sports betting research, contribute to an improved understanding of the potential universality of gambling product design, and inform policy.
... In 1978, Cornish (23) stated that it is dangerous to introduce gambling to youth because their lives are not yet structured by the constraints, obligations, and rewards that adults have which act to prevent excessive involvement with gambling. An early age of gambling onset is associated with developing gambling problems, particularly for males (24)(25)(26), and more severe gambling problems later in life (27). Early gambling also is associated with serious negative psychological, social, financial, and substance use problems (28)(29)(30). ...
Internet gambling has become a popular activity among some youth. Vulnerable youth may be particularly at risk due to limited harm reduction and enforcement measures. This article explores age restrictions and other harm reduction measures relating to youth and young adult online gambling. A systematic rapid review was conducted by searching eight databases. Additional articles on online gambling (e.g., from references) were later included. To place this perspective into context, articles on adult gambling, land-based gambling, and substance use and other problematic behaviors were also considered. Several studies show promising findings for legally restricting youth from gambling in that such restrictions may reduce the amount of youth gambling and gambling-related harms. However, simply labeling an activity as “age-restricted” may not deter youth from gambling; in some instances, it may generate increased appeal for gambling. Therefore, advertising and warning labels should be examined in conjunction with age restrictions. Recommendations for age enforcement strategies, advertising, education, and warning labels are made to help multiple stakeholders including policymakers and public health officials internationally. Age restrictions in online gambling should consider multiple populations including youth and young adults. Prevention and harm reduction in gambling should examine how age-restriction strategies may affect problem gambling and how they may be best enforced across gambling platforms. More research is needed to protect youth with respect to online gambling.
... More precisely, individuals with dopaminergic hyperactivation in ventral striatum could be unable to fully reverse preferences, once established, persevering in gambling despite its long-term negative outcome. Indeed, patients with GD frequently relate their excessive gambling to their inability to overcome the allure of big wins in their early gambling history (Turner et al., 2006). Moreover, the hypoactivation of dorsolateral prefrontal cortex would support the presence of a deficit of cognitive flexibility not allowing patients to switch from disadvantageous to advantageous decisions, persevering in non-adaptive behavior (Christakou et al., 2009;Soyata et al., 2019). ...
Previous imaging studies suggested that impairments of prefrontal-striatal and limbic circuits are correlated to excessive gambling. However, the neural underpinnings of gambling disorder (GD) continue to be the topic of debate. The present study aimed to identify structural changes in GD and differentiate the specific brain activity patterns associated with decision-making and reward-processing. We performed a systematic review complemented by Activation likelihood estimation (ALE) meta-analyses on morphometric and functional studies on neural correlates of GD. The ALE meta-analysis on structural studies revealed that patients with GD showed significant cortical grey-matter thinning in the right ventrolateral and ventromedial prefrontal cortex compared to healthy subjects. The ALE meta-analyses on functional studies revealed that patients with GD showed a significant hyperactivation in the medial prefrontal cortex and in the right ventral striatum during decision-making and gain processing compared to healthy subjects. These findings suggest that GD is related to an alteration of brain mechanisms underlying top-down control and appraisal of gambling-related stimuli and provided indications to develop new interventions in clinical practice.
... Researchers have also shown that having a lower tolerance for boredom is a significant factor in repetitive gambling behavior (Blaszczynski et al., 1990). Gambling may be, in part, a maladaptive coping strategy to alleviate boredom and its accompanying negative affect (Blaszczynski et al., 1990;Blaszczynski, Wilson, & McConaghy, 1986;Turner, Zangeneh, & Littman-Sharp, 2006). Thus, problem gamblers may experience boredom regularly in their everyday lives; but, while at the slot machine, they find their attention is regularly captured by the intermittent reinforcing feedback. ...
Background and aims:
Slot machines are a pervasive form of gambling in North America. Some gamblers describe entering "the slot machine zone"-a complete immersion into slots play to the exclusion of all else.
Methods:
We assessed 111 gamblers for mindfulness (using the Mindful Attention Awareness Scale (MAAS)), gambling problems (using the Problem Gambling Severity Index (PGSI)), depressive symptoms (using the Depression, Anxiety, and Stress Scale), and boredom proneness (using the Boredom Proneness Scale). In a counterbalanced order, participants played a slot machine simulator and completed an auditory vigilance task. During each task, participants were interrupted with thought probes to assess whether they were: on-task, spontaneously mind-wandering, or deliberately mind-wandering. After completing each task, we retrospectively assessed flow and affect. Compared to the more exciting slots play, we propose that gamblers may use deliberate mind-wandering as a maladaptive means to regulate affect during a repetitive vigilance task.
Results:
Our key results were that gamblers reported greater negative affect following the vigilance task (when compared to slots) and greater positive affect following slots play (when compared to the vigilance task). We also found that those who scored higher in problem gambling were more likely to use deliberate mind-wandering as a means to cope with negative affect during the vigilance task. Using hierarchical multiple regression, we found that the number of "deliberately mind-wandering" responses accounted for unique variance when predicting problem gambling severity (over and above depression, mindfulness, and boredom proneness).
Conclusions:
These assessments highlight a potential coping mechanism used by problem gamblers in order to deal with negative affect.
... Gambling disorders have been analysed, for instance, as resulting from neurobiological factors (e.g., Miller & Currie, 2008) or personality traits (e.g., Nordin & Nylander, 2007). There are, however, also studies that approach gambling disorders from a social environmental perspective by emphasising accessibility and availability of gambling opportunities (e.g., Welte, Barnes, Wiecrozek & Hoffman, 2007) or from an overarching theoretical perspective which examines pathological gambling by integrating genetic, biological, psychosocial, economic, social, societal and cultural factors (Abbott, Clark, Hodgins & Williams, 2018;Turner, Zangeneh & Littman-Sharp, 2006). ...
Background:
With the emerging technologies of the Internet and smartphones during the last decades, the gambling environment has undergone a massive transformation. In Sweden, and Europe in general, online gambling has more than doubled since 2007.
Method:
The paper studies online gambling venues (OGVs) as relational actors of addiction. By drawing on the actor-network theory (ANT) and assemblage thinking, we examine how OGVs, as actors in specific networks of attachment, enable the development of gambling addiction and facilitate its continuation. The data consists of life story interviews with 34 online gamblers.
Results:
Online gambling venues extend the scope of gambling opportunities through space, providing an easy portable 24-hours-a-day access to gambling online and on smartphones. This increases the spatial mobility of gambling to diverse contexts. By linking gambling to more unpredictably evolving patterns of relations, online gambling venues also increase gambling's temporal mobility to intrude in the habitual trajectories of everyday life. By enhancing the gambling mobility through space and time, OGVs simultaneously extend the scope of situations in which gambling may transform from a controlled activity into an addiction. It is then that the actor-networks of gambling infiltrate in the actor-networks of work, domestic life and leisure, and start to feed processes where they are translated to serve the interests of gambling.
Conclusion:
By giving us tools to challenge simplistic and taken-for-granted explanations of gambling addiction and by allowing us to grasp the flux and changing nature of addiction as a relational pattern of heterogeneous contextual attachments, the actor-network theory can help us to understand the complexity and multiplicity of gambling problems. The knowledge on what kinds of contextual attachments in diverse actor-networks enable harmful gambling and sustain unhealthy relations helps practitioners to focus treatment interventions especially on these contextual linkages and their configurations.
... More precisely, not being able to fully reverse preferences, once established, will subsequently facilitate persevering in gambling despite its long-term negative utility. Indeed, patients with gambling disorder (henceforth, PGD) frequently relate their excessive gambling to their inability to overcome the allure of big wins in their early gambling history (Turner, Zangeneh, & Littman-Sharp, 2006). The importance of early reward density has also been corroborated with quantitative analyses of gaming machine data (Haw, 2008), and could be related to the well-known fact that the 'remembered high' plays an important role in motivating compulsive gambling (Volkow, Wise, & Baler, 2017; see also Lister, Nower, & Wohl, 2016). ...
Background
Behavioral flexibility –the ability to dynamically readjust our behavior in response to reward contingency changes– is often investigated using probabilistic reversal learning tasks (PRLT). Poor PRLT performance has been proposed as a proxy for compulsivity, and theorized to be related to perseverative gambling. Previous attempts to measure inflexibility with the PRLT in patients with gambling disorder have, however, used a variety of indices that may conflate inflexibility with more general aspects of performance in the task. Methods: Trial-by-trial PRLT acquisition and reacquisition curves in 84 treatment-seeking patients with gambling disorder and 64 controls (non-gamblers and non-problem recreational gamblers) were analyzed to distinguish between (a) variability in acquisition learning, and (b) reacquisition learning in reversed contingency phases. Complementarily, stay/switch responses throughout the task were analyzed to identify (c) premature switching, and (d) sensitivity to accumulated negative feedback. Results and interpretation: Even after controlling for differences in acquisition learning, patients were slower to readjust their behavior in reversed contingency phases, and were more prone to maintain their decisions despite accumulated negative feedback. Inflexibility in patients with gambling disorder is thus a robust phenomenon that could predate gambling escalation, or result from massive exposure to gambling activities.
... conducted thorough epidemiological studies of gambling problems (Room, Turner, & Ialomiteanu, 1999), studied risk factors for problem gambling (Turner, Jain, Spence, & Zangeneh, 2008;Turner, Littman-Sharp, & Zangeneh, 2006;, investigated gambling in the correctional population (Turner, Preston, Saunders, McAvoy, & Jain, 2009), instigated prevention programs (Turner, Macdonald, & Somerset, 2008), evaluated treatment programs (Chen, Jindani, Perry, & Turner, 2014), and created meaningful and sophisticated computer simulations to study both gambling games (Turner & Horbay, 2004;Turner, 2011) and gambling strategies (Turner & Fritz, 2001). ...
... As gambling venues and gambling activities themselves appear to foster irrational thinking, preventing this type of thinking prior to engaging in gambling activities may be an effective way in reducing excessive gambling. People are often at least somewhat aware when they are acting irrationally, and yet despite disconfirming evidence, will often fail to reflect on their decisions (Delfabbro et al. 2006;Gilbert et al. 1990;Menzel 2013;Risen 2016;Turner et al. 2006). Therefore, interventions designed purely to provide warnings or information on gambling probabilities are unlikely to spark enough reflective thinking to challenge pre-existing intuitions about gambling (Cloutier et al. 2006;Blaszczynski 2005, 2007;Monaghan et al. 2009). ...
Gambling has been associated with an array of fallacious beliefs that foster risky gambling decisions. Research into other belief systems suggests that the endorsement of non-evidence based beliefs, such as the paranormal or conspiracy theories, can be reduced when people think more analytically. The purpose of this study was to explore whether an intervention designed to elicit analytical thinking was effective in altering the gambling beliefs and simulated gambling behaviour of 178 regular electronic gaming machine (EGM) gamblers (102 males, 76 female). Participants were randomly allocated to complete either an analytic or a neutral priming task, followed by completion of belief measures (erroneous and protective) and play on a simulated EGM game. Results failed to show that priming for analytical thinking changed betting on an EGM; including features of bet size, bet change, persistence and theoretical losses. Contrary to expectations, results suggest that priming analytical thinking using generalised interventions does not appear to be effective in altering peoples’ simulated gambling involvement or gambling beliefs. In fact, priming people to think more critically might be counterproductive by contributing to greater positive expectations about gambling outcomes. The results further suggested that the number of times a player alters their bet is a good indicator of theoretical gambling losses and is associated with irrational gambling cognitions. Interventions designed to promote safer thinking in gamblers should be implemented with care, as results from our study suggest that encouraging critical thinking in at-risk or problem gamblers may not be effective in reducing risky gambling.
... Past studies mainly subtyped gambling and problem gambling based on: (1) personality traits (Álvarez-Moya et al., 2010;Moon et al., 2016;Studer et al., 2016;Suomi et al., 2014); (2) gambling motives Stuart et al., 2008), (3) comorbid states (Moon et al., 2016;Studer et al., 2016;Suomi et al., 2014); (4) demographic factors and symptom severity (Chamberlain et al., 2017;Lee et al., 2008;Li et al., 2015;Turner et al., 2006), (5) type and frequency of gambling habits (Challet-Bouju et al., 2015;Heiskanen and Toikka, 2016), or (6) gambling cognitions (Yakovenko et al., 2016). With respect to the Pathways Model, past studies have supported the existence of an emotionally vulnerable type, by showing that a subgroup of problem gamblers is characterized by emotional instability and comorbid emotional disorders (Álvarez-Moya et al., 2010;Moon et al., 2016;Suomi et al., 2014;Turner et al., 2008). ...
Background and aims:
The Pathways Model (Blaszczynski & Nower, 2002) posits that problem gambling is a heterogeneous disorder with distinct subgroups (behaviorally conditioned gamblers, emotionally vulnerable gamblers, and antisocial-impulsivist gamblers). Impulsivity traits and gambling-related cognitions are recognized as two key psychological factors in the onset and maintenance of problem gambling. To date, these constructs have been explored separately, and their joint role in determining problem gambling subtypes has received little attention. The goal of our study was to identify subgroups of gamblers based on impulsivity traits and gambling-related cognitions, and to determine whether this approach is consistent with the Pathways model.
Methods:
Gamblers from the community (N = 709) and treatment-seeking pathological gamblers (N = 122) completed questionnaires measuring gambling habits, disordered gambling symptoms, gambling-related cognitions, and impulsivity traits.
Results:
Cluster analyses revealed that three clusters globally aligned with the pathways proposed by Blaszczynski & Nower (2002). Two other clusters emerged: (1) impulsive gamblers without cognitive-related cognitions; and (2) gamblers without impulsivity or gambling-related cognitions. Gamblers with both heightened impulsive traits and gambling-related cognitions had more severe problem gambling symptoms.
Conclusion:
We successfully identified, based on an a priori theoretical framework, different subtypes of gamblers that varied in terms of problem gambling symptoms and clinical status. The diversity of the cluster profiles supports the development of personalized prevention strategies and psychological interventions.
... A variety of individual and social factors have been identified that affect risk of problem gambling. These include availability of opportunities to participate in gambling (van der Maas et al., 2017), erroneous beliefs about gambling (Turner et al., 2008(Turner et al., ,2006, behavioral contingencies (Blaszczynski and Nower, 2002;Weatherly and Dixon, 2007), sociodemographic factors including being young and male (Holdsworth et al., 2012), problems related to alcohol and drug use (e.g., Rennert et al., 2014;Welte et al., 2004), and mental disorders such as depression, anxiety, and suicidality (Cook et al., 2015;Kerber et al., 2008;Turner et al., 2011;Turner et al., 2008). Nevertheless, much remains to be understood about the factors and pathways that may predispose individuals to gambling problems. ...
Traumatic brain injury (TBI) is a common injury characterized by a change in brain function after an external blow to the head and is associated with substance abuse, psychological distress, risk-taking, and impulsivity. Convenience and clinical samples have also linked TBI to problem gambling, but have not ruled out confounding variables such as hazardous drinking and psychological distress. This study examines the relationship between TBI and moderate to severe problem gambling in a general population probability sample controlling for hazardous drinking and psychological distress. The data were obtained from a 2015–2016 cross-sectional general population telephone survey of adults ages 18+from Ontario, Canada (N = 3809). Logistic regression was used to estimate the association as adjusted odds ratios (AOR). Moderate to severe problem gambling was independently associated with a history of TBI after adjusting for potential confounders (AOR: 2.80), and had a statistically significant relationship with psychological distress (AOR = 2.74), hazardous drinking (AOR = 2.69), and lower educational levels (AOR = 0.37). This study provides further data to suggest a link between TBI and moderate to severe problem gambling; however, more research is needed to determine if there is a causal relationship or the potential implications for prevention and treatment.
... Among others, these erroneous beliefs prevent players from conceiving gambling as a chance-determined phenomenon and reinforce the illusion that people can control gambling outcomes. Although adolescent problem gamblers do not lack of mathematical knowledge of objective odds and probabilities, they held more misconceptions about randomness than recreational gamblers (Delfabbro et al. 2006(Delfabbro et al. , 2009Turner et al. 2006), probably due to the emotional and motivational pregnancy of gambling stimuli (Goel and Dolan 2003;Kunda 1990). As regards decision-making styles, regression analysis clearly indicated that gambling severity is positively associated with the GDMS Spontaneous style, and negatively related to the Rational one. ...
Evidences from the extant literature suggest that problem gamblers show higher cognitive distortions and reported experiencing higher levels of negative affective states than recreational gamblers. Furthermore, several studies reported that the more the gambling severity, the poorer the performance in behavioral tasks assessing affective decision-making. Although gambling research on decision-making has mostly focused on the functional or dysfunctional outcomes of the decisional process, no study examined the role of decision-making styles in gambling disorder. This study aimed to first investigate the interplay among negative affectivity, cognitive distortions, and decision-making styles in adolescent problem gambling. Four hundred and twenty-five adolescents, aged between 14 and 19 years, completed the South Oaks Gambling Screen Revised for Adolescents (SOGS-RA) to assess problem gambling, the Depression Anxiety and Stress Scales-21 (DASS-21) to measure negative affective states, and the Gambling Related Cognitions Scale (GRCS) as a measure of cognitive distortions about gambling, and the General Decision-making Style (GDMS) tapping habitual patterns which individuals use in decision-making. Data were submitted to correlational analysis, univariate and mixed-model ANOVAs, and hierarchical regression analysis. Regression analysis indicated that, along with gender, interpretative bias and inability to stop gambling, depression, and spontaneous decision-making style significantly predicted gambling severity. These results extend further previous studies on the role of misconceptions about gambling, and negative affective states in adolescent gambling, and, interestingly, first demonstrate that also maladaptive decision-making styles may represent a risk factor for gambling disorder.
... Some studies of the prevalence of problem gambling among adolescents have found the rate is two to three times higher than that of adults (Gupta and Derevensky 1998a;Ladouceur 1996;Shaffer and Hall 2001;Shaffer et al. 1999;Turner et al. 2008a;Wiebe et al. 2005). Furthermore, research shows that adults with gambling problems often started to gamble during adolescence (Griffiths 1995;Gupta and Derevensky 1998b;Kaminer and Petry 1999;Shaffer and Hall 1996;Turner et al. 2006). ...
This paper reports on the cross validation of the Gambling Problem Severity Subscale of the Canadian Adolescent Gambling Index (CAGI/GPSS). The CAGI/GPSS was included in a large school based drug use and health survey conducted in 2015. Data from students in grades 9–12 (ages 13–20 years) derived from the (N = 3369 students). The CAGI/GPSS produced an alpha of 0.789. A principle component analysis revealed two eigenvalues greater than one. An oblique rotation revealed these components to represent consequences and over involvement. The CAGI/GPSS indicated that 1% of the students fell into the “red” category indicating a severe problem and an additional 3.3% scored in the “yellow” category indicating low to moderate problems. The CAGI/GPSS was shown to be significantly correlated with gambling frequency (r = 0.36), largest expenditure (r = 0.37), sex (more likely to be male) (r = −0.19), lower school marks (r = −0.07), hazardous drinking, (r = 0.16), problem video game play (r = 0.16), as well as substance abuse. The CAGI/GPSS was cross validated using a shorted version of the short SOGS, r = 0.48. In addition the CAGI/GPSS and short SOGS produced very similar patterns of correlations results. The results support the validity and reliability of the CAGI/GPSS as a measure of gambling problems among adolescents.
... 4 A third direct risk factor concerns the reward magnitude and frequency of the person's early gambles. Having an 'early big win' appears to be an important determinant of gambling continuation (Turner, Zangeneh, & Littman-Sharp, 2006;Weatherly, Sauter, & King, 2004) 5 , as is engaging in 'continuous' forms of gambling that can provide a high frequency of reinforcement in a short period of time (i.e., electronic gambling machines, casino table games, 'continuous' lotteries; Dowling, Smith, & Thomas, 2005). ...
The past 15 years has seen a considerable amount of interest and effort being put into developing strategies to prevent problem gambling. Unfortunately, the development, implementation, and evaluation of most of these initiatives has been a haphazard process. Most have been put in place because they ‘seemed like good ideas’ and/or were being used in other jurisdictions, rather than having demonstrated scientific efficacy or being derived from a good understanding of effective practices in prevention.The primary purpose of the present document is to help change this state of affairs. More specifically, by: Proposing an etiological framework for understanding how problem gambling develops based on the available evidence and drawing from established models of addictive behaviour. Comprehensively evaluating the effectiveness of the various initiatives that have been used around the world to prevent problem gambling based on their demonstrated efficacy and/or their similarity to initiatives that are empirically effective in preventing other addictive behaviour. Based on this etiological framework and this critical review of the research, identifying current ‘best practices’ for the prevention of problem gambling.
... Even though research on adults shows women primarly gamble to feel better, and not to earn money, based on the available studies with adolescents where much less gender differences were observed, we expected that all four motives will predict more severe gambling problems in girls. Furthermore, previous studies showed that experiencing large wins leads to a specific motivation or drive to continue gambling after winning and that this specific motivation is one of the strongest single predictors of gambling problems (Turner et al., 2006;Ricijas et al., 2016a). In line with this, we expected that both previous large wins experience and the drive to continue gambling after winning to be potent predictors of girl problem gambling. ...
Although, compared to boys, adolescent girls gamble less often and less problematically, prevalence studies still show significant numbers of at risk/problem gamblers among girls. However, girl gambling has been on the sidelines of adolescent gambling research. The available studies usually focus only on a narrow set of correlates often ignoring that adolescent gambling is a complex phenomenon determined by various factors. Also, they often measure gambling related consequences with instruments that are not specifically developed for use on adolescents. In order to contribute to a better understanding of adolescent gambling this study focuses on problem gambling among girls. We consider different social, cognitive, motivational and behavioral factors as predictors of girl problem gambling. A total of 1,372 high-school girls from 7 Croatian cities participated in the study. They provided data on their gambling activities, peer gambling, cognitive distortions related to gambling, motivation for gambling, and levels of general risky behavior. As the only instrument developed specifically for use on adolescents, the Canadian Adolescent Gambling Inventory was used to examine adverse gambling consequences. Results show 7.4% of girls can be considered regular gamblers, and out of those who gambled at least once in their lifetime (n = 862), 11.2% already experience mild adverse consequences because of their gambling (at risk gamblers), with 3.2% experiencing serious consequences (problem gamblers). In general, girls seem to prefer lotto and scratch cards, but sports betting seems to be the preferred game of choice among regular girl gamblers. A hierarchical regression model confirmed the importance of much the same factors identified as risky for the development of problem gambling among adolescent boys—cognitive distortions, motives to earn money, to be better at gambling and to relax, the experiences of winning large and the drive to continue gambling, together with social factors such as having friends who also gamble, being involved in other risky and delinquent behavior and higher gambling frequency. Results call into question the importance of the motive to feel better for adolescent girls problem gambling. We discuss implications of our findings for both universal and indicated youth gambling prevention programs.
Research have continued to advocate for various safer gambling strategies (SGs) to curb initiation and sustenance of problem gambling through the conceptualization and development of SG tools. The present study aims to extend this advocacy by examining cognitive processes that promote adolescent responsible gambling (RG) in Nigeria. Young adolescents (N = 962, Mage =16.06, SD = 4.12) recruited from a high school population responded to measures of self-referent counterfactual thinking (S-RCFT), knowledge of probabilistic outcomes (KPO), and RG. Hayes PROCESS macro analysis result showed that S-RCFTs and KPO were positively associated with RG. More importantly, it was revealed that KPO amplified the S-RCFT-RG link and provided a plausible pathway to understanding the effect of S-RCFT on RG. This calls for SG advocacies to encourage adolescent gamblers to hold themselves responsible for responsible gambling, and to understand that gambling wins randomly occur. The limitations of the study and recommendations are highlighted.
This study conducted a multiple mediation analysis using sub-factors of basic psychological needs (BPNs) as mediators in the relationship between problem gambling and stress of gambling addicts to confirm that BPNs and stress, which affect gambling addiction, may be the result of problem gambling and to find effective intervention strategies. A total of 206 adult gambling addicts were screened by using CPGI. Descriptive statistics, correlation, hierarchical regression, and mediation analysis were conducted. Hierarchical regression analysis results yielded that problem gambling and sub-factors of BPNs were significant predictors of stress when controlling for gender and debt. The sub-factors of BPNs mediated the relationship between problem gambling and stress. These results indicated that BPNs and stress are not only the causes of gambling addiction but also the results from the harmful consequences of gambling addiction. The study supported the possibility of the psychological process of “deficits of BPNs (of gambling users) → stress (of gambling users) → problem gambling → gambling addiction (of gambling addicts) → problem gambling → deficits of BPNs (of gambling addicts) → stress (of gambling addicts)” among the variables and provided clinical implications for problem gambling counseling. Lastly, the limitations of this study and suggestions for further study were discussed.
This paper examines the items of two scales, the Random Events Knowledge Test (REKT) and the Chance Test, and examines their relationship with problem gambling (N = 1375). Using exploratory and confirmatory factor analysis, the REKT was broken down into four sub-scales: Due to Win, Counterintuitive Nature of random chance, Odds Do Not Improve, and Biases and Wins. The Chance Test was broken down into three sub-scales: abstract Odds, Table Odds, and Chance Odds. These sub-scales were regressed onto of problem gambling severity and revealed that more knowledge about random chance on all sub-scales of the REKT and Abstract Odds from the Chance Test were negatively related to problem gambling. On the other hand, we found that higher score on the Table Odds and Chance Odds from the Chance Test were positively related to problem gambling. The results illustrate that compared to people who do not have a gambling problem, problem gamblers have a more accurate understanding of some aspects of the chances of winning specific games, but have a poorer understanding of various implications of the independence of random events. The findings suggest potential strategies for the prevention and treatment of problem gambling.
The research on the relationship between wins and gambling behaviour most often focuses on winning considerably large amounts of money. It seems, however, that it is not the amount of the win that exerts a decisive influence on gambling behaviour but the significance that the player assigns to the win. Therefore, we adopted the concept of “significant win”, a win perceived by gamblers as important to them. The research aimed to discover what kind of wins are experienced as significant and what factors explain experiencing wins as significant. The research conducted in Poland (N = 3,143) and France (N = 5,692) also had a comparative goal: discovering intercultural differences in experiencing significant wins. The computer-assisted web survey was conducted among gamblers engaging in pure-chance gambling, selected from representative samples in both countries. Logistic regression models were used to examine predictors of significant win experience in both countries and cross-countries differences between them. The results demonstrated that Polish gamblers more frequently considered wins significant when accompanied by strong, often negative emotions and were objectively higher than French gamblers. A significant win was more frequently associated with a positive experience in the view of French gamblers. The common predictors of a significant win experience in both countries were: being in debt, experiencing the win of a close person, gambling in a game of pure chance other than lotteries, more systematic pursuit of gambling, enhancement and coping gambling motivations. The age of the initiation into gambling was a significant predictor only in the French sample, while financial motivation – in the Polish one. The results confirmed that the subjective perception of gambling wins is only partially related to the amounts of wins, which has practical implications for planning prophylactic strategies.
For the purpose of this study, I examine how a client’s identity and the impact of stigma
play out within therapeutic conversations involving problem gamblers. Stigma is a mark, flaw or
attitude reflecting societal disapproval of a personal or physical characteristic that is viewed as
socially unacceptable (Blaine, 2000). As former U.S. President Bill Clinton stated in an Oval
Office radio address, “mental illness is nothing to be ashamed of, but stigma and bias shame us
all” (1999). At the beginning of my research there were no studies highlighting the acceptance,
resistance, or moral management of stigma as it happens in therapeutic conversations, although
such an in-depth inquiry of the plight of the problem gambler in therapy is of substantial
contemporary importance. I hope that this research will shed light on how shame and stigma
operate in therapeutic conversations, as these experiences may prevent clients from both
accessing and receiving quality therapy1 in their times of need.
Background and aims:
Harmful gambling has been associated with the endorsement of fallacious cognitions that promote excessive consumption. These types of beliefs stem from intuitively derived assumptions about gambling that are fostered by fast-thinking and a lack of objective, critical thought. The current paper details an experiment designed to test whether a four-week online intervention to strengthen contextual analytical thinking in gamblers is effective in changing gamblers cognitions and encouraging safer gambling consumption.
Methods:
Ninety-four regular gamblers who reported experiencing gambling-related harm were randomly allocated to either an experimental (n = 46) or control condition (n = 48), including 45 males, ranging from 19 to 65 years of age (M = 36.61; SD = 9.76). Following baseline measurement of gambling beliefs and prior week gambling consumption, participants in the experimental condition were required to complete an adaption of the Gamblers Fallacy Questionnaire designed to promote analytical thinking by educating participants on common judgement errors specific to gambling once a week for four weeks. Post-intervention measures of beliefs and gambling consumption were captured in week five.
Results:
The experimental condition reported significantly fewer erroneous cognitions, greater endorsement of protective cognitions, and reduced time spent gambling post-intervention compared to baseline. The control group also reported a reduction in cognitions relating to predicting and controlling gambling outcomes.
Conclusion:
Cognitive interventions that encourage gamblers to challenge gambling beliefs by reflecting on gambling involvement and promoting critical thinking may be an effective tool for reducing the time people invest in gambling activities.
Background and Aims: Gambling Disorder (GD) and Posttraumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD) are frequently comorbid and often associated with a more severe clinical profile compared to those with either diagnosis alone. Despite recent growing interest in this comorbidity, there has been little effort to synthesize this domain of research and define areas of need for future research.
Design: The present work details a systematic review of empirical studies examining the
relationship between PTSD and GD-related factors. This review encompassed 74 studies each examining the overlap between GD and the following domains: PTSD, Trauma, Adverse Childhood Experiences, and Stressful Life Events.
Findings: The included studies yielded 91 independent samples each providing associations between the above-mentioned constructs. The present work found that stress, trauma, and symptom severity of PTSD each influence the severity of both GD and subclinical levels of GD. The severity, type, and time at which trauma occurs in the lifespan all appear to influence the predictive strength of trauma on GD severity. However, PTSD symptoms appear to have a greater impact on GD severity compared to trauma alone.
Conclusion: PTSD symptoms result in increased severity of GD, and pathological dissociation plays a particularly important role in exacerbating this relationship. Clinical and etiological implications, as well as direction for future research from these findings, are revealed and discussed.
As of 2012, there were more than 100 studies on the prevalence and social impact of problem gambling in Canada. However, few qualitative psychological studies specifically explored the process of therapy for problem gamblers. This research initiative attempts to bridge this notable gap in the literature. In this action research inquiry, I explore the recalled experiences of therapeutic interactions of six problem gamblers and six registered clinical counsellors. The participants engaged in focus groups, individual interviews, and a teleconference that helped to foster a greater understanding of the stigma attached to "being" a problem gambler. Although there are many comprehensive works on the topic of stigma, I felt the quintessential work of Erving Goffman (1963) on the moral management of stigma and spoiled identity was a fitting lens through which to examine the plight of the problem gambler in counselling. In this exploratory inquiry, I found many examples of participant gamblers morally managing their identities, agentively adopting, challenging, or resisting various descriptions of their stigmatized status. My situational analyses highlighted how clients engaged in "healthy" resistance, agentively managing the potential for stigmatized or spoiled identities. These shared narratives brought awareness to the marginalized status of "being" a problem gambler, while providing an appreciation of ways in which clients and counsellors can collaboratively promote preferred ways of being. These findings also indicate that further sensitivity may be required for practitioners providing services to stigmatized populations, such as the individual with gambling problems. Implications for counselling theory, practice, and possible future research are discussed. ii Acknowledgements
This study investigated the choice of gambling type among South African university students since most of previous studies neglected to examine what factors actually influence the choice of different gambling types. The study of gambling is scarce in the sub-Saharan African countries despite the involvement of these countries' youths in gambling activities. The survey was conducted on four hundred university students at universities in the Gauteng, North-West and Western Cape provinces of South Africa. Using ordered logit regression, the results revealed that entertainment influences six out of the seven gambling types considered, monetary factor influences the choice of
gambling in two out of the seven types, escape from reality/stress, quick fix to problems, cognition and rebelling against others all influence four out of the seven gambling types while loneliness and boredom each influences three out of the 7 gambling types
The purpose of this study is to examine the relationship between attitudes towards gambling, triggers for gambling, and the severity of the gambling problem of convicted offenders before their incarceration. Participants were recruited through transitional managers of prisons. There were 96 referrals, of which 66 participants completed the study. Results showed that there was a significant correlation between the Gambling Attitudes and Beliefs Survey (GABS) and the Inventory of Gambling Situations (IGS) and a significant correlation between the IGS and the EIGHT Gambling Screen. However, no significant correlation was found between the EIGHT Gambling Screen and the GABS. The results indicated that attitudes towards and beliefs about gambling did not directly influence the severity of the participants’ gambling problem. Attitudes and beliefs were more closely linked to their triggers for gambling, and these triggers carried more weight in the severity of their gambling problem. These results suggest that problem gamblers need assistance in dealing with their trigger situations for gambling as well as receiving a therapeutic programme to change their attitudes towards and beliefs about gambling.
The aim of this report is to review evidence and theory regarding the gambling
product through its structural characteristics (i.e., the ‘agent’ component of the
epidemiological triangle). By providing a better understanding of structural
characteristics, stakeholders should be better equipped to promote and evaluate
responsible gambling and harm-minimisation strategies. Structural characteristics are essentially the building blocks of a gambling game. They are the basis for their differential appeal depending on how they satisfy
different needs for different consumers. They combine with environmental and individual factors to determine both positive and negative outcomes of gambling participation. Structural characteristics vary considerably from game to game and evolve quickly in response to changes in technology; this renders associated policymaking challenging. The report is structured to consider categories of structural characteristics. Within
each section we consider the theory and evidence concerning the possible links between characteristics and gambling problems, together with potential implications for specific interventions that may merit consideration by regulators and commercial gambling providers.
In New Zealand, awareness of gambling-related problems has increased in association with the legalization of new forms of gambling. This paper presents the methods and selected results from a national survey of gambling and problem gambling completed in New Zealand in 1991. While the primary aim of the study was to determine the extent of problem gambling in New Zealand, the study included a second phase intended to assess the validity and reliability of the widely-used South Oaks Gambling Screen as well as to examine other aspects of problematic involvement in gambling. The results of the two-phase study in New Zealand show that problem gamblers in different countries are remarkably similar in demographic terms as well as with regard to other risk factors associated with problematic gambling involvement. The New Zealand study of problem gambling points the way toward important research topics that will require further exploration in the future.
The majority of explanatory models of pathological gambling fail to differentiate specific typologies of gamblers despite recognition of the multi-factorial causal pathways to its development. All models inherently assume that gamblers are a homogenous population; therefore theoretically derived treatments can be effectively applied to all pathological gamblers. This article describes a comprehensive and alternative conceptual-pathway model that identifies three main subgroups: "normal," emotionally vulnerable and biologically based impulsive pathological gamblers. All three groups are exposed to common influences related to ecological factors, cognitive processes and contingencies of reinforcement. However, predisposing emotional stresses and affective disturbances for one group, and biological impulsivity for another, are additional risk factors of aetiological significance in identifying separate subtypes. The implications for treatment are discussed with particular reference to the need to match client subtype with specific treatment interventions.
Four simulations were conducted to compare the validity of the permutation test to the
t test for testing the hypothesis that a population correlation equals zero. When sampling from nonnormal populations, the
t test and the permutation test performed similarly except when extreme nonnormality was combined with a small sample size. Under these conditions, the permutation test controlled the Type I error rate better than did the
t test. But like the
t test, the permutation test falsely rejected more often than commonly used alpha levels under some conditions of heteroscedasticity and nonindependent sampling. When the assumption of exchangeability is met, the permutation test is recommended for (a) small samples combined with extreme nonnormality or a directional alternative hypothesis, (b) testing the null hypothesis of random association in a sample, and (c) computing a
p value when the sampling distribution of a test statistic is unknown. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
"The reward cascade" is the release of serotonin, which in turn at the hypothalamus stimulates enkephalin, which in turn inhibits gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA) at the substantia nigra, which in turn fine tunes the amount of dopamine (DA) released at the nucleus accumbens or "reward site." When DA is released into the synapse, it stimulates a number of DA receptors which results in increased feelings of well-being and stress reduction. It is suggested that when there is a dysfunction in the brain reward cascade, especially in the DA system causing a hypodopaminergic trait, the brain of that person requires a DA fix to feel good. This trait leads to multiple drug-seeking behavior. This is so because alcohol, cocaine, heroin, marijuana, nicotine, and glucose all cause activation and neuronal release of brain DA, which could heal the abnormal cravings. The lack of D₂ receptors causes individuals to have a high risk of multiple addictive, impulsive and compulsive behavioral propensities, such as severe alcoholism, cocaine, heroin, marijuana and nicotine use, glucose bingeing, pathological gambling, sex addiction, attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), Tourette's syndrome, autism, chronic violence, posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD), schizoid/avoidant cluster, conduct disorder, and antisocial behavior. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
The South Oaks Gambling Screen (SOGS), a validated, reliable instrument for detecting gambling problems, and the South Oaks Leisure Activities Screen (SOLAS), a companion screening tool for use with significant others, have been employed in a variety of settings and in several languages. This paper focuses on adapting the SOGS for use in various cultures and localities, discusses the authors' 1992 revision of the SOGS, and includes both the revised SOGS and the SOLAS.
The South Oaks Gambling Screen is a 20-item questionnaire based on DSM-III criteria for pathological gambling. It may be self-administered or administered by nonprofessional or professional interviewers. A total of 1,616 subjects were involved in its development: 867 patients with diagnoses of substance abuse and pathological gambling, 213 members of Gamblers Anonymous, 384 university students, and 152 hospital employees. Independent validation by family members and counselors was obtained for the calibration sample, and internal consistency and test-retest reliability were established. The instrument correlates well with the criteria of the revised version of DSM-III (DSM-III-R). It offers a convenient means to screen clinical populations of alcoholics and drug abusers, as well as general populations, for pathological gambling.
Some gamblers use a doubling strategy as a way of improving their chances of coming home a winner. This paper reports on the results of a computer simulation study of the doubling strategy and compares the short term and long term results of doubling to gambling with a constant sized bet. In the short term players using a doubling strategy were more likely to win, then lose, however in the long term, the losses suffered by doublers were much greater than that suffered by constant bettors. It is argued that the use of a doubling strategy is related to an incomplete conceptualization of random events sometimes known as the 'law of averages.' A second simulation examined the fate of doubling in an ideal world in which the 'law of averages' was actually true. In this ideal world, doublers were much better off than constant bettors. The relationship of the results to a naive conceptualization of random events is discussed.
Despite the current popularity of the UK National, psychologists have tended to neglect lottery play. This review provides a summary of current research findings and outlines the main cognitive theories of gambling as related to non-pathological lottery play. A discussion of various biases and irrational thinking patterns typically found in lottery gambling will be given. These will include the misunderstanding of lottery odds, a susceptibility to the gambler's fallacy and cognitive entrapment, a belief in hot and cold numbers, unrealistic optimism, a belief in personal luck, superstitious thinking, the illusion of control, the erroneous perception of near misses, a susceptibility to prize size and rollover effects, the framing of gambling outcomes and finally, the influence of social factors on lottery play. It is concluded that the psychology of lottery play needs a more unified theory which whilst largely cognitive in emphasis, should also incorporate social motivations such as those inherent in syndicate based lottery play.
The study investigated 261 lottery winners of prizes of NKR 1 million (US $150,000) or more in the years 1987-91 in a postal survey. The modal Norwegian winners were middle-aged married men of modest education, living in small communities. Emotional reactions to winning were few, aside from moderate happiness and relief. Winners emphasized caution, emotional control and unconspicuous spending, e.g. paying debts and sharing with children. There was only a slight increase in economic spending. A wish for anonymity was frequent, together with fear of envy from others. Betting was modest both before and after winning. Experiences with winning were predominantly positive. Life quality was stable or had improved. An age trend was observed, accounting for more variance than any other variable. The older winners seemed to represent a puritan subculture of caution, modesty and emotional restraint. A slightly more impatient pattern of spending was characteristic of younger winners. The results support Kaplan's 1987 and others' findings that lottery winners are not gamblers, but self-controlled realists and that tenacious, negative cultural expectations to the contrary are myths, but perhaps also deterrents of uncontrolled behavior.
Selecting the "correct" number of components to retain in principal components analysis is crucial. Parallel analysis, which requires a comparison of eigenvalues from observed and random data, is a highly promising strategy for making this decision. This paper focuses on linear interpolation, which has been shown to be an accurate method of implementing parallel analysis. Specifically, this article contains tables of 95th percentile eigenvalues from random data that can be used when the sample size is between 50 and 500 and when the number of variables is between 5 and 50. An empirical example is provided illustrating linear interpolation, direct computation, and regression methods for obtaining 95th percentile eigenvalues from random data. The tables of eigenvalues given in this report will hopefully enable more researchers to use parallel analysis because interpolation is an accurate and simple method of obviating the Monte Carlo requirements of parallel analysis.
This study reports the findings of a general population telephone survey (N =2500) conducted in Ontario, which was designed to examine behaviour, knowledge and attitudes related to responsible and problem gambling using a combination of closed- and open-ended questions. When asked to identify ‘signs and symptoms of problem gambling’ or to define responsible gambling, most respondents focused on financial issues suggesting that the general population has a very narrow view of the issue of problem gambling. The majority (65.8%) are not aware of any initiatives to reduce problem gambling; however, we found that people who participate in slots and instant lotteries were more likely to report being aware of initiatives to reduce problem gambling. These findings suggest that people do notice the presence of the help-line number on tickets and slot machines. The survey also examined responsible gambling behaviour and biases in beliefs about gambling.
The CES-D scale is a short self-report scale designed to measure depressive symptomatology in the general population. The items of the scale are symptoms associated with depression which have been used in previously validated longer scales. The new scale was tested in household interview surveys and in psychiatric settings. It was found to have very high internal consistency and adequate test- retest repeatability. Validity was established by pat terns of correlations with other self-report measures, by correlations with clinical ratings of depression, and by relationships with other variables which support its construct validity. Reliability, validity, and factor structure were similar across a wide variety of demographic characteristics in the general population samples tested. The scale should be a useful tool for epidemiologic studies of de pression.
As compulsive gambling and problem gamblers attract continued and increasing attention — due to state reliance on gambling for revenues and government and private marketing of the gambling experience — conceptions of compulsive, or addictive, gambling have evolved. The disease model of alcoholism and drug addiction, which predominates in the U.S. and North America, has generally been widely adopted for purposes of understanding and addressing gambling problems. However, this model fails to explain the most fundamental aspects of compulsive
Objectives: The objectives of this study are to estimate the number of people seeking treatment on an annual basis in Ontario at specialized problem gambling treatment programs and describe important characteristics of clients. Method: Agency staff prospectively collected four broad information categories from clients: demographics, gambling activities, problem severity and services received, and submitted the data to a central database. Sample: The report includes submissions (total caseload equals 2224) from 44 designated problem gambling programs between January 1, 1998 and April 30, 2000. Results: Of the 2224 clients in treatment, 1625 (73.5%) were seeking help for their own gambling problem, and 504 (22.8%) were seeking help in dealing with a family member/significant other's gambling problem. The overall gender ratio of cases in treatment was about 1.4:1 (58.3% to 41.7%) males to females. A wide range of gambling activities was reported as problematic. Conclusion: Only a small percentage of people experiencing problems related to gambling are seeking help from specialized treatment programs. Population survey data are needed in Ontario to assess the potential over- or under- representation of particular sub-groups in treatment compared to the epidemiology of problem gambling in the community.
The impacts on the community of the opening of a casino in Niagara Falls are studied.
The study uses a pre/post design for the community data, with pre/post data from Ontario as a whole as a comparison.
The study site is the city of Niagara Falls, Ontario, where a casino opened in early December, 1996.
Using random-digit dialing, telephone interviews were conducted with adult residents of Niagara Falls in 1996 and 1997, and with adult residents of Ontario in 1995 and 1997.
Aside from demographic variables, measures included general attitudes to gambling, expectations about (1996) and experiences with (1997) the casino's opening, extent of participation in 11 types of gambling and 18 items on problems with gambling: five key items from a standard gambling problems score (SOGS), five life-area problems items, and items on pressures from others concerning the respondent's gambling and on gambling problems among family and friends.
Attitudes to gambling remained stable in Niagara Falls, while there was some evidence of decline in approval in Ontario as a whole. While strong majorities of 1996 respondents had expected many positive and negative effects on The Community of the Casino's opening, Significantly fewer respondents in 1997 reported actually experiencing most of these effects. While a small increase in employment was found, it fell far below projections, a result probably reflecting displacement effects. The rate and level of casino gambling increased in Ontario, but increased even more in Niagara Falls, with little displacement of other gambling. Reported gambling problems increased significantly in Niagara Falls for two of 10 gambling problem items and for the short SOGS score, while rates were generally stable or declining in the province. Pressure from others about gambling rose significantly in Niagara Falls (in contrast to the province), and reported rates of family members or friends with gambling problems also rose substantially. There was an increasing trend in Niagara Falls for all 18 problem indicators.
The casino's opening brought more gambling by local residents, and an increase in reported gambling problems; yet support for the casino, already strong, if anything grew. At least in the short term, problems from the increased availability of gambling manifested themselves not in the public arena but rather in the arena of private life.
A questionnaire was designed to test selected aspects of the author's General Theory of Addictions (Jacobs, 1982). Data were collected from groups of compulsive gamblers, alcoholics, and compulsive overeaters, and compared with the responses to the same questionnaire obtained from normative samples of adolescents and adults. The more inclusive term, compulsive gambler, has been used throughout, since the sample of gamblers in this study included an inpatient subgroup who had been diagnosed as pathological gamblers, as well as a subgroup of Gamblers Anonymous members who had not been clinically evaluated. Findings support the author's theoretical position that, when indulging, different kinds of addicts will tend to share a common set of dissociativelike experiences that differentiate them from nonaddicts. This has been termed a state of altered identity.
A general theory of addictions is proposed, using the compulsive gambler as the prototype. Addiction is defined as a dependent state acquired over time to relieve stress. Two interrelated sets of factors predispose persons to addictions: an abnormal physiological resting state, and childhood experiences producing a deep sense of inadequacy. All addictions are hypothesized to follow a similar three-stage course. A matrix strategy is outlined to collect similar information from different kinds of addicts and normals. The ultimate objective is to identify high risk youth and prevent the development of addictions.
The proliferation of state lotteries raises the possibility of increasing pathological gambling because large segments of the population are purchasing tickets. This study, based on a 50% response rate of million dollar winners in Ohio in 1986, indicates lottery winners spend relatively small amounts of money on tickets, did not appreciably increase the amount of money they spent on tickets after winning, and rarely engaged in other forms of gambling before or after they won. These data do not support the assumption that lotteries significantly increase the amount of compulsive gambling in our society, but the subject deserves further exploration.
Within a general systems model of personality, we are currently studying impulsiveness and other personality traits using multitrait-multimethod multivariate designs. The research involves a wide spectrum of techniques in an effort to find consistent relationships among biological, cognitive, behavioral, and environmental correlates of the personality traits. The goal is to develop unique profiles of personality traits based on these four classes of measurements. Our research has demonstrated that impulsiveness and anxiety are personality traits that have loadings on two orthogonal higher order personality factors that we have labeled action-oriented and mood-feeling. From both an empirical research and a clinical viewpoint, we have identified three subtraits of impulsiveness: cognitive (Ic), motor (Im), and nonplanning (Inp). Inp is hypothesized to relate to frontal lobe brain processes, while Ic and Im are more related to neural mechanisms that (1) control performance on tasks with “timing-and-rhythm” demands and/or (2) are related to seizure disorders. High-impulsive subjects (especially when high on Ic and Im) are less efficient at performing a wide range of psychomotor tasks. We hypothesize that this inefficiency relates to the information-gating properties of the nervous system being out of “synch” with efficient performance of selected tasks. High-impulsive subjects are visual N100 event-related potential augmentors, which would be consistent with this dyssynchrony occurring in the early stages of information processing. We also hypothesize that impulsiveness is related to serotonin (high impulsiveness related to low serotonin levels). Our psychopharmacological-psychophysiological studies of information processing would be consistent with the latter hypothesis.
The self-report measures of social anxiety that are commonly used in social psychological and personality research confound the measurement of social anxiousness with the measurement of specific behaviors that often, but not always, accompany social anxiety. Theoretical and methodological issues regarding this problem are discussed, and two new scales are presented that measure interaction and audience anxiousness independent of specific social behaviors. Psychometric data show the scales to possess high internal consistency and test-retest reliability, as well as strong evidence of construct and criterion validity.
This study developed prevalence estimates of gambling-related disorders in the United States and Canada, identified differences in prevalence among population segments, and identified changes in prevalence over the past 20 years.
A meta-analytic strategy was employed to synthesize estimates from 119 prevalence studies. This method produced more reliable prevalence rates than were available from any single study.
Prevalence estimates among samples of adolescents were significantly higher than estimates among samples of adults for both clinical (level 3) and subclinical (level 2) measures of disordered gambling within both lifetime and past-year time frames (e.g., 3.9% vs 1.6% for lifetime estimates of level 3 gambling). Among adults, prevalence estimates of disordered gambling have increased significantly during the past 20 years.
Membership in youth, treatment, or prison population segments is significantly associated with experiencing gambling-related disorders. Understanding subclinical gamblers provides a meaningful opportunity to lower the public health burden associated with gambling disorders. Further research is necessary to determine whether the prevalence of disordered gambling will continue to increase among the general adult population and how prevalence among adolescents will change as this cohort ages.
To gather information that describes the extent of gambling and problem gambling in Prince Edward Island (PEI), to rigorously analyze the relation between gambling activities and problem gambling, to document cognitive and emotional correlates of problem gambling, and to identify an at-risk gambling group.
We selected a random, stratified sample (n = 809) to represent the adult population of PEI. We administered both the South Oaks Gambling Screen (SOGS) and an early version of the Canadian Problem Gambling Index (CPGI) to participants who had gambled.
The current rate of problem gambling was 3.1%. Problem gamblers were likely to be under age 30 years, to be single, and to report cognitive, emotional, and substance abuse correlates. Multiple-regression analysis identified a unique and substantial relation between problem gambling and video lottery terminal (VLT) use. We identified a group of at-risk gamblers (scoring 1 or 2 on the SOGS), comprising 14% of the sample.
Gambling and problem gambling patterns in PEI resemble those in most other provinces. The relation found between problem gambling, VLT use, and cognitive, emotional, and substance use correlates should apply to the greater population as well.
This paper reports on the findings of a survey prior to the opening of a casino in Niagara Falls, Ontario (N= 1002 adults) on approval of the casino, expectations regarding the impact of the casino, attitudes toward gambling, gambling behaviour, and demographic information. The respondents generally had a positive attitude towards gambling. The expectations of community impact clustered into 3 factors: negative social consequences (crimes, addiction), negative environmental consequences (litter, noise, traffic), and positive economic consequences (jobs, stores, income). The majority of respondents expected economic benefits from the casino as well as a decrease in the environmental quality of the city. Expectations regarding social problems were mixed with a majority expecting an increase in serious crimes, but only a minority expecting an increase in people on welfare. Covariance structure modelling revealed that a positive attitude towards gambling and expecting economic benefits were positively related to approval of the casino, and expecting social problems was negatively related to approval. Given that more than seven in ten respondents supported the opening of the casino, the expected economic benefits coupled with a generally positive attitude towards gambling, apparently outweighed concerns about problems associated with gambling.
The present study examines 817 adolescent High School students' gambling behavior. Participants completed the DSM-IV-J, a gambling screen examining severity of gambling problems along with the High School Personality Questionnaire (HSPQ), the Reynolds Adolescent Depression Scale (RADS) and a questionnaire devised by the authors inquiring about gambling behavior, substance abuse, alcohol consumption, and cigarette smoking. The study seeks to test the Jacobs' (1986) General Theory of Addictions, using problem and pathological adolescent gamblers as the prototype to test the model. The results obtained through path analysis and logistic regression suggest that Jacobs' theory is a plausible and likely explanation for the development of a gambling addiction amongst adolescents. The clinical implications are addressed.
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