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Not Having What You Want versus
Having What You Do Not Want:
The Impact of Type of Negative Outcome
on the Experience of Disappointment
and Related Emotions
Wilco W. va n D ijk
University of A msterdam, the Netherlands
M arcel Zeelenb erg
Tilburg University, the Netherlands
Jo op van d er Pligt
University of A msterdam, the Netherlands
The p resen t r esea r ch focu se s on t he em ot io n a l consequences of negat ive o u t-
co me s. Two t yp es o f n eg at ive o u t com es a re dis tin gu ish ed : T h e ab sen ce o f a
po sit ive o ut co me a nd t h e p r esen ce o f a neg at ive ou t co m e. I t is a r gued t h a t
dis ap p oin t m ent , b eca use o f it s clo se lin k wit h h op e, de sire, a nd p ro m ise, is m o re
associat ed w ith t he ab sen ce of a p o sitive o u tcome th a n with t h e p res en ce o f a
ne gat ive o ut co m e. D isa pp o int m ent is a lso exp ect ed t o b e m or e a sso cia te d wit h
th e absence of a p os itive ou t co me tha n rela ted n ega t ive em o tion s, su ch as
sadn ess, an ger, fru st rat io n , and r egr et . The resu lt s of fou r st u dies, using differ-
ent m et hod o logies, co n ® rm th ese p redictions. I n S tud y 1 a nd St udy 2 p a rt ici-
pa n t s rec alle d a n a ut o bio gr a ph ica l em o t ion a l ep iso d e, a nd ap p ra isa ls
concern in g t wo d iffer ent t yp es o f n ega t ive o u tc om es w ere asse ssed. In St udy
3 a scena r io m et ho d o logy w as u sed in wh ich the t yp e o f negative out co m e wa s
exp er ime nt a lly m an ip u la ted an d ra t ing s for differ en t em ot io n s w ere a ssessed .
F in a lly, in St ud y 4 on -lin e em ot io na l r ea ct ion s t o t he tw o d iffer en t ty pe s o f
negat ive outco m es were assessed in a n exp erim en t in wh ich real money co u ld b e
wo n o r lo st . I mp lica ti on s fo r t h e st ud y of d isa p po in t m en t a re b r ie¯ y d iscu ssed .
C OG N I TI ON AN D EM O TI O N, 199 9, 13 (2), 129±148
R eq ues ts for r epr in t s s ho u ld b e s ent t o Wilc o W. v an D ijk , D ep ar t me nt o f So cia l P sych o lo gy,
F re e U n iver sit y o f A m st er d am , va n d er Bo ech o r s ts tr aa t 1, N L ±1081 BT, A m st er d a m, T h e
N et h er la n d s; e -m a il: W W.va n . D ijk @ p sy.vu .n l.
We t ha n k J a n e Bea ttie f or h er he lp w it h d es ign in g S tu d y 3, a n d we a ls o t h ank C a rs ten
F rie d ri ch , K a th eli jn e G o d ef ro oij, M in k e M e th o r st , an d C o rn e
Â
lise Pa s to r fo r help in g wi th t h e
dat a co llec tio n of Stu d y 1. We tha n k C raig S mith , To ny M a n st ea d , an d t wo a nonym o u s
rev iewe rs fo r he lp fu l co m m en t s o n a e ar lier v er sio n o f t h is m a nu sc rip t .
q1999 P syc h olo gy P r ess Lt d
INTRODUCTION
N o ch ild hood passes without disap p o in t m e nt ab o u t a b ir t h d ay pr esent , no
adoles ce nc e seems to b e co m p let e without a disap p o in t in g love affa ir, a n d
hardly anyo n e is a str a n g er to t h e u n p le asa n t f ee lin g th at ste m s from
buyin g an expensive con sumer p rodu ct t h at turns ou t to be less t h a n
expect ed . A ll in a ll, a life wit h o u t d is ap p ointm ent s ee ms rare. Th is in t ro-
sp e ctiv e vie w is s up p o rt e d b y m o re s yst em a ti c r es ear c h s ho w in g t h at
d isa p po i nt m en t is o n e o f t h e m o st f re qu e nt ly e xp er ien ce d e m o ti on s fo llo w -
in g f ail u re ( Wein er, R u s sell , & L er m an , 19 79).
D is a p poin t m ent has re ceive d som e atte ntio n fr o m r esearch ers in t h e
® eld of b e ha vio u ra l d ec isio n m a k in g ( Be ll, 19 85 ; L o o m es & S ug d en ,
19 86). T he y a s su m e t h a t p eo p le a nt ic ip at e d isa p po in t m en t an d ta k e t h is
in t o ac co un t wh e n m a k in g d e cisi on s. F or in s ta n ce, Sh ep p erd , Ou e lle tt e,
and F ern andez (1996) show ed th a t in d iv id u a ls tend t o a b a n d o n t h eir
o p tim i sm a n d m a y e ven b e co m e p es sim is tic in a nt ic ip at io n o f se lf- rel eva nt
fe ed ba c k. T h ey a r gu e t h at pe o ple a n t ic ipa t e t h e d is ap p o in tm e nt th e y
wo u ld fe el if th e ir p er fo r m a nce were to fa ll sho r t o f th eir expectations.
T h us, p eo p le r ed u ce t h ei r p e rfo r m an c e es ti ma t es t o m in im is e t h e p o ssib i-
lit y of per fo r m in g wo r se t h a n e xp ected a n d t o avoid d isap p o intmen t a rising
as a co n s eq u ence.
Our o wn r esear ch showed t h a t t h e p robab ilit y o f a n ou t com e an d t h e
effor t investe d in a t t a in in g an o u t come have a n im p a ct o n the in ten sity of
d isa p po i nt m en t . T he m o re p r ob a bl e a p o si tiv e o u t co m e w a s, th e m or e
in t en se disa p p o in t m e nt a p ers on f ee ls if t h e o u t com e is n o t attained (van
D i jk & va n de r Plig t , 19 97) . D is ap p o in tm e nt is als o mo r e in t en se a f te r
having investe d m ore e ffo r t in va in t o atta in the desired o u t com e (va n D ijk,
va n d er P ligt , & Z e ele nb er g, 1 998 a ). T h e w ay i n wh ic h d isa p p oi nt m en t is
experien ced h a s a lso b een sub je ct t o em p irica l inves tiga t io n . Z eele nb e rg,
va n D ijk, M anstea d , a n d van d e r P ligt (199 8a ) sho w ed th at the exp er ie nce
o f d isa p po in t m en t (a s c om p a re d to r eg re t) i nv olv es f eel ing p o we rle ss nes s, a
tend en c y to do n o t h in g a n d t o get a wa y from t h e situa t io n, an d wa n t in g t o
do no thin g. A qu est io n t h a t was no t add ressed in our e arlier resear ch
co n cerns t h e c a uses o f d isa pp o in t m e nt. I n th e p r esent ar t icle we a im to
sh ed some mo re light o n th is iss ue. We a lso in ve st igate wh eth er d isappoin t-
m en t , o n t h e basis o f t h ese ca u ses, ca n b e distingu is hed fr om rela t ed
negat ive em o t io n s su ch a s sadness, an ger, f ru st r ation , a n d regre t.
Disappo int ment and D esire, Hope and Prom ise. Th e va r io u s defini-
t io ns o f di sap p o in t m en t see m to sh a r e o n e c en t ra l fea tu r e, th a t is, th e
n o nf ul ® lm en t o f a n e xp ec ta tio n . D i sap p o in t m en t h a s b e en d e® n ed as
``n o n a ch ieve m en t o f a n exp ec te d o u t co m e’ ’ (F r ijd a , 19 86, p. 2 80) , o r a s
``a p sych o lo gica l reac tio n to a n o u t co m e that does no t m atc h up to
130 van DIJK, ZEELENBE RG, van der PL IGT
exp e cta t io n s’ ’ (B ell, 1 985, p. 1 ). S eve ra l a ut h o r s e xp lici tly l in k d isa p p o in t-
m en t to t h e n o nf u l® llm en t o f a pos itive expecta t io n . S hand (19 14) d e® n es
d isa p po in t m en t a s a n e mo t io n t h at is cl ose ly lin ke d t o desire. O r t o ny,
Clo re, an d C ollins (1988, p. 110) also str e ss th e im p o r t a n ce of bo th desire
and no nfu l® lmen t of an expected ou t come in th eir de® nitio n o f disappoin t-
m en t : ``t o be d isp lea se d a b o ut t h e d isc on ® r m a tio n o f t h e p ro sp e ct of a
d esi rab le eve nt ’ ’ . T h ey s ta t e t h at t h e i nt e ns ity o f d is ap p o int m e nt is a ff ect ed
by hope; t h at is, h igh h o pe s give ri se t o m o r e in t en se d isa p p oi nt m e nt if
the se ho pes a r e d a s hed . M owr er ( 1960, p. 169) a lso r elate s d is app oin tm ent
to hope: ``When a h o p e signal appea r s an d t h en disa p p ea r s the rea ction is
o n e o f di sa pp o in t m en t ’ ’. F r ij da (19 86, p. 2 87) li nk s d isa p p oi nt m e nt w it h
promise: ``Pr o m ises g en er a lly t u rn in t o d isa p p oi nt m e nt s wh en n o t f ul -
® lle d’ ’ . F in a lly, O r to n y et a l. (1 988 , p. 1 10) ma k e a n e xp licit d ist in ct io n
between being ``d ispleas ed about t h e d is co n ® r m a t io n o f t h e pro spe ct o f a
desira b le event’ ’ a n d b ein g ``displea se d ab o u t t h e co n ® rm a t io n o f the
p ro sp ec t o f a u n d esir a ble ev en t’ ’ . T h ey la b elle d t h e fo r me r e mo t io n a l
re a ct ion ``dis a pp o in tm e nt ’ ’ , t h e l at t er a s ``fea r s-c on ® r me d’ ’ .
These d e® n itions suggest that disa p poin t m ent is prim a r ily exp er ienced
in a sit u a tio n in which so m e th ing po sitive was exp ecte d but d id n ot oc cu r.
It s ee ms to b e clo se ly link ed wit h h o p e, de sire, and pro m ise.
Not Having W hat You Wa nt v s. Having W hat You Do Not Want.
Several authors (F r ijd a , 1986; H iggin s, 1989; M o w rer, 1960; R o sem a n ,
1984; R o se man, An tonio u , & Jo se, 199 6; R o se m a n, Sp indel, & Jose,
199 0) a rgu e d th a t ne ga ti ve e m ot io n s c a n b e t he r esu lt o f t w o diff er en t
negat ive situ a t io n s, wh ich we re fe r t o a s type of negative outcome. N e gat ive
em o t io n s can b e th e r es ult o f either t h e absence o f a positive o ut co m e ( ``n ot
h avin g wh a t yo u w a nt ’ ’ ) o r t h e presence of a negative o u t co m e (``ha vin g
wh at you d o n o t w ant’’ ).
Appra isa l th eo r y (s ee e.g . Ar nold , 1960; F r ijd a, 198 6; R oseman , 1984;
Sc he rer, 198 4; Sm it h & E ll swo rt h , 1 985) st at e s t h a t ev al ua t io ns an d
in t er pr et a ti on s o f even t s de te rm in e w hic h em o t io n is exp e ri enc e d. O n e
appr a isa l dimen sion that ca n le ad to d ifferen t emotions is typ e of ne ga t ive
outco m e. F rijd a refers to t h e a b se nce o f a posit ive va le nce o r t he p r esence
o f a n e ga tive va le nc e, t h a t is, t he ab se nc e o f so m et h in g in tr in s ica lly a p pe -
t itiv e o r t h e p re se nc e o f so m et h in g in t r in sic ally av er sive. R o se ma n r e fer s t o
the a b sen ce o f a r ewa r d o r t h e p resence o f a p unish m en t .
1
Thus, int er p ret -
in g o r eva lu a ti ng a si tu a ti on a s eit h er o n e t yp e o f n ega t ive o u tc om e o r t h e
DISAPPOINTMENT AND TYPE OF NEGATIVE OUTCOME 131
1
Th e a b sence of a rew a rd an d t h e p res en ce o f a pu nish m en t is a c o mb in a t ion o f a n
ap p ra is a l of mo t iva tio n a l st a te ( wh et he r t h e d o min a n t op er at ive mo t ive is a p p et itiv e o r
aver s ive; a rew ar d w an tin g t o a tt a in o r a p u n ish m en t wa n tin g t o avo id ) an d a n a p p ra isa l o f
sit u at io n al st a te ( wh et h er th e m o t iva tio n al st at e is p er ceiv ed t o b e p r ese nt o r ab se nt ).
other, th a t is, a s e ither t h e abs en ce of a p o sitive o u t come o r a s t h e presence
of a nega tive ou tco m e, ca n lead to diffe rent negative emo tions.
Be ca u se of its clo se lin k with ho p e, desire, an d pro m ise, w e expect
disap p o in t m e nt to be an em o t io n caused b y a situation which is app raised
a s a n a bs en ce o f a po s it ive o u t co m e. F u r t h er m or e, we exp ec t t h a t di s-
a pp o in t m en t i s m o re as so cia te d w it h t h e a bs en ce o f a p os it ive o u tc o m e
than severa l othe r rela t ed negat ive emotions, such a s sad n ess, anger,
fr u str a tio n , a n d r eg ret.
Disappointment and its Relation to Sadness, Anger, Frustration, and
Regret. D is ap p o in tm e n t is ha r dl y e ver e xpe ri en ce d in iso la t io n . I t s
experien ce is c lo se ly link ed t o o t h er n ega tive em o t io n s. F o r in sta n c e, it
has bee n a r gu e d t hat b o t h sadness a n d anger can b e t h e result o f d is-
a pp o in t m en t (L e vin e, 199 6; M o wr er, 1 960 ). D i sa pp o in t me n t ab o u t n o t
att a inin g an exp ectation or a go a l could result in sa d n ess or a n ger, dep end -
in g o n b eli ef s a b ou t w he th e r t h e o ri gin a l ex pe ct at io n o r g oa l c an be
re in st at e d. Sa d n es s is a ss oc ia te d wit h th e b el ief t h a t go a ls ca n n o t b e
re in st at e d, wh er ea s a n ge r i s a sso cia t ed wi th t h e b e lief th a t so m et h in g ca n
be done to r einst ate a go a l (Levine, 1996). Sa d n e ss is a ssu m ed t o r e sult
from eva lu a t in g a situat ion a s t h e absence of a p o sitive o u t com e ( F r ijd a,
1986; H iggins, 1989; R o seman, 1984; R osema n et a l., 1990, 1996). A nger,
on t h e o t h er h a n d , is often a ssu m ed to be c a u sed b y b o t h t ypes o f n egative
o u tc om e s (F r ijd a , 19 86; Ro s em an , 198 4; R o sem a n et a l., 199 0, 1 996 ).
Frustration is a lso r ela t ed t o d isa pp o in t m en t . T h e te rm ``d isa p p o in t-
m en t ’ ’ is d e ® n e d in We bster’s Third New International D ictionary, (1981)
as follo ws: ``fa ilu re of exp e ctation o r h o p e: fru st ration’ ’ . F r u stra t io n, like
a n ger, is a ss u m ed t o b e ca u se d b y b o t h t yp es of n eg at ive o u tc om e s (F r ijd a ,
19 86; R o se ma n , 1 984 ; R o se ma n et a l. , 199 0, 199 6).
T h e r e lat io n b e tw een d is ap p o in tm e n t an d regret is a t lea st t wo fo ld.
F irs t, bo t h a r e relate d to de cisio n m a k in g a nd ch o ice (Bell, 1982, 1985;
Lo om es & Su gd en, 1982 , 1986). Secon d , bo t h a r e conside red to be count er-
fa ctu a l em o t ion s a rising fro m t hou gh t s ab o u t ``what migh t have been’ ’
(I n m an , D y er, & J ia , 19 97; L o om e s & S u gd en , 1 984 ; O r to n y et a l. , 19 88;
Zee lenb erg et al., 1998b ). Regre t is gener a lly associate d wit h b o t h typ es of
negat ive ou tco m es, th a t is, both th e ab s en ce o f a p o s it ive o u t come an d t h e
p re sen ce o f a n eg at ive o u tc o me ca n give r is e t o r eg ret ( F rij da , 1 986 ;
Ro s em a n , 1 984; R o sem a n e t al ., 19 90, 1 996 ; Z e ele nb er g & B ea tt ie, 19 97;
Zee lenb erg, Beattie, va n d er P ligt , & de Vries, 1 996).
To d ate, we d o n ot know of any empirical s tudy that h as explicitly
inves tiga t ed t h e in ¯ u ence o f typ e of negative outco m e on t h e in t e nsity of
disap p o in t m e nt . T h e m o st r eleva n t st u d y is t h e o n e r epo rted by Ros em a n
(1991). H is participa n t s r ead b rief st o r ies ab o u t e vent s t h a t h a p p ened t o
va r io u s pro t a go n is ts. In th es e sto r ie s, info r m ation relevant to ® ve ap praisa ls
132 van DIJK, ZEELENBE RG, van der PL IGT
wa s syst ematica lly varied , a n d par ticipa n ts rate d t h e inte nsity o f
the em o tio n s t h a t th e y b elieved t h e p r otago n ists felt in respon s e to t h e
eve nt s. H a lf o f t h es e st o rie s c on ce rn e d n eg at ive e mo t io n s a n d a re o f
in t er est for o u r pr es en t p u rp o se s. T h e se st or i es w er e co n cer n ed w it h t h e
ab sen ce of a p o sitive o u t come o r the p r esence of a n e ga t ive o u tco m e.
Alth o ugh d isappo in tment w as no t t he fo cus o f R o sem a n’s st u d y (it d e alt
with s orro w,
2
anger, fru st r a tio n , r egret , a n d severa l o th er em o t io n s),
in t en sit y r a ti ng s o f d isa p p oi n tm e nt we re o b t a in ed . R os em a n fou n d th a t
both t h e a b sence o f a p o sitive o u t com e a nd the presence o f a n egative
o u tco m e r esu lt ed in in cr ea se d ra t in gs fo r a ll ne ga t ive e m o tio n s. F ur t h er -
m ore, he con clud ed th a t th e differe nce s in n e ga t ive e m otio n s d u e t o th e
typ e o f n eg ative o u tco m e were co m p a r a t ive ly sm a ll. I n Ta ble 1 we
su m m a ris e t h e m ea n s fo r so r ro w, a n ger, fr u st r at io n , a n d r eg re t a s re p o rt ed
by Roseman (1991), and also give the m ean d isa pp o in t m e nt rat in g s.
3
Tab le 1 sh ows th at the differences between the two different types of
negative o utcomes a re in deed com p a ratively sm a ll fo r sorr ow, ange r, a n d
regret. T he d ifference, however, is larger for fr u st rat io n , an d partic ularly
large for disappo in t m en t . T h is p r ovides so m e p r elimin a r y suppo r t to ou r
reasoning th at disappo int m ent is mo r e closely asso ciated wit h t h e ab sence of
a posit ive o u tco m e t han w ith t h e p resence of n egative ou t com e. I n t h e p resent
series o f stud ies we lo ok exp licitly a t the r ela tion be tween t h e t wo t yp es o f
negative ou tco m es an d d isap p o in tment. In the ® rst two stud ies pa rticip a nts
recalled a n a u tobiograp h ica l emotiona l episo de an d appraisals con cernin g
type of nega tive o utcome were a sse ssed. I n St udy 3 we experimen tally
manipula t ed t yp e o f n egative ou t com e a n d a ssessed r atin gs for d ifferent
emotions, u sing a scenario m eth o d o lo gy. In St u dy 4 we a ga in m a n ip u la ted
type of n egative ou t co m e, but t his tim e we a ssessed o n-lin e em o t io n al re-
actions b y usin g a gam e-like t ask in wh ich r ea l mo n ey cou ld b e lost or won. In
all studies we com p a r e the relatio n bet ween type of nega t ive o u tco m e a n d
d isap p o int m en t w ith t he r ela tio n b etw een t yp e o f n ega tive o u tc om e
a nd sa d ne ss, a nge r, fr ust r at io n, a nd r egr et .
STUDY 1
In Study 1 p a r t icip a n t s were a sked t o r e call a s peci® c event in wh ich t h e y
exp erien ced e it her d isappo in t m ent, sadness, an ger, fr u stra t io n , o r regr et .
F u r th e rm o r e, th e y w er e a s ke d to in d ic at e to w ha t ex t en t th e s itu a t io n
DISAPPOINTMENT AND TYPE OF NEGATIVE OUTCOME 133
2
In m or e r ecen t w or k R o sem a n u ses t h e e mo t io n t er m ``sad n ess ’ in st ea d o f so r ro w. O n e
rea son fo r t his w a s th at sad n ess is m o re c omm o n ly used t ha n sor ro w in th e Eng lish la n gu a ge
(I.J. Ros em a n, pe rs ona l co m m unicatio n , 22 A pril 19 97) .
3
Th e se me a ns wer e n o t r ep o rt ed b y Ro s em an ( 19 91) . H ow ever, m ea n in t en sit y r at in gs o f
d isa pp o in t m en t on th e d iff er en t s t or ie s w er e r ep or t ed . O n t h e b a sis of th e se in t en sit y ra t in gs
we c alc u lat e d t h e m ea n s o f d isa p p oin t m en t r at in gs fo r t h e t wo t yp es o f ne ga tive o u tco m e s.
re presented one of the t wo typ es of ne ga t ive o utco m es. We expect that
eve nt s in w hi ch d isa p p oi nt m e nt w as ex pe ri en ce d ar e m or e lik ely to b e
associa ted w it h t h e absenc e o f a po sitive o utco m e than wit h t h e p r esence
of a negative o u t co m e, an d th a t th ese events ar e a s so ciate d m o re wit h t h e
ab s en ce o f a posit ive o ut com e t h a n sa dn ess, a n ger, fr u s tra t ion, and regre t.
Method
De sign an d Participa nts. Study 1 ha d a ® ve grou p b etween-su b jects
design (D isa p p o int m en t vs. Sad ness vs. Fru st r a tio n vs. A n ge r vs.
Regre t).
4
St u d en ts a t t h e U n ive rs it y o f A m s ter d a m ( N= 1 00) p a rticipated
in t his st u dy. Th e re were 20 p a r t ic ip a n t s in ea ch co n d it io n . T h is st u dy wa s
part o f a large a p p r aisal st udy, that wa s a d m inist rated d u r ing a la r ge-scale
t es t se ss ion . P a r t icip a n ts we re p a id 10 D u t ch g ui ld er s (a p p ro xim a t ely
$5.00) fo r their participa t ion .
Procedu re. Q u est io n na i re s we re r a n do m ly d ist r ibu t ed a m o n g t h e
p a rt ic ip an t s. D ep e nd in g o n t h e c on d it io n t h ey w er e in , p a rt ic ip an t s w er e
a sk ed t o d esc rib e a sit u a tio n in w h ich t h ey f elt e ith e r i n te ns e d isa p p oi nt -
m en t , s a dn es s, fr u s tr a tio n , a n ger, o r r eg re t.
5
N ext , p artic ipa n ts wer e ask ed
the fo llo win g t wo q u estion s: ``To wha t exte nt d id t he situ a t io n con cern
so m et h in g p o sit ive ( so m et h in g yo u w a nt e d) t h a t d id not o cc ur ?’ ’ a n d ``To
134 van DIJK, ZEELENBE RG, van der PL IGT
TABLE 1
Mean In tensity Ra tings of Different Nega tive Emotions as a Fun c-
tion of Type of Ne gative Outcome (a dapted from Rosema n, 1991)
Em ot ions
Outcome Disappointment Sorrow Anger Frustration Regret
PA 7. 16 5.4 2 6.33 7.1 9 5.57
N P 6. 27 5.26 6.2 3 6.62 5. 52
No te: PA , po s it i ve a b s en c e; N P, n e ga t iv e p r e se n ce. I n Ro se m a n ’s
origin a l wor k is ref erred to PA a s th e ab sen ce o f a rewar d (MS+ S S2)
a nd t o N P a s t h e p res en ce o f a pu n ish me n t ( MS 2SS + ).
4
I n th e presen t resear ch p a rticip ant s wer e exp licit ly a sked ab o u t d isappo in t m en t co n cern -
in g an o u t co m e. H owever, o ne c an of co ur s e als o b e d isap p o int ed in a p ers on . A mo r e d et a iled
a cco u nt o n th e d iff er en ces b et wee n t he se t wo k in d s o f d isa p po in t m en t ca n be fo u n d in va n
D ijk , va n d er P ligt , a nd Z ee len b er g ( 1998 b ).
5
T he em o t io n wor d s in t h e p re sen t st u dy we re in D u tch, a s t he y wer e in St ud y 2 a n d 4 .
St ud y 3 w as co nd u cted in E n glish , a t a u niv ers ity in t he U n ited K ing do m. We h ave n o r eas on
to b eliev e t h at th er e a re an y su b st a ntia l d iff er ences b et w een D u t ch a n d En glish in th e
denota t ive or co nn o t a tive m e an ing o f thes e wor d s.
wh a t e xte n t d id t h e s itu a t io n c on c ern s o me th in g n ega t ive (s o m et hi ng yo u
did n o t wa n t ) t h a t did o c cur ?’ ’
6
Particip a n t s cou ld a n swer b o th q u estio n s o n
a 9 -p o in t sc al e w it h e nd - po in t s la be lled not at all ( 1) a n d to a great extent
(9) , a n d t he m id p o in t l ab el led a s neutral (5 ). F u rt he rm or e, p a rt ici pa nt s w ere
asked h o w inten se they exp e rien ced d isapp o intmen t, s adn es s, fru str a t io n ,
a ng er, a n d r egr et in t h e de sc rib ed sit ua t io n . T he se in t en sit y r at in gs w ere
done on a 9-poin t sca le lab elled not at all ( 1) a nd very much ( 9).
Results and Discussion
A pp r a isa l sc or e s for b o t h m a in d e pe nd e nt va r ia b les ( typ e o f n e ga tive
o u tco m e ) we re en te re d int o a n A N O VA w it h t y pe of n ega t ive o u t co m e
as a with in- su b jects fa c tor a n d the em o t io n rated a s a b et we en-s ub jects
fa cto r. A sign i® cant m a in e ffe ct of ty p e of negative outco m e was found
[F(1,95) = 6. 10, P< .02], a n d a sign i® c ant two-way in ter a ction b et we en
typ e o f n e ga tive o u t c om e a n d t h e emotion rate d was fou nd [F(4,95) = 5.56,
P< .001]. The mea n a pp raisal scores fo r t he ® ve target emo tion s are s how n
in Table 2.
7
P la nn e d c o m pa r iso n s r e vea led t h at d is ap p o in tm e nt w as m o re c lo se ly
assoc iated with t he absen ce of so m e thing p o sitive th a n w it h t h e p r esence
of so m eth ing negative, [t(19) = 2.37, P< .05 ]. Sa d n ess a n d re gr et w e re
both m o re c lo se ly assoc iated w it h th e presence o f someth in g n e ga tive
[t(19) = 3.46, P< . 005] a nd [t(19) = 2.86, P< . 01], re spectively. N o
diffe re nce s wer e fou n d for anger an d fr u st r a t io n (ts < 1).
F u rt he rm or e, a co nt ra st a na lys is b et ween th e a p pr ai sal r at ing s o f d is-
a pp o in t m en t a n d t h e a p pr a is al r a tin g s o f t he o t h er e mo t io n s r ev ea led th a t
d isa p po in t m en t w a s m o r e st ro n gly a ss o cia te d wi th t he a b sen ce o f so m e -
t hi ng p o sit ive t ha n t h e ot h er e mo t io n s [F(4,95) = 2.61, P< .05]. D is-
appo intmen t was more a sso ciat e d wit h th is t yp e o f n e ga tive o u t come
tha n sa d n ess, fru stration, an d r egret (see Tab le 2, co m p a r ison within upper
ro w). C o n cernin g t h e p r esence of a negat ive outco m e n o sig ni® can t differ-
en ce was found b etw een t h e a p p r aisal ra t in gs of disa pp o in t m e nt o n t h e on e
hand an d th e ra tin gs of th e other em o t io n s on t h e othe r. Alt h ou gh d is-
a pp o in t m en t wa s les s st ro n gl y a ss oc iat e d w ith th e p re se nce o f s om e th in g
negat ive tha n sadness. N o sign i® can t diffe rences c oncern ing th is type of
DISAPPOINTMENT AND TYPE OF NEGATIVE OUTCOME 135
6
Bo t h q u est io n s we re p a r t o f a la r ge a p pr a isa l st u d y a nd w er e in t er sp er se d b et wee n 1 3
o th er q ue st io n s ab o u t a p p ra is a ls. T h e o rd er o f t he se q u est io n s wa s r a n do m ly de te rm in e d.
7
Th e m ea n in te n sit y r a tin g s fo r dis a pp o in t m en t, sa d n ess, an ge r, f ru st r at io n , a n d r egr et
wer e 5.40, 6.15, 5.80, 5.3 0, a n d 5. 25, r es pe ct ively. Th e in st a nces o f sadn es s wer e sligh t ly mor e
in te n se t ha n t ho s e of d is ap p o in t me n t, fr ust r a tio n , a n d reg r et (Ps < .0 5) . T h e r an g e of sco r es,
h ow ever, is sm a ll in ab so lu te t er ms.
n eg at ive o u t co m e w er e fo u nd b et we en di sa pp o in t m en t an d a n ger, fr us tr a -
tio n , and r e gr et (see Tab le 2, co m p a r is on within lower ro w).
P ar t ici p an t s w ho re ca lle d a sit u at io n lin ke d wit h a p a r t icu la r e mo t io n
also r a ted th e in t ens it y of th e o t h er t a rget emotion s th ey exp erie nced
during th is situation.
8
To exa m ine t h e ex ten t t o which d is appoint m ent
sh a res a u n iqu e r elation t o t h e absence of so m eth ing posit ive a p a r t ia l
co r re la tio n an a lys is b et we en t h e a p pr a is al q u es tio n s a n d t he in t e nsi ty o f
the em o t io n s wa s con d u c ted . A c ross all d escrib ed situations the in t ensity of
disap p o in t m e nt wa s s igni® ca ntly cor r elate d w it h the absence of a positive
outco m e, wh en co r r ec te d fo r t h e o t her ap p r a isal qu est io n (r= .18, P< . 05 ).
N o n e of the in ten sity rat ings o f sad n ess, an g er, frus tration, an d regret wer e
sig ni® can t ly co r r elate d with t h is t yp e o f n ega tive ou t co m e (r=2.07, n .s.,
r= .08, n.s., r= .10, n. s., r= .07, n .s.), r es pective ly.
9
T h e in t en sit y o f
sa d n ess was sig ni® can t ly corre la ted w it h th e pr es ence o f a n eg at ive o u t-
co m e ( r= . 32, P< . 005 ). T h e in te n sit y r a ti ng s o f d is ap p o in tm e n t, a ng er,
fr u str a tio n , a n d re gr et we re n ot sign i® ca n t ly cor r elate d with t h is typ e o f
n eg at ive o u t co m e (r=2.06, n. s., r= .04, n .s., r= . 03, n.s., r= .06, n . s.),
re sp ectively.
10
136 van DIJK, ZEELENBE RG, van der PL IGT
TABLE 2
Mean Appraisal Ratings on both Questions concerning Type of
Negative Outcome fo r Each of the Five Emotions (Study 1)
Em ot ions
Outcome Disappointment Sadness Anger Frustration Regret
PA 5.7 5
d
3.50
a
4.80
c,d
4.15
a,b ,c
3.50
a, b
N P 4.35
a
5.90
b
5.10
a,b
4.45
a
5.45
a, b
No te: PA , po sit ive ab sen ce; N P, n ega tive pr esen ce. Sc or es c ou ld r an ge
fr om 1 t o 9. H igh er s cor es re ¯ ect t h e fo llo wi ng : p os it ive is ab s ent t o a
gr ea te r e xt en t; n ega tiv e i s p res en t t o a g rea t er ext e nt . M ea n s w it hin a ro w
n ot s ha r in g a co m m o n su pe rs cr ip t di ffer sig n i® ca n tly (P< .05).
8
D isap p oint m en t s ituat io n s rece ived in tensit y ra t ing s of 4.95, 4.75, 6. 20, 3. 60, f or sa dn es s,
ang er, fr u st ra t ion , an d reg ret , resp ect ively. Sadn es s situa t io n s received in t en sit y r a tin gs of 4. 05,
4.5 5, 4.5 0, 2.9 0, fo r d isa p p o in tm en t , a n ge r, fr u st ra t io n, a n d re gre t , r esp ec tive ly. A ng er sit u a -
tion s r eceiv ed in t en sity r at in gs o f 5.2 0, 3. 95, 5 .40, 3.60, fo r disa pp o in t m en t, sad n es s, frus tra -
tion , a n d r eg ret, r esp ec tiv ely. Fr u st r at io n s it uat io n s rec eived in t en sit y r at in gs o f 5.20, 4 .60 ,
5.9 0, 2 .90 , fo r d is ap p o in tm e nt , sad n ess, an ger, a n d r egret, r es pe ct ively. R egr et sit uat io n s
re ceive d in t en sit y r at in gs of 5.15 , 4 .95 , 4. 10, 4. 85, for d isa p po in t m en t , sa d n es s, a ng er, a n d
fr u st ra t io n , r es pec t ively.
9
Th e z er o- ord er co r r elation s b et w een t h e intensit y of th e emot io n s a n d t h e absen ce o f a
positiv e o utco m e w er e alm ost id e nt ic al t o t he pa r t ial co rrel at io n s. T h ere wa s a s ign i® can t
n ega t ive c o rr ela t io n b et wee n th e tw o a p p r ai sa l q u est io n s ( r=2.21, P< .05 ).
10
Th e zer o -o rd er co r rela tio n s b etw een t he intens it y of th e emo t io n s a nd t h e p resence o f a
nega tive o utcom e were a lm o st id e nt ical to the p a r tial corr ela t io ns.
Thus, ou r r es ults sup p o r t t h e not ion th at d isappo in t m ent is bett er
ch a ra ct erised b y th e ab s en ce of a p o sitive ou tco m e t h a n by t h e p r es ence
o f a n eg at ive o u tc om e. F u r t h er m or e, re su lt s sh o we d t h a t di sa pp o in t m en t
ca n be dist in gu ished on t h e b a sis of type of negat ive o u tc ome from s adn ess,
a ng er, f ru s tr a ti on , a n d r e gre t. T h a t i s, d isa p p oi nt m en t is m o re a sso ci at ed
with the ab sence of a posit ive o utcom e than sadne ss, a nger, fr ustr a tio n ,
and regr et .
In t h e p r esent st u dy we a sked p a r t ic ip a n ts to give ratings o f t h e exte nt t o
wh ich t h e situ ation involved t h e a bse nce o f som et h in g p o sit ive o r t h e
p re se nce o f s om e th in g n e ga tiv e. T h is m et h od o lo gy m i gh t suf fer fro m a t
lea s t t wo p r o bl em s, a s R os em a n et a l. ( 1996 ) re ce nt ly p o in t ed o u t . F ir st ,
ask in g fo r r a t in gs ch a r a cte rising th e co n t ent c ou ld b e d iff er ent fro m a sking
ab o u t t h e cau se of an exp erien ced em o t io n (see a ls o Fr ijd a , 1993;
Park in so n & M a n stea d , 1992; Rosem a n et al., 199 0). Th is co u ld lea d t o
a less c o rr ec t id e nt i® c at io n of th e cau s es o f em o t io n s. Se co nd , em o tio n
ep iso d es d e scr ib ed b y p a r ti cip a n ts c o uld en co m p as s se ver a l e m o ti on s, e ac h
wi th t he ir o w n a p p ra is al de te rm in a n t s (s ee a lso Sc h er er, 19 93; Sm it h &
Ellswort h, 1987). Rosema n e t al. (199 6, p. 245) sta ted th at ``U nless the
su b ject is in st r u cte d t o spe cify the ap p r a isals t h a t a r e r eleva n t to t h e
p rim a r y e mo t io n u n d er inv est iga t io n , a pp r a isa ls r ele va nt t o o t h er
em o t io ns m ay b e r ep o rt e d, o b scu r in g t ru e a p p r ais a l-e mo t io n r ela ti on -
sh ip s’ ’ . R o sem a n e t al . (199 6) r eco m m en d ed c or r ec tin g t he se p ro b lem s
by: (a) a sk in g pa rticipant s to rat e th e ca u se of an emotion ra t h er th a n
the though t s th a t they had o n ce th e emot io n h a d b eg un: a nd (b) asking
p ar t ici pa n t s a b ou t th e app raisals t h at l ed t o t h eir e m ot io n s, r a t he r t ha n by
ask in g t h em a b out t h e event t h a t led to t heir em o t io n .
STUDY 2
In Study 2 we t r ied t o rep licate th e ® n d in gs o f Study 1 usin g th e m et h o d -
o lo gy r eco m m en d ed b y R o sem a n e t a l. ( 1996 ). A s in St u dy 1 , p a rt ic ipa n t s
were as ked to recall an inten se situation in which they exp erien ce d one of
the ® ve tar get e motio n s. Part ic ip a n t s were a sked t o indica t e to wha t ext ent
the t a r ge t e m o tio n w a s a ssocia t ed with one of the two t ypes o f n ega tive
outco m es. Th e que stion that captu red t he ty p e o f n egative o u t com e wa s
adapt e d fro m R o sem a n e t a l.
11
DISAPPOINTMENT AND TYPE OF NEGATIVE OUTCOME 137
11
In th e R o sem a n et al. (19 96) t h eo r y, th is q u est io n is intend ed to ca p t ure t h e a pp r aisa l
d ime n sio n o f m o tiv at io n a l s ta t e. We did n o t in cl ud e a me a su re o f sit u a tio n a l s t at e be ca u se an
n ega t ive ou t co m e is a ss um ed t o b e ap p r a ised a s m ot ive inc o ns ist en t . T hi s s tu d y w as in t en d ed
to exa m in e wheth er t h e em o tion s un d er in vest iga ti on s a re eit h er in co n sis t ent wit h a n
ap p et it ive m otive (incons ist en t w it h at t a ini ng a rewa rd ) or in c ons ist en t with an aver sive
mo t ive (i nco n si ste nt w it h a vo id ing a pu n is h me nt ).
Method
De sign an d Participa nts. Study 2 ha d a ® ve grou p b etween-su b jects
d es ign (D i sa pp o in t m en t vs. Sa d n es s vs. F r u st r at io n vs. A n ge r v s. R eg ret ).
St u d en t s a t th e U n ive r sit y of A m s te rd a m ( N= 110) p a r t icip a ted in t h is
st u dy. Th ere w ere 22 p a r t icip a n t s in e ach con ditio n . T his st u dy wa s p a r t o f
a large ap p r a isal study, th a t wa s ad m in istra t ed d u r in g a large-scale exp eri-
m en t al s ess ion . P a rt ic ip a nt s w e re pa id 10 D u t ch g u ild er s (a pp r ox im a te ly
$5.00) fo r their participa t ion .
Procedu re. Q u est io n na i re s we re r a n do m ly d ist r ibu t ed a m o n g t h e
p a rt ic ip an t s. D ep e nd in g o n t h e c on d it io n t h ey w er e in , p a rt ic ip an t s w er e
a sk ed t o d esc rib e a sit u a tio n in w h ich t h ey f elt e ith e r i n te ns e d isa p p oi nt -
m en t , sa dn e ss, fr us tr a ti on , a n ger, o r r eg ret . P a rt ic ip an t s w er e a s ke d to
a n swer t h e q u es ti on : ``M y [em o ti on te r m ] w as ca u se d b y: w a nt in g t o get
r id of o r avo id so m et h in g p a in fu l o r w a n tin g t o get o r kee p s om e th in g
pleas urab le’ ’ . P articip a n ts co u ld a n swe r o n a 9-poin t sc ale la belled avoiding
something painful (1) to wanting something ple as urable (9).
Results and Discussion
Scores on t h e m a in d e pen d ent va r iab le (typ e o f n egative o u tcom e ) we re
en t er ed i nt o a n A N O VA , t h e s in gle f ac to r b ein g e mo t io n . A na lys is r eve al ed
a sig n i® ca n t m a in eff ect d ue t o em o t io n [F(4,105) = 4.9 8, P< . 001]. T h e
m ea n a p praisal s co r es of t h e ® ve t a rget emotions a re sh o wn in Tab le 3.
12
A co n t ra s t a n a lysi s, in w hic h d is ap p o in tm e n t w as co n t ra s te d a ga in st t h e
o th e r fou r e mo t io n s, r e vea led t h a t di sa pp o in t m en t is m or e st ro n gly
associa ted wit h wanting somet hin g plea sura b le th a n t h e oth er em o t io n s
[t(100) = 4.03, P< . 00 1]. A p pr a is al r at in gs fo r d isa pp o in t m en t we re h igh er
than t h e r a t in gs for t h e o t h er t a rget emotion s (s ee Ta ble 3). T h is im plies
t ha t d isa p po i nt m e nt w as m or e c lo sely a s so cia te d w it h w a n tin g so m et hi ng
pleas urab le t h a n were sadn ess, an ger, fr u str a t io n , a n d regr et. M or eover,
only disa p p o in t m e nt a p p r aisal r a tin gs d iffere d sign i® cantly from t h e
neu t ra l midpoin t o f the sc ale, imp lyin g th a t d isap p oint ment w as asso -
cia t ed m o r e st r ongly w it h o n e t y pe o f n egative o u tco m e, t h a t is, t he
ab s en ce o f a p o sit ive o u t co m e [t(21) = 5.40, P< .00 1]. Sa d n es s, a ng er,
138 van DIJK, ZEELENBE RG, van der PL IGT
12
Th e m ea n in t en sity rat in gs fo r dis ap p o in t men t, sa d n ess, a ng er, fr ust ra t io n, an d r egr et
we re 6.81, 7.73, 7. 64, 7.50, 6.48, r esp ect iv ely. Th e on ly sig n i® ca nt differences were tho se
between sad n es s an d re gr et , an d a n ger a n d re gr et (Ps < .0 5) . N o t e, h o we ver, t h a t d es p ite it s
st a ti stic a l s ign i® ca n c e, t h e dif fer en ce b et w een t he le a st in t en se a n d t he m o st in t en s e em o t io n i s
sm a ll in a b solu t e t e rm s.
fr u st r a tio n , a n d r eg ret we re no t differ ent ia lly assoc iated with o n e t ype of
n ega t ive o u t co m e ( ts < 2. 04, n .s.).
Thus, the result s of this st u d y sup por t o u r predict ion s and r eplicat e t h e
® n di ng s o f St u d y 1. D isa p po in t m en t a pp e ar s t o be m o r e c au s ed b y t h e
ab sen ce of a p o sitive o u tco m e t h a n by t h e p resence o f a n ega t ive o u t come.
M o re over, re sults sh o wed t h a t d isapp o in tm ent c an b e dist ingu ishe d fro m
the rela ted emotio ns of sad n ess, an ger, fru s tra t ion, a n d regre t on the basis
o f ty p e o f n ega t ive o u tc o m e. I n S tu d y 3 we a tt em p t t o e xt en d t h es e ® n d in gs
usin g a d ifferen t appro a c h.
STUDY 3
In t he two p r eviou s stud ies pa r t icip a n t s were asked to r ec all an in s tance of
a ta rget emo tion an d to rate the exten t t o wh ich this emotio n was ca u sed by
a spec i® c typ e o f n egative o u t com e. In t h e p resent stu d y w e use d a scena r io
m et h od , in wh ic h we m a n ip u lat e d t yp e o f n eg at ive o u t co m e a n d a sk e d fo r
in t en sit y r at in gs o f t h e ta r ge t em o t io ns. P a r ti cip a n ts we re c on fr o nt e d wi th
eit h er t h e abs en c e of a p o sitive o u t co m e or t h e p r esence of a n ega tive
o u tco m e. W e exp e ct th a t d isa p po in t m en t r at in gs a re h igh er in t h e fo r m er
sit u at io n th a n in th e la tt e r s it u at io n . F u r th e rm o r e, w e e xp ect th a t in t h e
fo rm e r s it ua t io n d isa pp o in t m en t r a t in gs a r e h igh er t h a n a r e s ad n es s, a n ge r,
fr u st ra t io n , a nd r eg re t r a ti ng s.
Method
De sign an d Partic ipa nts. Study 3 ha d a t wo -group b etween-sub jects
design (Po sit ive-Ab sen ce vs. N eg ative-P res ence ). St ud en ts a t th e U ni ver-
sit y of Su ss ex, U K (N= 40) p a r ticipate d in t h is stu dy o n a vo lunt ary b a sis.
Ther e were 20 p a r t ic ip a n t s p er co n d ition.
DISAPPOINTMENT AND TYPE OF NEGATIVE OUTCOME 139
TABLE 3
Mean Appraisal Ratings for Each of the Five Emo tions (Study 2)
Emotions
App rai sal D isa ppoi ntm ent S adn ess A nge r Fr ust rat ion R egre t
Avo id in g p a inf u l vs.
Wa n ti ng p lea s ur ab le 7.4 5
c
5.41
a, b
4.27
a
5.7 3
b
5.95
b
Not e: Scor es could r a n ge from (1 ) avoiding som ething painful t o ( 9) wanting som e-
th in g pleasurable. M ea n s w it h in a ro w n o t sh a r in g a co m m o n su p er sc ri pt d iff er
sign i® c an t ly ( P< .05).
Procedu re. Q u est io n na i re s we re r a n do m ly d ist r ibu t ed a m o n g t h e
particip a n t s. Pa r t ic ip a n t s in t h e P ositive-Absenc e co n d ition (PA ) r ea d t h e
fo llo win g s t or y:
It is th e tim e of year wh en yo u h ave to ® ll in you r t ax fo r m . You h ave sor t ed
out all you r ® na n cia l in s and o u t s. You h ave ® lled in yo u r tax for m t o t h e best
o f yo ur ab ilit i es. You h ave d o n e th i s b efo r e, so it is n o t t o o b ig a h a ssle. A ft er
re-exa m in in g your ta x fo rm a n d sign in g it, you exp ect th a t yo u ge t a t ax
rebat e o f £150. A ft er a whil e yo u r eceive a let ter fro m t h e t ax of® ce. D u e t o a
n ew t a x r ul e, so m e o f yo u r ca l cu lat i on s w ere n o t va lid a n d so yo u wi ll n ot
receive t h e exp ect ed rebat e of £1 50. Yo u do not have to p a y any extra t a xes.
H o w w ou ld yo u fe el a bo u t t hi s o u tco m e?
Particip a n t s in th e N egat ive-Pr esence co n d it ion (N P ) rea d the follo wing
st o r y:
It is th e tim e of year wh en yo u h ave to ® ll in you r t ax fo r m . You h ave sor t ed
out all you r ® na n cia l in s and o u t s. You h ave ® lled in yo u r tax for m t o t h e best
o f yo ur ab ilit i es. You h ave d o n e th i s b efo r e, so it is n o t t o o b ig a h a ssle. A ft er
re-exa m in in g your ta x fo rm a n d sig ni n g it, you exp ect t h at yo u wo n’t h ave to
pay any extr a t ax, but you also exp ect that yo u wo n’ t g et a ny t a x rebat e. After
a wh ile yo u receive a let te r fr o m the ta x o f® ce. D u e t o a n ew t a x ru le, so m e o f
your calcu la t io n s were not va lid a n d n ow you h ave to pa y £150 in ext r a ta xes.
H o w w ou ld yo u fe el a bo u t t hi s o u tco m e?
Aft er r ead ing the st o r y p a r t icip a n t s we re ® rst ask ed to in d icat e h o w
negat ive their feelings wou ld b e in gen eral a ft er th e ou tco m e. Th is r a ting
wa s d o n e o n a 9 -p o in t sca le with e nd-p o in t s lab elled not at all negative (1)
to very negative (9 ). T h is question wa s asked in o r d er to give participa n t s
an o p p o r t u n ity t o give a gen er a l evaluation o f t h e situ a t io n . N ext, p arti-
cip a n t s were a s ked t o give int en sity r a t in gs of more speci® c em o t io n s, (i.e.
disap p o in t m e nt , re gr et, fru stration, sa d n ess, and a n ge r). T h ese questio ns
had the follo w in g word in g: ``H ow mu ch [emotion ter m ] wou ld you exp er i-
en ce a f te r t h is o u tc om e ?’’ R a t in gs o f t h e sp ec i® c e m o tio n s we re a ll m a d e o n
9- po in t sc al es w it h en dp o in t s la b elle d none (1) to a lot (9).
Results and Discussion
F ir s t, w e e xa m in ed n e ga tive f ee ling s i n ge ne ra l t h at wo u ld b e ex pe rie n ce d.
Th e results sh o we d t h a t n egative fe elings we re m o re inten se in t h e N P
co n d it ion (M= 7.05) th a n in th e PA co nd it io n [(M= 6.10), t(38) = 2.71,
P< .01]. Th e m e a n in t ens it y r a tin gs for t he ® ve target emotions a re
re p or t ed in Tab le 4 . I n te ns it y r at in gs o f t h ese e m ot io n s we re e n te re d
in t o a n A N OVA , u s ing co n d it ion a s a b et wee n- su b jec ts fa ct or an d
140 van DIJK, ZEELENBE RG, van der PL IGT
em o t io n as a w it h in -su b je cts fa ctor. An a lys es r evealed a m a r ginally
sig n i® ca n t m a in e ffec t o f c on d it io n [F(1,38) = 3. 52, P< . 07 ], a n d a
sig n i® ca n t t wo -w ay in te r ac tio n b et we en co n d iti on a n d em o t io n [F( 4,35)
= 5.58, P< .001].
U n ivaria te tests r evea led t h a t d is appoin t m ent was m o r e in t ens e in t h e
PA co n d it ion than in th e N P con ditio n [F(1,38) = 4.40 , P< . 05], whereas,
anger and f rust r ation we re mo re inte nse in the NP co n d it io n than in t h e PA
co n d it io n (Fs > 7. 00 , Ps < .0 5). N o d iffer enc es b etween con dit ion s were
found for sa d n ess an d r egret (Fs < 2.14, n.s.) .
We a l so p r ed ict ed t h a t d is ap p oi nt m e nt w o ul d b e t h e d o m in a n t em o t ion
in t h e PA c on d it io n . Pl an n e d c om p a r iso n s co n® r m ed th is p re d ict io n a n d
re vea le d t h at d i sap p o in t m en t is m o re in t en se in t he PA co n d it io n t h a n t h e
oth er ta r ge t e mo tio n s (all Ps < .0 05) . A lt h ou g h d isa p p oin t m en t wa s m o re
in ten se in t h e N P con ditio n than we re sad n ess and regret (Ps < .005),
d isa p po in t m en t wa s t h e o n ly e mo t io n th a t wa s m o r e in t en se i n t h e PA
co n d it io n t h a n i n t h e N P co n d it io n .
Thus, the resu lt s o f Stu d y 3 support ou r p r edictio n s a n d replica te and
ext end the ® n dings of Stu d ies 1 and 2. D isa p p o in tme nt is more inten se
a ft er ex pe rie n cin g t h e a b se nc e o f a p o sit ive o ut c om e t ha n a f te r exp er ie n-
cin g t h e p re se nce o f a n eg at ive o u t co m e. M o r eo ver, d is ap p o in tm e nt is m o r e
in ten se t h a n sa d n ess, an ger, fru stration, an d r egret aft er experienc in g th e
ab se nce o f a p o sit ive o u tc om e. H o we ver, i t sh o ul d b e n ot ed t h at t h is s tu dy
wa s a s im ul at io n (i .e. p a rt ic ipa n t s w er e i nf err in g w ha t t h ey wo u ld f ee l if
the y were in th ese situatio ns), a n d t h ere is no 1 00% guar ant ee th a t t h eir
in fe ren ce s we re fu lly a ccu r at e. To o ver co m e t h is pr o b lem w e d es ign ed a n
a dd it io n a l ex pe ri m en t in w h ich o n -lin e e m ot io n a l r ea ct io ns t ow a rd t h e t wo
t yp es o f n eg at ive o u t co m es we re as ses se d.
DISAPPOINTMENT AND TYPE OF NEGATIVE OUTCOME 141
TABLE 4
Mean Intensity Ratings per Condition for Each of the Five Emotions
(Study 3)
Emotions
Outcome Disappointment Sadness Anger Frustration Regret
PA 7.25
c(a )
3.15
a(a )
4.95
b( a )
5.25
b( a)
3.10
a(a )
N P 6.3 0
b (b)
4.10
a(a )
6.6 0
b (b)
7.0 0
b( b)
3.85
a(a )
No te: PA, p os itiv e a b sen ce; N P, n ega t ive p r ese nc e. A h igh er sco r e i nd i-
ca tes a h igh er i nt en sity o f th e emo tio n. Mean s wit h in the sa m e row n ot
sh a rin g a co mm o n ® r st su p er scr ip t dif fer sig n i® ca n tly (P< .00 5). M e an s
wi th in t he sa m e c olu m n n o t sh a rin g a co m m on seco n d (b et w een pa r en t he ses )
su p er sc ri pt d iffe r sig n i® ca n tly (P< . 005) .
STUDY 4
I n t he ® r st t wo s tu d ies we u s ed a r et ro s pe cti ve m e th o d , i n wh ich pa r t ici-
pants re ca lled a c tu a l events in wh ic h t h ey expe rienced p a r t icula r emotio n s
a n d m e asu r es c on ce rn in g t yp e o f n eg at ive o u t co m e we re o bt a in ed . I n
St u d y 3 we used a sc en a rio m e thod, in w h ich we ma nip ula t ed t ype of
n eg at ive o u tc om e a n d a sk ed for in te n sit y ra t in gs o f t h e t ar ge t em o t io n s.
In the p resent st u dy we fo cu s on on-line emotional reactions. Pa r t ic ipa n t s in
this experim ental study were conf ron ted w it h eith er th e a bsence o f a (rea l)
p o sit ive o u tc o m e o r t h e p re se nce o f a ( re al) n e ga tive o u t co m e. T hi s w as
done by u sing a fr a m in g p r oce du r e in wh ic h a n id e ntica l outco m e wa s
p re sen t ed e it he r in win - ter m s o r in lo ss- te rm s. T h is is b o t h a co m m o n a nd
effec tive p r o cedure u sed in the ® e ld of b ehavioural de cisio n ma k ing (se e
e.g . K a hn eman & T ver sky, 198 2). We exp ect t o rep lica te our p rev iou s
® n d ing , th at is, we expect th a t d isappo in tmen t r a tin gs are hig h er in the
fo rm e r sit u at io n t ha n in t h e la t te r. F u r th e rm o r e, w e ex pe ct th a t in
the form er situ a tion d isapp o in t m ent r a tin gs a r e h igh er th a n ar e sad ness,
anger, frus t ration, and r egret r a t in gs.
Method
De sign and Participants. St u d y 4 h a d a t wo-gro u p b e tween-sub je cts
d es ign (P os it ive- Ab s en ce vs. N e ga tive -P re se nc e). S tu d en t s a t N ij m ege n
U nivers ity ( N= 40) p art icipa t ed in t h is s tudy. Th er e we re 20 p ar ticipan ts
in ea ch c on d it io n .
13
T h is s t ud y wa s a d m in ist ra t ed du r in g a la r ge exp e ri-
m en t al s ess ion . P a rt ic ip a nt s w e re pa id 10 D u t ch g u ild er s (a pp r ox im a te ly
$5 .00 ) fo r t he ir p ar t ic ip at io n in t h e la r ge e xp er im en t a l s es sion , a n d, a s p a r t
o f t he pr e sen t s tu d y, co u ld ga in a n ad d it io n a l 5 D u t ch g ui ld er s.
Procedu re. A ll p a rt ic ip a nt s we re p r om is ed 10 D u t ch gu ild er s fo r t he ir
p ar t icip at io n. H o wev er, p ar t icip a nt s in t h e N e gat ive -Pr ese nc e c on d iti on
we re e nd owe d wit h 5 D u tch g uilde rs ext ra . They we re given 15 G ui lde rs
at t h e st a r t o f t h e exper im e nt a n d were t old t h a t t h ey wo uld p lay a ga me at
the en d of the session in wh ich t h ey co u ld w in or lose 5 D u t ch guild ers or
t he y c ou ld wi n o r lo s e n o m on e y. A t t h e en d o f t h e se ssi on q u es tio n n a ir es
we re r a n do m ly d ist r ib ut e d a m o n g th e p a r ti cip a nt s. P a rt ic ipa n t s in t h e
N ega tive-P r es ence co n dit io n r ead t he follo win g instr uct io n (T he Posit ive-
A b sen ce c on d it io n i s s h ow n i n b r ac k ets ):
142 van DIJK, ZEELENBE RG, van der PL IGT
13
In or d er t o o b t a in 2 0 p a rt icip a n t s in t h e t wo r elev a nt co nd it io n s t h e ga m e wa s p layed
wi th 84 p ar t icip a n t s. On ly t he da t a of t ho se p ar t icip a n ts w h o lo s t t h e ga m e w er e in clu d ed in
this stu d y.
We are about to p la y a game in which m o n ey ca n b e lost [won]. This research
is c on cer n ed wi th you r ch oi ces a n d you ca n lo se [win ] r ea l m o n ey. I t i s
th er efo r e d if feren t f ro m m o st o t h er r esea r ch th a t is co nc er n ed wit h h yp o -
th eti ca l cho ices an d co n seq u en ces. [T h e mo n ey yo u ca n win is ind ep e n den t
fro m t h e 10 Dut ch guild er s th a t you r eceive for yo u r part icip ation in th e
wh ole sessio n , t h is m o n ey yo u get a n yw ay.] H ow does the ga m e wo rk? I n a
mom en t yo u m ay th row a d ie and if you t h r ow a lo sing [winnin g] num ber yo u
lose [win ] 5 D ut ch guild er s. I f yo u t h row on e o f t h e o t her n u mb er s yo u lose
[win ] n o t h in g. You m a y th row th e die you r self and also ch o o se th r ee nu m b er s
wit h whic h you lo se [win] m o n ey and t h r ee nu m b er s wit h which you lose [win ]
n ot h in g.
Aft er p a r t icip an ts read t h e in st r u ction a n d ® lled in the three win nin g or
lo sin g n u m be rs t h e exp er im e nt e r c a me a l on g w it h a d ie a n d t he g am e w as
played. P a r t icipa n ts were p a id im m ediate ly accord ing to t h e r esult o f t h eir
t hr ow. Fo r p a rt ic ip an t s in t h e P o sit ive- A bs en ce c on d it io n t h is m e an t th a t
the y did not win the e xt r a 5 guild ers, a nd fo r t h o se in the N egat ive-P r es ence
co n d it io n it m e an t th a t t h ey lost 5 gu il de rs. (B ec au se p a rt ic ip an t s in t h e
N e ga tiv e-P r ese nc e c on d it io n h a d re ce ived 15 gu ild e rs a t t h e b e gin n in g o f
t he la rge r e xp er im en t al ses sio n , a ll p a r t ici pa n t s l eft wi th 10 gu ild e rs m o r e
t ha n w he n t h ey e n te re d t h e ex pe ri me n t. ) N e xt , p a rt ic ip an t s we re ® r s t a sk ed
to in d icate h ow negative their feelings are in gen era l after the outc om e. T h is
ra t ing wa s d o n e o n a 9-po int sca le with e nd-p o in ts lab elled not at all ( 1) t o
very much (9). Th is questio n wa s a sk ed in ord e r t o give participants a n
op po rt un ity t o give a gener al affective eva lu at ion of t he situa tio n. N ext ,
particip a n t s we re a s ked t o give in ten sity ra t in gs of m ore spec i® c em o t io ns,
namely, disa p p o in t m e nt, re gr et , fru stration, sa d n ess, and a n ger. T h ese
q u est io ns ha d t h e fo ll ow in g wo rd in g : ``H o w m uc h [em o t io n t e rm ] a r e yo u
exp erien cing aft er th is ou tc om e?’ ’ R atin gs of t h e sp eci® c emotion s wer e all
m a de o n 9 -p o in t s ca les w it h en d p o in ts la b ell ed non e (1) to very much (9).
Results and Discussion
F ir st, w e e xam in ed n ega tive f eelin gs in ge ner a l t ha t w ere exp er ien ced. Re sul ts
showed t h at n egat ive feelin gs in gen er a l were no t m ore in t ense in t h e N P
condition (M= 4.00) than in the PA c ond ition [(M= 3.7), t(38) < 1, n .s.]. T he
mean intensity ratin gs fo r the ® ve target emo t io n s are repor t ed in Ta ble 5.
In t ens ity ra tin gs o f t he se em ot io ns w ere ent er ed in t o a n A N OVA , u sin g
condition as a b et ween-su b jects factor a n d emo t io n a s a w ithin-su b jec ts
fact or. Analyses revea led o n ly a signi® cant two-way int er a ct io n b etw een
condition a n d em o t io n [F(4,35) = 3.15, P< .05].
U n ivaria te tests reve aled th at , a s p r edict ed, d isapp oin t m ent wa s mo re
in ten se in t h e PA co n d it io n th a n in t he N P co n d itio n [F(1,38) = 6.05.,
DISAPPOINTMENT AND TYPE OF NEGATIVE OUTCOME 143
P< . 05 ]. C o n ce rn in g t h e o t h er e m ot io n s n o s ign i® c an t d iffe re nc es b e tw ee n
the t wo co n d it ions were fou nd (Fs < 3. 60 , n .s.).
We a lso p r ed ict ed t h at d is ap p oi nt m e nt is t h e d om in a n t e m o ti on in
t he PA c on d it io n . P la nn e d co m p a ri so ns c on ® r m ed t h is pr e dic ti on a n d
revealed t h a t d is app oin tm ent was more inten se in t h e PA conditio n t h a n
we re t h e o t h e r t a r ge t emotio ns (Ps < . 00 5). A lt h o u gh d isa p p o in t m e nt
wa s m o r e in t ense in th e N P condit io n t h a n were sa d n ess, a nger a n d
re gr et (Ps < . 05 ), d isa pp o in t m ent was the on ly emotion t h a t wa s m ore
in t en se in t h e PA c on dit io n t h a n in t h e N P c ondit io n . A po ssib le r ea s on
wh y d is ap p o in tm e nt ra t in gs wer e al so r ela tiv ely h igh in t he N P c on d i-
tio n co u ld be th at so m e particip a n t s in t his cond it io n d id no t uneq u i-
vo cally p erceive th e s ituation ( i.e. losin g mo n ey) a s t h e p r es en ce o f a
n eg at ive ou t co m e. Th e se p a r t ici pa n t s m a y h av e b ee n p ar t ly r es po n d in g
to th e absence of a po sitive outco m e, that is, not having mo n e y.
14
This
iss ue may b e re solved b y in clu d in g in fut ure r esearch qu es tions co n cern-
in g how participant s app r a ise th e sit u a tio n with wh ich th ey ar e
co n fro n t ed.
Th us, th e results of St u d y 4 su p p o r t o u r p redictio n s a n d r eplica t e a n d
ex te nd t h e ® n d in gs o f St u d ies 1 , 2, a n d 3. D is ap p o in tm e n t wa s m o re
in t en se aft er exper iencin g th e ab s en ce of a pos it ive outco m e t h a n a fter
ex pe ri en cin g t h e p re se nce o f a n eg at ive ou t co m e. M o r eo ve r, d is ap p o in t -
m en t w as m o r e in te n se th a n sad n e ss, a n ge r, fr u st ra t io n , a n d r e gre t a ft er
ex pe ri en cin g t h e ab s enc e o f a p o sit ive ou t c om e.
144 van DIJK, ZEELENBE RG, van der PL IGT
TABLE 5
Mean Inte nsity Ratings per Condition for Each of the F ive Emotions
(Study 4)
Em ot ions
Outcome Disappointment Sadness Anger Frustration Regret
PA 4.7 5
a(a )
1.35
d( a )
1.40
d(a )
2.25
c(a )
3.10
b(a )
N P 3.4 0
a(b )
1.70
c(a )
1.6 5
c(a )
2.60
a, b (a )
1.95
b, c(a )
Not e: PA , po s it ive ab se nc e; N P, n eg at ive p r esen c e. A h igh er s cor e in d ica te s
a h igh er in t en si ty o f t he e m ot io n . M e ans wit hi n t h e sa m e ro w n o t sh a r in g a
co m m on ® rst s up er sc ri pt d if fer sig n i® ca n tly (P< .00 5) . M ea n s w ith in t h e s am e
co lu m n n ot s h ar in g a co m m on seco n d ( be tw een p a re nt h ese s) su pe rs cr ip t dif fer
sig ni® can t ly (P< .05).
14
Th is co uld a ls o ac co u n t fo r t h e r ela t ive h igh d isa p po in t m en t r a tin g s in t h e N P co nd it io n
of St udy 3.
GENERAL DISCUSSION
In t h e p r ese nt p a pe r we d is ti ng u ish ed b et we en tw o t yp es o f n e gat ive o u t-
co m es, th e ab s en ce of a p o sitive o u t come and t h e p r esence of a n egative
outco m e. I t is a r gu ed that disap p o in t m e nt , b eca u se of it s c lo se lin k wit h
h o pe, de s ire, a n d p ro m is e, is m o r e ca u se d b y t h e fo r m er t yp e o f o u tc o m e
tha n the lat t er. Mo reover, disa p p o intm en t can b e dist in gu ished o n t h e ba sis
of typ e o f n eg at ive o u t co me fr om r elate d emo tions, suc h a s sadne ss, anger,
fr u st ra t io n , a n d re gr et . D is ap p o in tm e nt i s ca u se d m o r e b y t h e ab s en ce o f a
p o sit ive o u t co m e th a n t h ese o t h er em o ti on s. R e su lt s o f fo u r st u di es u si ng
diffe re nt m et h o d o logies p ro vide con vergen t support fo r these p red iction s.
T he se re su lt s al so s up p o r t t he e xpl ic it di st in ct io n b e tw een b e ing
d isp le as ed ab o u t t he d is co n® r m a t io n of t h e p r os pe ct o f a d e sir ab le eve nt
(i. e. d is ap p o in tm e n t) a n d b ein g d isp le ase d a bo u t t h e c o n® r m a tio n o f t h e
pro spect of a u n d es ir able event ( i.e. fear s-con ® r m ed) ma d e by O r to ny et a l.
(1988).
T he d e® n it io n s o f d isa p p oi nt m e nt d es cri b ed e a rli er in t h is p a pe r s ug ges t
tha t d isappoin t m ent is pr ima rily exp erien ced in a situation in which so m e-
thin g p o sitive wa s exp ected but d id n o t occur. This se em s c lo se ly lin ked
wi th h o p e, d es ire, a n d p r om is e. I t s ho u ld b e n ot ed , h ow eve r, t ha t , a lt h ou g h
exp e cta t io n s, h o p e, d e sir e, a n d p r om is e a r e re la te d, t h ey a r e n ot syn o ny -
m o us. F or e xa m p le, o n e m a y ho p e for so m et hi ng w ith o u t ex pe ct in g i t to
h ap p en . I n o u r vie w d is ap p o in tm e nt i s t h e r e su lt o f e xp ec ta tio n s t ha t w er e
u n ful ® lled , a n d w ere in it ia lly d e sir ed o r h o p ed fo r. A s Sh a n d (1 914 , p. 48 7)
st at e d ``D is ap p o in t me nt . . . i m pl ies t ha t w e h a ve h it h er t o b ee n h o pe fu l o f
t he i ssu e, if n o t co n® d en t’ ’ .
Altho ugh d isappoin tm ent was th e main emotion under invest igat ion, we
a lso in ve st iga te d t h e re la tio n b e tw ee n sa d n es s, a ng er, f ru st r a tio n , a n d
re gr et a n d t yp e o f n e gat ive o u t co m e. T h is en a ble d u s to c om p a r e o u r
re su lt s c on c ern in g t hi s r el at io n wit h t h e p r ed ict io n s o f seve ra l em o tio n
re se ar ch er s. A c co rd in g t o m a ny t h eo r ist s, s a dn e ss i s m o r e o ft en a sso ci at ed
wi th t he ab se nc e o f a p o sit ive o u t co m e, w he rea s a n ge r, fr u st ra t io n , a n d
re gr et a r e m o re o ft en a ss oc iat e d w ith b ot h t yp e s o f n e ga tiv e o u t co m es
(F r ijda, 1986; H iggins, 198 9; R o sem a n , 1984; Rosem a n et al., 1990,
199 6). I n o u r st u d ies we fo u nd t h a t a ng er, fr u st r at io n , a nd r eg ret a r e
assoc iated wit h b o t h t ypes of negative ou t c omes. Co ncern ing sad n ess we
did n o t ® n d evid enc e th at t his emot ion is str o n gly associa ted w it h t h e
ab sen ce of so m et h in g p o s it ive. A possible explan ation fo r t he la ck of a
st ro n g r e lat io n b et we en sa d ne ss a n d th e ab se nc e o f a p o sit ive ou t c om e
co u ld b e a p ro ce ss o f p syc ho lo gi ca l ``r ep a ck a gin g’ ’ .
15
P eo p le ca n t r a ns for m
an a p p r a isa l of the ab sen ce of posit ive o u t come in t o a n ap p r a isal of the
DISAPPOINTMENT AND TYPE OF NEGATIVE OUTCOME 145
15
We t h an k a n a n on ym o u s r eview er fo r br in g in g t h is p o ssib ilit y t o o ur a tt en t io n .
presence o f a n ega tive o u t come. F o r examp le, o ne could feel sad becau s e o f
the dea t h o f a loved o n e. D epe ndin g on o n e’s fo c us, th is exp e rien ce co u ld
be app raised a s t h e a b se nce of so m e thing p o sitive (e.g. when t he focu s is on
the ab sen ce of a lo ved o n e ) o r as th e p rese nc e of a n egative outco m e (e.g.
wh en t h e fo cus is o n t h e p resence of d eat h ). T he focu s o n eith er the ab se nce
o f a p o sit ive o u t co m e o r t h e p r es en ce o f a n e gat ive o ut c om e m ay c h an g e in
tim e. Th e result o f th ese different fo c uses co u ld h elp to exp la in why
sa d n ess, in o u r st u d ie s, wa s n o t a ssociat ed with o n e t ype of n egative
o u tc om e. Pe rh a p s fu r t he r r e ® n e me n ts i n th e m e as u re me n t o f a p p ra i sal s
co u ld h elp t o cla r ify this issue. Th e results o f the pre sent stu dies, h o wever,
im p ly t h a t d isa p p oi nt m e nt is l es s a ffe ct ed by t he p ro ce ss o f p sy ch ol ogi ca l
``r ep a ck a gin g’ ’ . In o u r fo ur s tu d ies di sa pp o in t m en t wa s c lea rl y a s so cia t ed
with o n e t ype of negat ive outc om e, t h at is, the a b sen ce o f a positive
o u tc om e.
U nti l rec ent ly ve ry lit tle e mo tio n r esear ch h as fo cused o n disa pp oin t-
m en t . H o we ver, in t he ® eld o f de c isio n m a k in g d isa p po in t m en t i s
co n sider ed t o b e an im po rtant em o t io n . D e cisio n r es ea rch er s (e.g . Bell,
1985; L o o m e s & S ugd en, 1986) h ave st resse d t h e n o t io n t h a t d ecision
m a ke rs a n tic ip at e d isa pp o in t m en t a n d t ak e i t in t o a cc ou n t wh en m a k in g
d ec isio ns. I f p eo p le d o a n t icip a te di sa pp o in t m en t , r es ea rc h o n d is ap p o in t-
m en t co ul d b e h e lpf ul in u n d er st a nd in g h o w t h is e mo t io n a ff ec ts d ec isio n
proc es se s. For in st a n ce, th e fa ct t h a t d isap p ointm en t is pr im arily asso -
cia t ed with the absenc e of po s it ive o utco m e s, toget h e r with p eo p le’s
tend en c y to avo id d is appoin t m ent , co u ld h elp to exp la in why peo ple
tend to be c a u t io u s in th eir de cision m a k in g when d ealin g with posit ive
outco m es. K a h n eman and Tver sky (1982), for ins tance, showed th a t
peo p le a r e gen era lly risk -avers e and t hat t h is te nd en cy is st r on ger in
the domain of ga in s (wh er e t yp e o f n e ga t ive o u tco m e is t h e absence of
so m eth in g p o sitive) t h a n in t h e d o m a in o f los se s. On e r eason fo r this
t en d en cy co u ld b e t ha t t a k in g ris k s i n t he d o m a in o f ga in s is a sso ci at ed
wi th m or e a n t icip a te d d isa p p oi n tm en t . T h is i n cre a sed an t ic ipa t io n o f
d isa p po i nt m en t c ou ld m a k e p e op le m o r e ris k -ave rs e. W h en p eo p le a re
risk -avers e they a r e like ly t o get wh a t th ey expect a n d therefo r e d o not
r un th e r isk o f b ec om in g d isa p p o in te d.
H o weve r, disapp o intmen t is not o nly an u n p le asa n t emotion t h at is
a n ti cip at e d o r a voi de d. T he e xp er ien ce o f d isa p p oin t m en t co u ld a ls o
have a br ight sid e. Sh a n d (1914, p. 489) stre ss ed the useful functio n o f
disap p o in t m e nt in d esire: ``D is a ppoint m ent , in it s after -e ffe ct on desire,
alwa ys t e nds to count e ract th e excesses o f h o p e, t o evoke anx io u s q u es-
tio n in gs, t o suppre ss all co n® den ce th at is not we ll-foun d ed; so fa r as it is
ch ecked a n d ba lanced b y hope itself ’ ’ . O r as Stanley (cited in Shand, 191 4,
p. 4 88) s ta t ed , ``D is ap p o in t me n t t u rn s lif e fr om f a lse d re a m s t o s te rn
re alit ie s: I t pro m p ts a n inves tiga tio n o f cau s es a n d a r ouses co gn ition to a
146 van DIJK, ZEELENBE RG, van der PL IGT
full u n d ers tandin g o f t h e situ a t io n . H o pe th ereby, be com es m o re rational
and realisa b le’’.
M a n us crip t r ec eived 1 8 Ju ly 199 7
R evis ed m an u scr ip t r ece ived 19 Ju ly 1 998
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