Article

Profiling stranger rapists: Linking offence behaviour to previous criminal histories using a regression model

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Abstract

International research has suggested that rapist criminal histories can be predicted from certain offence behaviours. Ninety-six solved stranger rape cases were examined to determine if there was consistency in a New Zealand sample. Rapist behaviours during the offence were compared with criminal convictions prior to the rape. The primary statistical technique used was likelihood ratio stepwise binary logistic regression. Predictive utility of the results was limited, due to significant correlation coefficients between the criminal history variables. Nevertheless, the current study reflected the general findings of similar descriptive international research. These outcomes were: the majority of stranger rapists had prior criminal convictions, and the majority of those convictions were for property offences not sexual offending. Furthermore, ethnic minorities were over-represented among the offenders, and the majority of stranger rapists started committing their first known rapes in their mid- to late 20s. Finally, methodological difficulties were encountered during this study. This highlights the need to refine existing statistical approaches to predictive offender-based research.

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... According to the Ministry of Justice (2013), 10% of sexual assaults against a female are committed by a stranger. Stranger rape cases can be particularly difficult to solve; physical evidence to aid investigative inferences is often lacking, with sometimes only the account provided by the victim available to investigators (Corovic, Christianson & Bergman, 2012;Ter Beek, Van Den Eshof & Mali, 2010;Scott, Lambie, Henwood & Lamb, 2006). Furthermore, investigators frequently work under considerable time pressures to apprehend the offender, with limited resources available to them, making offender apprehension even more challenging (Hakkanen, Lindlof & Santilla, 2004). ...
... The profiling equation rests on the prominent assumption of homology (Mokros & Alison, 2002), which states that offenders who commit crimes in a similar manner and exhibit similar crime scene behaviors will share similar background characteristics (Petherick & Ferguson, 2013). Being able to make logical inferences of an unknown offender's background would be of great investigative utility, providing directly useful information to aid the investigative process, particularly potential nominal prioritization (Ter Beek et al., 2010;Scott et al., 2006;). ...
... These offenders, therefore, are already recorded in the system (Alison et al., 2010). Thus, criminal history profiling has the potential to be a powerful investigative tool (Scott et al., 2006). Any behavioral advice given must be based on reliable and evidence-based research; claims based on unreliable research can have disastrous investigative consequences (Lundrigan & Mueller-Johnson, 2013). ...
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Davies, Wittebrood, and Jackson (1997) were among the first to investigate whether offense behaviors are predictive of criminal history, with the findings of their paper then utilized by the National Crime Agency (NCA) Behavioral Investigative Advisors (BIAs) when assisting rape investigations. The aim of the study was to replicate this seminal paper with a larger contemporary sample of U.K. stranger rapists as identified by NCA. Data from 474 adult male stranger rapists were obtained in relation to 22 crime scene behaviors and nine preconviction variables. Results indicated significant differences between the Davies et al. original data set and this contemporary data set in both the behaviors and the preconvictions they displayed. The contemporary sample was significantly less likely to use sighting precautions, use violence, and take fingerprint precautions. This sample was also significantly less likely to have any of the preconviction crime types, with the exception of drugs offenses. When exploring the current data set of stranger rapists, statistical analyses indicated a number of key offense behaviors that were able to predict the criminal history of stranger rapists. However, contrary to previous research, no behaviors were found to be associated with sexual offense preconvictions. The results highlight that behaviors and characteristics of stranger sex offenders have changed since the 1990s. The implications for practice are discussed.
... Offender profiling is a police technique that complements current methods of investigation by attempting to improve the investigative process of identifying, tracking, and arresting perpetrators in serial stranger rape cases (Corovic et al., 2012;Fox & Farrington, 2018). Many offender-profiling studies have increasingly focused on generating inferences between crime scene variables and offender characteristics in order to aid this police investigative process, particularly in naming and identifying potential suspects (Almond et al., 2018;Mokros & Alison, 2002;Scott et al., 2006;ter Beek et al., 2010). Offender profiling has traditionally been used to solve serial stranger rapes and homicides believed to have been committed by the same offender, where the police have had few clues as to the identity of the offender and are unsure about the type of individual they should be looking for (Hazelwood & Warren, 2004). ...
... Previous research has attempted to draw a clear distinction between serial and one-off offenders, with the majority focusing on homicide (Chan et al., 2015;James & Proulx, 2016;Kraemer et al., 2004;Pakkanen et al., 2015;Santtila et al., 2004;Sturup, 2018;Trojan & Salfati, 2011;Wright et al., 2008) and only a few on rapes (Corovic et al., 2012;de Heer, 2016;Park et al., 2008;Slater et al., 2014). Research on serial versus one-off rapists has found the difference between these two groups to lie basically in terms of criminal sophistication, violence, and interpersonal involvement (Corovic et al., 2012;de Heer, 2016;Park et al., 2008;Scott et al., 2006;Slater et al., 2014). ...
Article
Stranger rapes are the most difficult cases to solve for the police, especially when a serial rapist is involved. Recent research in offender profiling has focused on generating inferences between crime scene variables and offender characteristics to aid the police investigation. This study aims to develop an empirical model to predict a new case of a serial stranger rapist by analyzing a Spanish sample of 231 one-off and 38 serial sexual offenders. A multivariate logistic regression model that included eight significant crime-related variables was able to predict whether an unknown offender is a one-off or serial rapist based only on the victim’s account. The predictive validity of the model was tested using receiver operating characteristic (ROC) analysis and the result of AUC value indicated a medium predictive capacity. The final model correctly classifies nearly 80% of serial stranger rapist cases. The implications of these findings for criminal investigation are discussed.
... If certain crime-scene characteristics are associated with the probability that the unknown offender is a serial rapist, this could indicate that he has committed similar sexual offenses before, allowing for police to look at criminal records of potential suspects to narrow down the list (Ainsworth, 2013). Law enforcement agencies often rely on information about suspects who were previously charged for similar crimes to start their investigation (Scott et al., 2006). Studying the criminal career of a suspect has proven very promising in the ranking of suspects (Scott et al., 2006). ...
... Law enforcement agencies often rely on information about suspects who were previously charged for similar crimes to start their investigation (Scott et al., 2006). Studying the criminal career of a suspect has proven very promising in the ranking of suspects (Scott et al., 2006). ...
Article
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Stranger rape cases are one of the most difficult sexual assault crimes to solve for law enforcement. This study aimed to compare crime-scene characteristics between serial rapists and single-victim rapists in stranger rape cases and build a predictive model to predict rapist type. An archival database of released sex offenders included 385 who committed stranger rapes. Of those, 244 were single-victim rapists and 141 were serial rapists. The single-victim rapists were significantly more likely to have violently themed crime-scene characteristics than serial rapists, whereas serial rapists were significantly more likely than single-victim rapists to engage in criminally sophisticated behavior and induce participation from their victims. A logistic regression using 10 crime-scene characteristics correctly identified 75.8% of cases as perpetrated by either single-victim or serial rapists. The most significant predictors of rapist type were whether the offender digitally penetrated their victim, whether the offender choked their victim, whether they were at a new/unknown location or whether they threatened their victim. The implications of these results are that they benefit law enforcement in the investigation of stranger rape cases by potentially narrowing down their suspect pool and add to the classification of stranger rapists in offender profiling literature.
... Furthermore, the few existing studies so far are divided by a fundamental dispute in the general offender profiling literature, concerning which statistical approach should be preferred for linking crime scene actions to offender characteristics (Alison et al., 2010). Some authors have favored direct bivariate associations to explore the relationship between single offense behaviors and prior offenses (e.g., Almond et al., 2018;Cole & Brown, 2014;Davies et al., 1997;Lea et al., 2011;Scott et al., 2006;ter Beek et al., 2010). In the context of stranger rape, for example, Almond et al. (2018) found in their replication of the classic Davies et al.'s (1997) study that stranger rapists who forced their entry were 2.5 times more likely to have a previous conviction for burglary, whereas offenders who disabled their victim's phone were nearly 5 times more likely to have previously been convicted for a violent crime. ...
... This finding is consistent with evidence for criminal specializations among homicide offenders, which highlights a large subgroup displaying histories of predominantly instrumental crimes, such as theft, burglary, or robbery (Trojan & Salfati, 2016). As most homicides in the current study contained overt, or covert sexual behaviors (73.2%), it is interesting to note that for cases of stranger rape, the crime scene behavior forced entry has been identified as a significant predictor of prior convictions for acquisitive crime types (i.e., burglary, theft, robbery) in multiple studies (Almond et al., 2018;Davies et al., 1997;Scott et al., 2006). Previous research has further highlighted a link between sexual homicide and a history of burglary (e.g., Schlesinger & Revitch, 1999), with some authors suggesting that repeat burglary offenders may escalate from noncontact burglaries toward burglaries featuring more serious, interpersonal offense elements depending on a number of circumstantial factors (Pedneault et al., 2015). ...
Article
Offender profiling follows the idea that if offenders’ crime scene actions can be empirically linked to their background characteristics, it will be possible to predict one from the other. There is a lack of research exploring whether homicide offenders’ crime scene actions are predictive of their criminal histories, despite the potential utility of such information. The current study addresses this gap in the literature. A sample of 213 adult male-on-female homicides with sexual or unknown motive was drawn from a U.K.-wide database. Relationships between 13 preconviction variables and 29 crime scene behaviors were explored using a bivariate statistical approach. Subsequently, binary logistic regression models were used to predict the presence, or absence, of specific preconvictions based on a combination of offense behaviors. Analyses highlighted 16 statistically significant associations between key offense behaviors and previous convictions, these associations were often “less likely” to result in previous conviction. The analysis failed to find any association for various other variables, most notably sexual preconvictions. Results indicate offenders’ criminal histories can be predicted from their offense behaviors, though not all preconvictions may be similarly suited. Implications for practice are discussed.
... Although the recidivism of sex offenders has mainly been of interest for researchers in the fi eld of sexual violence, this issue has some clear implications for investigative psychology. Criminal career has proven very promising in the prioritisation of suspects (Scott, Lambie, Henwood, & Lamb, 2006). Police offi cers often rely on information about known suspects or offenders who were previously charged and convicted for a similar offense in order to start their investigation. ...
... Other attempts at linking offense characteristics to sex offender characteristics have used either some forms of multidimensional scaling (Canter et al., 2003;Häkkänen, Lindlöf, & Santtila, 2004;Kocsis, Cooksey, & Irwin, 2002) or regression analyses (e.g. Beauregard, Lussier, & Proulx, 2007a;Goodwill & Alison, 2007;Scott et al., 2006). In this issue, ter Beek, van den Eshof, and Mali used logistic regression on a sample of 271 stranger rape offenses included in the ViCLAS database of The Netherlands, and found that crime characteristics can be used to 'profi le' offender characteristics, thus providing further weight to the A → C equations. ...
... Although the recidivism of sex offenders has mainly been of interest for researchers in the fi eld of sexual violence, this issue has some clear implications for investigative psychology. Criminal career has proven very promising in the prioritisation of suspects (Scott, Lambie, Henwood, & Lamb, 2006). Police offi cers often rely on information about known suspects or offenders who were previously charged and convicted for a similar offense in order to start their investigation. ...
... Other attempts at linking offense characteristics to sex offender characteristics have used either some forms of multidimensional scaling (Canter et al., 2003;Häkkänen, Lindlöf, & Santtila, 2004;Kocsis, Cooksey, & Irwin, 2002) or regression analyses (e.g. Beauregard, Lussier, & Proulx, 2007a;Goodwill & Alison, 2007;Scott et al., 2006). In this issue, ter Beek, van den Eshof, and Mali used logistic regression on a sample of 271 stranger rape offenses included in the ViCLAS database of The Netherlands, and found that crime characteristics can be used to 'profi le' offender characteristics, thus providing further weight to the A → C equations. ...
Article
Research on sex offenders has mainly guided clinical practice for risk assessment and therapeutic intervention. However, the current scientific knowledge on these offenders and their crimes is, in many aspects, of great importance to criminal investigations. Consequently, there is a need to build bridges between investigative psychology and the research being conducted on sex offenders. Four areas of research on sex offenders that have clear implications to investigative psychology can be identified: (1) the consistency or ‘crime-switching’ patterns of sex offenders; (2) the recidivism patterns of different types of sex offenders; (3) the police response to specific victim characteristics; and (4) the A → C equation of sexual assaults. This paper argues for a need to establish a dialogue between these two fields of research so that knowledge about sex offenders keeps growing whilst being able to inform policing practices in investigative psychology. Copyright © 2009 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
... For example, although research states that only 16% of stranger rapists have prior convictions for sexual offending [in New Zealand: Scott et al, 2006], offenders with such convictions should be prioritised and eliminated straight away. If you don't go down this track you may later on find that the guy is a convicted rapist, so you need to keep in mind the victims. ...
Thesis
In light of increasing controversy over what exactly criminal profiling is and how profiling advice should be constructed, and a lack of research empirically describing the practice of profiling, this research set out to systematically describe what profiling is and how it is done, in New Zealand (NZ) at least, using several sources of data. In Study 1, content analysis of 44 profiling reports revealed that profiling in NZ is (increasingly) akin to the UK concept of behavioural investigative advice, providing assessments and suggestions beyond a list of offender characteristics as profiling has traditionally been conceived. Where the reports provided support for their inferences/claims, this support tended to suggest a statistical and inductive approach was taken. But consistent with the concept of tacit, recognition-primed decision-making, such support was rarely provided. Study 2 involved an Applied Cognitive Task Analysis (ACTA) interview of a profiler, to elicit and describe the tacit processes involved in profiling. ACTA yielded greater insight into what goes on ‘behind the scenes’ in profiling and the respective roles played by critical and analytical reasoning, holistic recognition-primed decision-making, and tacit experiential knowledge. As well as contributing to the wider naturalistic decision-making literature, the results of this research have implications for how profiling advice is constructed and communicated in practice, and for future profiling research.
... There is substantial pressure on law enforcement personnel to apprehend sexual offenders, regardless of time and resource restrictions (Canter, 1996;Scott, Lambie, Henwood, & Lamb, 2006). One avenue for improving police investigations entails focusing efforts on selected risks such as repeat offending (Innes, Fielding, & Cope, 2005). ...
Article
The present study investigated behavioural consistency across sexual offending. Variations in behavioural consistency may arise from an increased influence of situational and contextual aspects. However, there is paucity of research exploring variations in behavioural consistency relative to the temporal sequence of the behaviour (e.g., occurring prior to or during the offence). A sample of 49 male serial stranger sexual offenders responsible for 147 offences across four temporal phases of a sexual offence was used in the current study. For each offence, four crime phases were identified: 1) pre-crime, 2) victim selection, 3) approach, and 4) assault. Behavioural consistency within and across offence series were examined utilizing Jaccard’s Coefficient and Receiver Operating Characteristics (ROC). Results indicated a high degree of behavioural consistency across all crime aspects; behaviours that were more dependent on situational influences were inherently less predictable and demonstrated to be less consistent. Further, increased behavioural consistency was associated with offender characteristics of a more stable nature. The implications of these findings are discussed.
... In order to cover all possibly relevant actions, a coding dictionary was created, based on several previous studies of serial rape and sexual assault (Alison & Stein, 2001;Bootsma & Eshof, 2006;Canter et al., 2003;Dale, Davies, & Wei, 1997;Davies, 1992;Goodwill & Alison, 2007;Grubin, Kelly, & Ayis, 1997;Häkkänen et al., 2004;Lundrigan, Czarnomski, & Wilson, 2010;Park, Schlesinger, Pinizzotto, & Davis, 2008;Santtila et al., 2005;Scott, Lambie, Henwood, & Lamb, 2006;Woodhams, Grant, & Price, 2007;Woodhams et al., 2008). Initially, the coding dictionary comprised 70 offender-and victimrelated behaviors within the following four broad categories: approach-related behaviors, verbal behaviors, physical behaviors, and sexual behaviors. ...
... A coding dictionary was then created, on the basis of a number of previous studies on serial rape and sexual assault Bootsma & Van Den Eshof, 2006;Canter et al., 2003;Dale, Davies, & Wei, 1997;Davies, 1992;Hazelwood & Warren, 2004;Goodwill & Alison, 2007;Grubin et al., 1997;Lundrigan et al., 2010;Park, Schlesinger, Pinizzotto, & Davis, 2008;Santtila et al., 2005;Scott, Lambie, Henwood, & Lamb, 2006;Woodhams et al., 2008). Initially, the coding dictionary comprised 150 dichotomous offender behaviours and offence characteristics. ...
Article
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The empirical support for linkage analysis is steadily increasing, but the question remains as to what method of linking is the most effective. We compared a more theory‐based, dimensional behavioural approach with a rather pragmatic, multivariate behavioural approach with regard to their accuracy in linking serial sexual assaults in a UK sample of serial sexual assaults (n = 90) and one‐off sexual assaults (n = 129). Their respective linkage accuracy was assessed by (1) using seven dimensions derived by non‐parametric Mokken scale analysis (MSA) as predictors in discriminant function analysis (DFA) and (2) 46 crime scene characteristics simultaneously in a naive Bayesian classifier (NBC). The dimensional scales predicted 28.9% of the series correctly, whereas the NBC correctly identified 34.5% of the series. However, a subsequent inclusion of non‐serial offences in the target group decreased the amount of correct links in the dimensional approach (MSA–DFA: 8.9%; NBC: 32.2%). Receiver operating characteristic analysis was used as a more objective comparison of the two methods under both conditions, confirming that each achieved good accuracies (AUCs = .74–.89), but the NBC performed significantly better than the dimensional approach. The consequences for the practical implementation in behavioural case linkage are discussed. Copyright © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
Book
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Exploring a specific type of sexual violence committed by a specific type of sexual offender, namely adult male on adult female stranger sexual violence, this book provides readers with an enhanced understanding of both the offences being committed and the offenders who commit them.
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In the 4 decades since offender profiling (OP) was established, hundreds of journal articles, books, book chapters, reports, and magazine articles have been published on the topic, and the technique has been used by countless law enforcement agencies around the globe. However, despite the popularity and extensive literature published on OP, very little is known about its evolution, current state, or findings of the field to date. Therefore, this study presents a systematic review and meta-analysis of 426 publications on OP from 1976 through 2016. Results of this systematic review suggest that there have been considerable improvements in the scientific rigor and self-assessment being conducted in the discipline, although in total, few studies have used a strong empirical approach to develop new profiles. Even fewer evaluations of the effectiveness of OP have been conducted. The first summary of offender profiles proposed for major crimes in OP literature is also presented, with results indicating some recurrent themes in profiles, but wide variations in the number, name, and description of the profiles often found. A meta-analysis of case linkage analysis research indicates that this area is statistically sophisticated, and has yielded moderate to strong accuracy rates for linking crimes to a single offender. Finally, the first analysis of the most prolific authors, researchers, departments, and outlets for OP research, and the methods, approach, and most cited publications in OP are identified. Suggestions for future research on OP and the potential impact that this may have on policy and practice are also discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2018 APA, all rights reserved).
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Since the first edition of Male Victims of Sexual Assault was published in 1992 there have been significant developments in our understanding of the prevalence and characteristics of the sexual assault of men. The first edition was influential in affording legal recognition to male victims of rape in England and Wales and this has resulted in raised awareness of the problem and improved attitudes among all those responsible for dealing with the victims. This recognition has gone some way to breaking down the taboo, and has allowed the discussion to move on and address the important issues of prevention, care and treatment. The book reports on the first epidemiological study of male sexual victimization in Europe, challenges the prevailing stereotype of gay men as sexual predators, covers the topic of male rape in prisons, examines the link between early sexual victimization and later perpetration, describes how victims of sexual torture attempt to process and resolve such experiences, provides the historical and anthropological background to the subject, and examines the impact of the changes in legislation. Mezey and King are experienced forensic psychiatrists with longstanding interests in domestic and sexual violence. They present original research material, which makes a unique contribution to our knowledge about men’s experiences of sexual victimization.
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Offender profiling is the stuff of which myths are made. Like any myth, it has its roots in distant and much-elaborated memories which over time have spawned a vast array of tales, beliefs and diviners. Much of this folklore needs to be taken on faith, but when the myth is challenged, scientifically oriented believers set off in pursuit of evidence, be this a search for Mount Ararat to find the Ark, an archaeological dig to uncover Troy, or a demonstration of cases where profiling has led to the arrest of an offender.
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The common subdivision of sex offenders into ‘rapists’ and child molesters ignores the nature of the sexual act involved, classifying solely by age of victim. Using a sample of 100 convicted and imprisoned sex offenders, comparisons were made between those who had imposed sexual intercourse on their victims and those found guilty of other forms of sexual assault. Rapists were found to be younger and to have a less repetitive pattern of offending than those who did not rape their victims, irrespective of whether their victims were adults or children. This suggests that the type of sexual behaviour engaged in might be a useful guide to the understanding and management of sex offenders.
Article
The rapidly growing literature on the somatic, nonpsychiatric effects of violence on women's health is reviewed, including rape, battery, and the adult consequences of child sexual abuse. The sequelae of these victimizations are summarized with consideration of acute effects (genital and nongenital injuries, sexually transmitted disease, and pregnancy), late consequences (chronic pelvic pain and other forms of chronic pain, gastrointestinal symptoms, premenstrual symptoms, and negative health behaviors), and long-term increases in the use of medical services. A recurrent theme across the literature is that the medical treatment of all types of victimized women can be improved by providing attention to the underlying cause of their symptoms. Achievement of this goal requires that physicians identify victimization history and provide access to appropriate support services. Because all forms of violence against women are prevalent among primary care populations, and victimization is clearly linked to health, health care providers cannot afford to miss this relevant history. The article concludes with suggestions for fostering and responding to disclosures of victimization.
Article
In a survey of New Zealand undergraduate university students, 51.6% of 347 women revealed that they had experienced some form of sexual victimization (using the Sexual Experiences Survey; Koss & Oros, 1982), and 25.3% had either been raped or experienced attempted rape. These prevalence data are almost identical to those found using the same instrument with a national sample of U.S. university student women (Koss, Gidycz, & Wisniewski, 1987). The men in the New Zealand sample, however, reported perpetrating considerably less sexual aggression than their American counterparts. Most of the sexual victimization reported by women occurred within heterosexual relationships.
Article
This paper reports on the first national survey of adults concerning a history of childhood sexual abuse. Victimization was reported by 27% of the women and 16% of the men. Higher rates of abuse were found among men who grew up in unhappy families, lived for some period with only their mothers, who were currently residing in the West and who came from English or Scandinavian heritage. Higher rates of abuse were found among women who grew up in unhappy families, lived for some period without one of their natural parents, received inadequate sex education, were currently residing in the West or who were born after 1925.
Article
The present study is undertaken with a view to investigating the common features and the psychiatric status of the sexual offenders as well as the incidence and other criminological characteristics of the sex offences in an urban city. Comparison with some western findings is made, wherever possible, to see how similar they are and how and why differences are found.
Article
This is a report on a descriptive study made of defendants charged with at least one count of sexual assault who were examined at the Forensic Psychiatry Clinic of the Supreme Court of the State of New York for the Borough of Manhattan during the calendar year 1974.
Article
The study was designed to ascertain the prevalence and nature of sexual abuse in childhood for a community sample of women. A two-stage design, using questionnaires and face-to-face interviews, was employed, providing information on prevalence rates, types of abuse, ages of victims, relationship to the abuser, and cohort effects. Nearly one woman in three reported having one or more unwanted sexual experiences before age 16 years. A significant number of these experiences (70%) involved genital contact or more severe abuse, and 12% of those abused were subjected to sexual intercourse. The abusers were usually known to the victim, being family members in 38.3% of cases and acquaintances in another 46.3%. Stranger abuse accounted for 15% of all abuse experiences. Most of the abusers were young men, disclosure of the abuse was infrequent, and only 7% of all abuse was ever officially reported. Prevalence rates showed no urban/rural differences, no cohort effect with subject age, and no age differences in disclosure rates. Child sexual abuse is common, serious, infrequently reported, and the abuser is usually known to the child. Preadolescent girls are at greatest risk.
Article
This paper examines the research on serial murder and its relationship to antisocial personality disorder and sexual sadism. The concept of malignant narcissism is also discussed. Case studies of serial killers are examined regarding the nature of sexual violation and crime scene behavior.
Article
As part of a larger project evaluating aspects of offender profiling, an initial study was undertaken of the geographic aspects of approximately 300 sexual offences carried out by 79 stranger rapists. The objective was to focus further research on the topic into potentially useful channels, but information thought to be of immediate use to investigating officers was also produced. It was ascertained that at least one-fifth of the sample of stranger rapists were itinerant to a greater or lesser extent. Analysis of the cases where both the offender's address and the location where he approached the victim were known, indicated that the majority of attacks (75 per cent) were initiated within five miles of the offenders' homes. The apparent reasons for victims being approached unusually far away included targeting of locations where numbers of suitable victims were available; raping during relatively sophisticated property offences; 'prowling' or 'hunting' over large areas by subjects who spent considerable amounts of time so doing; access to transport; and familiarity with widely dispersed neighbourhoods, often due to the offender having lived in two or more locations. As a result of this work, future research on the geography of rape will be directed towards those aspects of the offences which have been identified as relevant to the distance between an offender's base and the site where he approached his victim.
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