ArticlePDF Available

Not Having What You Want versus Having What You Do Not Want: The Impact of Type of Negative Outcome on the Experience of Disappointment and Related Emotions

Taylor & Francis
Cognition and Emotion
Authors:

Abstract and Figures

The present research focuses on the emotional consequences of negative outcomes. Two types of negative outcomes are distinguished: The absence of a positive outcome and the presence of a negative outcome. It is argued that disappointment, because of its close link with hope, desire, and promise, is more associated with the absence of a positive outcome than with the presence of a negative outcome. Disappointment is also expected to be more associated with the absence of a positive outcome than related negative emotions, such as sadness, anger, frustration, and regret. The results of four studies, using different methodologies, confirm these predictions. In Study 1 and Study 2 participants recalled an autobiographical emotional episode, and appraisals concerning two different types of negative outcomes were assessed. In Study 3 a scenario methodology was used in which the type of negative outcome was experimentally manipulated and ratings for different emotions were assessed. Finally, in Study 4 on-line emotional reactions to the two different types of negative outcomes were assessed in an experiment in which real money could be won or lost. Implications for the study of disappointment are briefly discussed.
Content may be subject to copyright.
Not Having What You Want versus
Having What You Do Not Want:
The Impact of Type of Negative Outcome
on the Experience of Disappointment
and Related Emotions
Wilco W. va n D ijk
University of A msterdam, the Netherlands
M arcel Zeelenb erg
Tilburg University, the Netherlands
Jo op van d er Pligt
University of A msterdam, the Netherlands
The p resen t r esea r ch focu se s on t he em ot io n a l consequences of negat ive o u t-
co me s. Two t yp es o f n eg at ive o u t com es a re dis tin gu ish ed : T h e ab sen ce o f a
po sit ive o ut co me a nd t h e p r esen ce o f a neg at ive ou t co m e. I t is a r gued t h a t
dis ap p oin t m ent , b eca use o f it s clo se lin k wit h h op e, de sire, a nd p ro m ise, is m o re
associat ed w ith t he ab sen ce of a p o sitive o u tcome th a n with t h e p res en ce o f a
ne gat ive o ut co m e. D isa pp o int m ent is a lso exp ect ed t o b e m or e a sso cia te d wit h
th e absence of a p os itive ou t co me tha n rela ted n ega t ive em o tion s, su ch as
sadn ess, an ger, fru st rat io n , and r egr et . The resu lt s of fou r st u dies, using differ-
ent m et hod o logies, co n ® rm th ese p redictions. I n S tud y 1 a nd St udy 2 p a rt ici-
pa n t s rec alle d a n a ut o bio gr a ph ica l em o t ion a l ep iso d e, a nd ap p ra isa ls
concern in g t wo d iffer ent t yp es o f n ega t ive o u tc om es w ere asse ssed. In St udy
3 a scena r io m et ho d o logy w as u sed in wh ich the t yp e o f negative out co m e wa s
exp er ime nt a lly m an ip u la ted an d ra t ing s for differ en t em ot io n s w ere a ssessed .
F in a lly, in St ud y 4 on -lin e em ot io na l r ea ct ion s t o t he tw o d iffer en t ty pe s o f
negat ive outco m es were assessed in a n exp erim en t in wh ich real money co u ld b e
wo n o r lo st . I mp lica ti on s fo r t h e st ud y of d isa p po in t m en t a re b r ie¯ y d iscu ssed .
C OG N I TI ON AN D EM O TI O N, 199 9, 13 (2), 129±148
R eq ues ts for r epr in t s s ho u ld b e s ent t o Wilc o W. v an D ijk , D ep ar t me nt o f So cia l P sych o lo gy,
F re e U n iver sit y o f A m st er d am , va n d er Bo ech o r s ts tr aa t 1, N L ±1081 BT, A m st er d a m, T h e
N et h er la n d s; e -m a il: W W.va n . D ijk @ p sy.vu .n l.
We t ha n k J a n e Bea ttie f or h er he lp w it h d es ign in g S tu d y 3, a n d we a ls o t h ank C a rs ten
F rie d ri ch , K a th eli jn e G o d ef ro oij, M in k e M e th o r st , an d C o rn e
Â
lise Pa s to r fo r help in g wi th t h e
dat a co llec tio n of Stu d y 1. We tha n k C raig S mith , To ny M a n st ea d , an d t wo a nonym o u s
rev iewe rs fo r he lp fu l co m m en t s o n a e ar lier v er sio n o f t h is m a nu sc rip t .
q1999 P syc h olo gy P r ess Lt d
INTRODUCTION
N o ch ild hood passes without disap p o in t m e nt ab o u t a b ir t h d ay pr esent , no
adoles ce nc e seems to b e co m p let e without a disap p o in t in g love affa ir, a n d
hardly anyo n e is a str a n g er to t h e u n p le asa n t f ee lin g th at ste m s from
buyin g an expensive con sumer p rodu ct t h at turns ou t to be less t h a n
expect ed . A ll in a ll, a life wit h o u t d is ap p ointm ent s ee ms rare. Th is in t ro-
sp e ctiv e vie w is s up p o rt e d b y m o re s yst em a ti c r es ear c h s ho w in g t h at
d isa p po i nt m en t is o n e o f t h e m o st f re qu e nt ly e xp er ien ce d e m o ti on s fo llo w -
in g f ail u re ( Wein er, R u s sell , & L er m an , 19 79).
D is a p poin t m ent has re ceive d som e atte ntio n fr o m r esearch ers in t h e
® eld of b e ha vio u ra l d ec isio n m a k in g ( Be ll, 19 85 ; L o o m es & S ug d en ,
19 86). T he y a s su m e t h a t p eo p le a nt ic ip at e d isa p po in t m en t an d ta k e t h is
in t o ac co un t wh e n m a k in g d e cisi on s. F or in s ta n ce, Sh ep p erd , Ou e lle tt e,
and F ern andez (1996) show ed th a t in d iv id u a ls tend t o a b a n d o n t h eir
o p tim i sm a n d m a y e ven b e co m e p es sim is tic in a nt ic ip at io n o f se lf- rel eva nt
fe ed ba c k. T h ey a r gu e t h at pe o ple a n t ic ipa t e t h e d is ap p o in tm e nt th e y
wo u ld fe el if th e ir p er fo r m a nce were to fa ll sho r t o f th eir expectations.
T h us, p eo p le r ed u ce t h ei r p e rfo r m an c e es ti ma t es t o m in im is e t h e p o ssib i-
lit y of per fo r m in g wo r se t h a n e xp ected a n d t o avoid d isap p o intmen t a rising
as a co n s eq u ence.
Our o wn r esear ch showed t h a t t h e p robab ilit y o f a n ou t com e an d t h e
effor t investe d in a t t a in in g an o u t come have a n im p a ct o n the in ten sity of
d isa p po i nt m en t . T he m o re p r ob a bl e a p o si tiv e o u t co m e w a s, th e m or e
in t en se disa p p o in t m e nt a p ers on f ee ls if t h e o u t com e is n o t attained (van
D i jk & va n de r Plig t , 19 97) . D is ap p o in tm e nt is als o mo r e in t en se a f te r
having investe d m ore e ffo r t in va in t o atta in the desired o u t com e (va n D ijk,
va n d er P ligt , & Z e ele nb er g, 1 998 a ). T h e w ay i n wh ic h d isa p p oi nt m en t is
experien ced h a s a lso b een sub je ct t o em p irica l inves tiga t io n . Z eele nb e rg,
va n D ijk, M anstea d , a n d van d e r P ligt (199 8a ) sho w ed th at the exp er ie nce
o f d isa p po in t m en t (a s c om p a re d to r eg re t) i nv olv es f eel ing p o we rle ss nes s, a
tend en c y to do n o t h in g a n d t o get a wa y from t h e situa t io n, an d wa n t in g t o
do no thin g. A qu est io n t h a t was no t add ressed in our e arlier resear ch
co n cerns t h e c a uses o f d isa pp o in t m e nt. I n th e p r esent ar t icle we a im to
sh ed some mo re light o n th is iss ue. We a lso in ve st igate wh eth er d isappoin t-
m en t , o n t h e basis o f t h ese ca u ses, ca n b e distingu is hed fr om rela t ed
negat ive em o t io n s su ch a s sadness, an ger, f ru st r ation , a n d regre t.
Disappo int ment and D esire, Hope and Prom ise. Th e va r io u s defini-
t io ns o f di sap p o in t m en t see m to sh a r e o n e c en t ra l fea tu r e, th a t is, th e
n o nf ul ® lm en t o f a n e xp ec ta tio n . D i sap p o in t m en t h a s b e en d e® n ed as
``n o n a ch ieve m en t o f a n exp ec te d o u t co m e’ ’ (F r ijd a , 19 86, p. 2 80) , o r a s
``a p sych o lo gica l reac tio n to a n o u t co m e that does no t m atc h up to
130 van DIJK, ZEELENBE RG, van der PL IGT
exp e cta t io n s’ ’ (B ell, 1 985, p. 1 ). S eve ra l a ut h o r s e xp lici tly l in k d isa p p o in t-
m en t to t h e n o nf u l® llm en t o f a pos itive expecta t io n . S hand (19 14) d n es
d isa p po in t m en t a s a n e mo t io n t h at is cl ose ly lin ke d t o desire. O r t o ny,
Clo re, an d C ollins (1988, p. 110) also str e ss th e im p o r t a n ce of bo th desire
and no nfu lmen t of an expected ou t come in th eir de® nitio n o f disappoin t-
m en t : ``t o be d isp lea se d a b o ut t h e d isc on ® r m a tio n o f t h e p ro sp e ct of a
d esi rab le eve nt ’ ’ . T h ey s ta t e t h at t h e i nt e ns ity o f d is ap p o int m e nt is a ff ect ed
by hope; t h at is, h igh h o pe s give ri se t o m o r e in t en se d isa p p oi nt m e nt if
the se ho pes a r e d a s hed . M owr er ( 1960, p. 169) a lso r elate s d is app oin tm ent
to hope: ``When a h o p e signal appea r s an d t h en disa p p ea r s the rea ction is
o n e o f di sa pp o in t m en t ’ ’. F r ij da (19 86, p. 2 87) li nk s d isa p p oi nt m e nt w it h
promise: ``Pr o m ises g en er a lly t u rn in t o d isa p p oi nt m e nt s wh en n o t f ul -
® lle d’ ’ . F in a lly, O r to n y et a l. (1 988 , p. 1 10) ma k e a n e xp licit d ist in ct io n
between being ``d ispleas ed about t h e d is co n ® r m a t io n o f t h e pro spe ct o f a
desira b le event’ ’ a n d b ein g ``displea se d ab o u t t h e co n ® rm a t io n o f the
p ro sp ec t o f a u n d esir a ble ev en t’ ’ . T h ey la b elle d t h e fo r me r e mo t io n a l
re a ct ion ``dis a pp o in tm e nt ’ ’ , t h e l at t er a s ``fea r s-c on ® r me d’ ’ .
These d n itions suggest that disa p poin t m ent is prim a r ily exp er ienced
in a sit u a tio n in which so m e th ing po sitive was exp ecte d but d id n ot oc cu r.
It s ee ms to b e clo se ly link ed wit h h o p e, de sire, and pro m ise.
Not Having W hat You Wa nt v s. Having W hat You Do Not Want.
Several authors (F r ijd a , 1986; H iggin s, 1989; M o w rer, 1960; R o sem a n ,
1984; R o se man, An tonio u , & Jo se, 199 6; R o se m a n, Sp indel, & Jose,
199 0) a rgu e d th a t ne ga ti ve e m ot io n s c a n b e t he r esu lt o f t w o diff er en t
negat ive situ a t io n s, wh ich we re fe r t o a s type of negative outcome. N e gat ive
em o t io n s can b e th e r es ult o f either t h e absence o f a positive o ut co m e ( ``n ot
h avin g wh a t yo u w a nt ’ ’ ) o r t h e presence of a negative o u t co m e (``ha vin g
wh at you d o n o t w ant ).
Appra isa l th eo r y (s ee e.g . Ar nold , 1960; F r ijd a, 198 6; R oseman , 1984;
Sc he rer, 198 4; Sm it h & E ll swo rt h , 1 985) st at e s t h a t ev al ua t io ns an d
in t er pr et a ti on s o f even t s de te rm in e w hic h em o t io n is exp e ri enc e d. O n e
appr a isa l dimen sion that ca n le ad to d ifferen t emotions is typ e of ne ga t ive
outco m e. F rijd a refers to t h e a b se nce o f a posit ive va le nce o r t he p r esence
o f a n e ga tive va le nc e, t h a t is, t he ab se nc e o f so m et h in g in tr in s ica lly a p pe -
t itiv e o r t h e p re se nc e o f so m et h in g in t r in sic ally av er sive. R o se ma n r e fer s t o
the a b sen ce o f a r ewa r d o r t h e p resence o f a p unish m en t .
1
Thus, int er p ret -
in g o r eva lu a ti ng a si tu a ti on a s eit h er o n e t yp e o f n ega t ive o u tc om e o r t h e
DISAPPOINTMENT AND TYPE OF NEGATIVE OUTCOME 131
1
Th e a b sence of a rew a rd an d t h e p res en ce o f a pu nish m en t is a c o mb in a t ion o f a n
ap p ra is a l of mo t iva tio n a l st a te ( wh et he r t h e d o min a n t op er at ive mo t ive is a p p et itiv e o r
aver s ive; a rew ar d w an tin g t o a tt a in o r a p u n ish m en t wa n tin g t o avo id ) an d a n a p p ra isa l o f
sit u at io n al st a te ( wh et h er th e m o t iva tio n al st at e is p er ceiv ed t o b e p r ese nt o r ab se nt ).
other, th a t is, a s e ither t h e abs en ce of a p o sitive o u t come o r a s t h e presence
of a nega tive ou tco m e, ca n lead to diffe rent negative emo tions.
Be ca u se of its clo se lin k with ho p e, desire, an d pro m ise, w e expect
disap p o in t m e nt to be an em o t io n caused b y a situation which is app raised
a s a n a bs en ce o f a po s it ive o u t co m e. F u r t h er m or e, we exp ec t t h a t di s-
a pp o in t m en t i s m o re as so cia te d w it h t h e a bs en ce o f a p os it ive o u tc o m e
than severa l othe r rela t ed negat ive emotions, such a s sad n ess, anger,
fr u str a tio n , a n d r eg ret.
Disappointment and its Relation to Sadness, Anger, Frustration, and
Regret. D is ap p o in tm e n t is ha r dl y e ver e xpe ri en ce d in iso la t io n . I t s
experien ce is c lo se ly link ed t o o t h er n ega tive em o t io n s. F o r in sta n c e, it
has bee n a r gu e d t hat b o t h sadness a n d anger can b e t h e result o f d is-
a pp o in t m en t (L e vin e, 199 6; M o wr er, 1 960 ). D i sa pp o in t me n t ab o u t n o t
att a inin g an exp ectation or a go a l could result in sa d n ess or a n ger, dep end -
in g o n b eli ef s a b ou t w he th e r t h e o ri gin a l ex pe ct at io n o r g oa l c an be
re in st at e d. Sa d n es s is a ss oc ia te d wit h th e b el ief t h a t go a ls ca n n o t b e
re in st at e d, wh er ea s a n ge r i s a sso cia t ed wi th t h e b e lief th a t so m et h in g ca n
be done to r einst ate a go a l (Levine, 1996). Sa d n e ss is a ssu m ed t o r e sult
from eva lu a t in g a situat ion a s t h e absence of a p o sitive o u t com e ( F r ijd a,
1986; H iggins, 1989; R o seman, 1984; R osema n et a l., 1990, 1996). A nger,
on t h e o t h er h a n d , is often a ssu m ed to be c a u sed b y b o t h t ypes o f n egative
o u tc om e s (F r ijd a , 19 86; Ro s em an , 198 4; R o sem a n et a l., 199 0, 1 996 ).
Frustration is a lso r ela t ed t o d isa pp o in t m en t . T h e te rm ``d isa p p o in t-
m en t ’ ’ is d e ® n e d in We bster’s Third New International D ictionary, (1981)
as follo ws: ``fa ilu re of exp e ctation o r h o p e: fru st ration’ . F r u stra t io n, like
a n ger, is a ss u m ed t o b e ca u se d b y b o t h t yp es of n eg at ive o u tc om e s (F r ijd a ,
19 86; R o se ma n , 1 984 ; R o se ma n et a l. , 199 0, 199 6).
T h e r e lat io n b e tw een d is ap p o in tm e n t an d regret is a t lea st t wo fo ld.
F irs t, bo t h a r e relate d to de cisio n m a k in g a nd ch o ice (Bell, 1982, 1985;
Lo om es & Su gd en, 1982 , 1986). Secon d , bo t h a r e conside red to be count er-
fa ctu a l em o t ion s a rising fro m t hou gh t s ab o u t ``what migh t have been’
(I n m an , D y er, & J ia , 19 97; L o om e s & S u gd en , 1 984 ; O r to n y et a l. , 19 88;
Zee lenb erg et al., 1998b ). Regre t is gener a lly associate d wit h b o t h typ es of
negat ive ou tco m es, th a t is, both th e ab s en ce o f a p o s it ive o u t come an d t h e
p re sen ce o f a n eg at ive o u tc o me ca n give r is e t o r eg ret ( F rij da , 1 986 ;
Ro s em a n , 1 984; R o sem a n e t al ., 19 90, 1 996 ; Z e ele nb er g & B ea tt ie, 19 97;
Zee lenb erg, Beattie, va n d er P ligt , & de Vries, 1 996).
To d ate, we d o n ot know of any empirical s tudy that h as explicitly
inves tiga t ed t h e in ¯ u ence o f typ e of negative outco m e on t h e in t e nsity of
disap p o in t m e nt . T h e m o st r eleva n t st u d y is t h e o n e r epo rted by Ros em a n
(1991). H is participa n t s r ead b rief st o r ies ab o u t e vent s t h a t h a p p ened t o
va r io u s pro t a go n is ts. In th es e sto r ie s, info r m ation relevant to ® ve ap praisa ls
132 van DIJK, ZEELENBE RG, van der PL IGT
wa s syst ematica lly varied , a n d par ticipa n ts rate d t h e inte nsity o f
the em o tio n s t h a t th e y b elieved t h e p r otago n ists felt in respon s e to t h e
eve nt s. H a lf o f t h es e st o rie s c on ce rn e d n eg at ive e mo t io n s a n d a re o f
in t er est for o u r pr es en t p u rp o se s. T h e se st or i es w er e co n cer n ed w it h t h e
ab sen ce of a p o sitive o u t come o r the p r esence of a n e ga t ive o u tco m e.
Alth o ugh d isappo in tment w as no t t he fo cus o f R o sem a n’s st u d y (it d e alt
with s orro w,
2
anger, fru st r a tio n , r egret , a n d severa l o th er em o t io n s),
in t en sit y r a ti ng s o f d isa p p oi n tm e nt we re o b t a in ed . R os em a n fou n d th a t
both t h e a b sence o f a p o sitive o u t com e a nd the presence o f a n egative
o u tco m e r esu lt ed in in cr ea se d ra t in gs fo r a ll ne ga t ive e m o tio n s. F ur t h er -
m ore, he con clud ed th a t th e differe nce s in n e ga t ive e m otio n s d u e t o th e
typ e o f n eg ative o u tco m e were co m p a r a t ive ly sm a ll. I n Ta ble 1 we
su m m a ris e t h e m ea n s fo r so r ro w, a n ger, fr u st r at io n , a n d r eg re t a s re p o rt ed
by Roseman (1991), and also give the m ean d isa pp o in t m e nt rat in g s.
3
Tab le 1 sh ows th at the differences between the two different types of
negative o utcomes a re in deed com p a ratively sm a ll fo r sorr ow, ange r, a n d
regret. T he d ifference, however, is larger for fr u st rat io n , an d partic ularly
large for disappo in t m en t . T h is p r ovides so m e p r elimin a r y suppo r t to ou r
reasoning th at disappo int m ent is mo r e closely asso ciated wit h t h e ab sence of
a posit ive o u tco m e t han w ith t h e p resence of n egative ou t com e. I n t h e p resent
series o f stud ies we lo ok exp licitly a t the r ela tion be tween t h e t wo t yp es o f
negative ou tco m es an d d isap p o in tment. In the ® rst two stud ies pa rticip a nts
recalled a n a u tobiograp h ica l emotiona l episo de an d appraisals con cernin g
type of nega tive o utcome were a sse ssed. I n St udy 3 we experimen tally
manipula t ed t yp e o f n egative ou t com e a n d a ssessed r atin gs for d ifferent
emotions, u sing a scenario m eth o d o lo gy. In St u dy 4 we a ga in m a n ip u la ted
type of n egative ou t co m e, but t his tim e we a ssessed o n-lin e em o t io n al re-
actions b y usin g a gam e-like t ask in wh ich r ea l mo n ey cou ld b e lost or won. In
all studies we com p a r e the relatio n bet ween type of nega t ive o u tco m e a n d
d isap p o int m en t w ith t he r ela tio n b etw een t yp e o f n ega tive o u tc om e
a nd sa d ne ss, a nge r, fr ust r at io n, a nd r egr et .
STUDY 1
In Study 1 p a r t icip a n t s were a sked t o r e call a s pec c event in wh ich t h e y
exp erien ced e it her d isappo in t m ent, sadness, an ger, fr u stra t io n , o r regr et .
F u r th e rm o r e, th e y w er e a s ke d to in d ic at e to w ha t ex t en t th e s itu a t io n
DISAPPOINTMENT AND TYPE OF NEGATIVE OUTCOME 133
2
In m or e r ecen t w or k R o sem a n u ses t h e e mo t io n t er m ``sad n ess ’ in st ea d o f so r ro w. O n e
rea son fo r t his w a s th at sad n ess is m o re c omm o n ly used t ha n sor ro w in th e Eng lish la n gu a ge
(I.J. Ros em a n, pe rs ona l co m m unicatio n , 22 A pril 19 97) .
3
Th e se me a ns wer e n o t r ep o rt ed b y Ro s em an ( 19 91) . H ow ever, m ea n in t en sit y r at in gs o f
d isa pp o in t m en t on th e d iff er en t s t or ie s w er e r ep or t ed . O n t h e b a sis of th e se in t en sit y ra t in gs
we c alc u lat e d t h e m ea n s o f d isa p p oin t m en t r at in gs fo r t h e t wo t yp es o f ne ga tive o u tco m e s.
re presented one of the t wo typ es of ne ga t ive o utco m es. We expect that
eve nt s in w hi ch d isa p p oi nt m e nt w as ex pe ri en ce d ar e m or e lik ely to b e
associa ted w it h t h e absenc e o f a po sitive o utco m e than wit h t h e p r esence
of a negative o u t co m e, an d th a t th ese events ar e a s so ciate d m o re wit h t h e
ab s en ce o f a posit ive o ut com e t h a n sa dn ess, a n ger, fr u s tra t ion, and regre t.
Method
De sign an d Participa nts. Study 1 ha d a ® ve grou p b etween-su b jects
design (D isa p p o int m en t vs. Sad ness vs. Fru st r a tio n vs. A n ge r vs.
Regre t).
4
St u d en ts a t t h e U n ive rs it y o f A m s ter d a m ( N= 1 00) p a rticipated
in t his st u dy. Th e re were 20 p a r t ic ip a n t s in ea ch co n d it io n . T h is st u dy wa s
part o f a large a p p r aisal st udy, that wa s a d m inist rated d u r ing a la r ge-scale
t es t se ss ion . P a r t icip a n ts we re p a id 10 D u t ch g ui ld er s (a p p ro xim a t ely
$5.00) fo r their participa t ion .
Procedu re. Q u est io n na i re s we re r a n do m ly d ist r ibu t ed a m o n g t h e
p a rt ic ip an t s. D ep e nd in g o n t h e c on d it io n t h ey w er e in , p a rt ic ip an t s w er e
a sk ed t o d esc rib e a sit u a tio n in w h ich t h ey f elt e ith e r i n te ns e d isa p p oi nt -
m en t , s a dn es s, fr u s tr a tio n , a n ger, o r r eg re t.
5
N ext , p artic ipa n ts wer e ask ed
the fo llo win g t wo q u estion s: ``To wha t exte nt d id t he situ a t io n con cern
so m et h in g p o sit ive ( so m et h in g yo u w a nt e d) t h a t d id not o cc ur ?’ ’ a n d ``To
134 van DIJK, ZEELENBE RG, van der PL IGT
TABLE 1
Mean In tensity Ra tings of Different Nega tive Emotions as a Fun c-
tion of Type of Ne gative Outcome (a dapted from Rosema n, 1991)
Em ot ions
Outcome Disappointment Sorrow Anger Frustration Regret
PA 7. 16 5.4 2 6.33 7.1 9 5.57
N P 6. 27 5.26 6.2 3 6.62 5. 52
No te: PA , po s it i ve a b s en c e; N P, n e ga t iv e p r e se n ce. I n Ro se m a n ’s
origin a l wor k is ref erred to PA a s th e ab sen ce o f a rewar d (MS+ S S2)
a nd t o N P a s t h e p res en ce o f a pu n ish me n t ( MS 2SS + ).
4
I n th e presen t resear ch p a rticip ant s wer e exp licit ly a sked ab o u t d isappo in t m en t co n cern -
in g an o u t co m e. H owever, o ne c an of co ur s e als o b e d isap p o int ed in a p ers on . A mo r e d et a iled
a cco u nt o n th e d iff er en ces b et wee n t he se t wo k in d s o f d isa p po in t m en t ca n be fo u n d in va n
D ijk , va n d er P ligt , a nd Z ee len b er g ( 1998 b ).
5
T he em o t io n wor d s in t h e p re sen t st u dy we re in D u tch, a s t he y wer e in St ud y 2 a n d 4 .
St ud y 3 w as co nd u cted in E n glish , a t a u niv ers ity in t he U n ited K ing do m. We h ave n o r eas on
to b eliev e t h at th er e a re an y su b st a ntia l d iff er ences b et w een D u t ch a n d En glish in th e
denota t ive or co nn o t a tive m e an ing o f thes e wor d s.
wh a t e xte n t d id t h e s itu a t io n c on c ern s o me th in g n ega t ive (s o m et hi ng yo u
did n o t wa n t ) t h a t did o c cur ?’ ’
6
Particip a n t s cou ld a n swer b o th q u estio n s o n
a 9 -p o in t sc al e w it h e nd - po in t s la be lled not at all ( 1) a n d to a great extent
(9) , a n d t he m id p o in t l ab el led a s neutral (5 ). F u rt he rm or e, p a rt ici pa nt s w ere
asked h o w inten se they exp e rien ced d isapp o intmen t, s adn es s, fru str a t io n ,
a ng er, a n d r egr et in t h e de sc rib ed sit ua t io n . T he se in t en sit y r at in gs w ere
done on a 9-poin t sca le lab elled not at all ( 1) a nd very much ( 9).
Results and Discussion
A pp r a isa l sc or e s for b o t h m a in d e pe nd e nt va r ia b les ( typ e o f n e ga tive
o u tco m e ) we re en te re d int o a n A N O VA w it h t y pe of n ega t ive o u t co m e
as a with in- su b jects fa c tor a n d the em o t io n rated a s a b et we en-s ub jects
fa cto r. A sign i® cant m a in e ffe ct of ty p e of negative outco m e was found
[F(1,95) = 6. 10, P< .02], a n d a sign c ant two-way in ter a ction b et we en
typ e o f n e ga tive o u t c om e a n d t h e emotion rate d was fou nd [F(4,95) = 5.56,
P< .001]. The mea n a pp raisal scores fo r t he ® ve target emo tion s are s how n
in Table 2.
7
P la nn e d c o m pa r iso n s r e vea led t h at d is ap p o in tm e nt w as m o re c lo se ly
assoc iated with t he absen ce of so m e thing p o sitive th a n w it h t h e p r esence
of so m eth ing negative, [t(19) = 2.37, P< .05 ]. Sa d n ess a n d re gr et w e re
both m o re c lo se ly assoc iated w it h th e presence o f someth in g n e ga tive
[t(19) = 3.46, P< . 005] a nd [t(19) = 2.86, P< . 01], re spectively. N o
diffe re nce s wer e fou n d for anger an d fr u st r a t io n (ts < 1).
F u rt he rm or e, a co nt ra st a na lys is b et ween th e a p pr ai sal r at ing s o f d is-
a pp o in t m en t a n d t h e a p pr a is al r a tin g s o f t he o t h er e mo t io n s r ev ea led th a t
d isa p po in t m en t w a s m o r e st ro n gly a ss o cia te d wi th t he a b sen ce o f so m e -
t hi ng p o sit ive t ha n t h e ot h er e mo t io n s [F(4,95) = 2.61, P< .05]. D is-
appo intmen t was more a sso ciat e d wit h th is t yp e o f n e ga tive o u t come
tha n sa d n ess, fru stration, an d r egret (see Tab le 2, co m p a r ison within upper
ro w). C o n cernin g t h e p r esence of a negat ive outco m e n o sig n can t differ-
en ce was found b etw een t h e a p p r aisal ra t in gs of disa pp o in t m e nt o n t h e on e
hand an d th e ra tin gs of th e other em o t io n s on t h e othe r. Alt h ou gh d is-
a pp o in t m en t wa s les s st ro n gl y a ss oc iat e d w ith th e p re se nce o f s om e th in g
negat ive tha n sadness. N o sign can t diffe rences c oncern ing th is type of
DISAPPOINTMENT AND TYPE OF NEGATIVE OUTCOME 135
6
Bo t h q u est io n s we re p a r t o f a la r ge a p pr a isa l st u d y a nd w er e in t er sp er se d b et wee n 1 3
o th er q ue st io n s ab o u t a p p ra is a ls. T h e o rd er o f t he se q u est io n s wa s r a n do m ly de te rm in e d.
7
Th e m ea n in te n sit y r a tin g s fo r dis a pp o in t m en t, sa d n ess, an ge r, f ru st r at io n , a n d r egr et
wer e 5.40, 6.15, 5.80, 5.3 0, a n d 5. 25, r es pe ct ively. Th e in st a nces o f sadn es s wer e sligh t ly mor e
in te n se t ha n t ho s e of d is ap p o in t me n t, fr ust r a tio n , a n d reg r et (Ps < .0 5) . T h e r an g e of sco r es,
h ow ever, is sm a ll in ab so lu te t er ms.
n eg at ive o u t co m e w er e fo u nd b et we en di sa pp o in t m en t an d a n ger, fr us tr a -
tio n , and r e gr et (see Tab le 2, co m p a r is on within lower ro w).
P ar t ici p an t s w ho re ca lle d a sit u at io n lin ke d wit h a p a r t icu la r e mo t io n
also r a ted th e in t ens it y of th e o t h er t a rget emotion s th ey exp erie nced
during th is situation.
8
To exa m ine t h e ex ten t t o which d is appoint m ent
sh a res a u n iqu e r elation t o t h e absence of so m eth ing posit ive a p a r t ia l
co r re la tio n an a lys is b et we en t h e a p pr a is al q u es tio n s a n d t he in t e nsi ty o f
the em o t io n s wa s con d u c ted . A c ross all d escrib ed situations the in t ensity of
disap p o in t m e nt wa s s igni® ca ntly cor r elate d w it h the absence of a positive
outco m e, wh en co r r ec te d fo r t h e o t her ap p r a isal qu est io n (r= .18, P< . 05 ).
N o n e of the in ten sity rat ings o f sad n ess, an g er, frus tration, an d regret wer e
sig n can t ly co r r elate d with t h is t yp e o f n ega tive ou t co m e (r=2.07, n .s.,
r= .08, n.s., r= .10, n. s., r= .07, n .s.), r es pective ly.
9
T h e in t en sit y o f
sa d n ess was sig n can t ly corre la ted w it h th e pr es ence o f a n eg at ive o u t-
co m e ( r= . 32, P< . 005 ). T h e in te n sit y r a ti ng s o f d is ap p o in tm e n t, a ng er,
fr u str a tio n , a n d re gr et we re n ot sign ca n t ly cor r elate d with t h is typ e o f
n eg at ive o u t co m e (r=2.06, n. s., r= .04, n .s., r= . 03, n.s., r= .06, n . s.),
re sp ectively.
10
136 van DIJK, ZEELENBE RG, van der PL IGT
TABLE 2
Mean Appraisal Ratings on both Questions concerning Type of
Negative Outcome fo r Each of the Five Emotions (Study 1)
Em ot ions
Outcome Disappointment Sadness Anger Frustration Regret
PA 5.7 5
d
3.50
a
4.80
c,d
4.15
a,b ,c
3.50
a, b
N P 4.35
a
5.90
b
5.10
a,b
4.45
a
5.45
a, b
No te: PA , po sit ive ab sen ce; N P, n ega tive pr esen ce. Sc or es c ou ld r an ge
fr om 1 t o 9. H igh er s cor es re ¯ ect t h e fo llo wi ng : p os it ive is ab s ent t o a
gr ea te r e xt en t; n ega tiv e i s p res en t t o a g rea t er ext e nt . M ea n s w it hin a ro w
n ot s ha r in g a co m m o n su pe rs cr ip t di ffer sig n i® ca n tly (P< .05).
8
D isap p oint m en t s ituat io n s rece ived in tensit y ra t ing s of 4.95, 4.75, 6. 20, 3. 60, f or sa dn es s,
ang er, fr u st ra t ion , an d reg ret , resp ect ively. Sadn es s situa t io n s received in t en sit y r a tin gs of 4. 05,
4.5 5, 4.5 0, 2.9 0, fo r d isa p p o in tm en t , a n ge r, fr u st ra t io n, a n d re gre t , r esp ec tive ly. A ng er sit u a -
tion s r eceiv ed in t en sity r at in gs o f 5.2 0, 3. 95, 5 .40, 3.60, fo r disa pp o in t m en t, sad n es s, frus tra -
tion , a n d r eg ret, r esp ec tiv ely. Fr u st r at io n s it uat io n s rec eived in t en sit y r at in gs o f 5.20, 4 .60 ,
5.9 0, 2 .90 , fo r d is ap p o in tm e nt , sad n ess, an ger, a n d r egret, r es pe ct ively. R egr et sit uat io n s
re ceive d in t en sit y r at in gs of 5.15 , 4 .95 , 4. 10, 4. 85, for d isa p po in t m en t , sa d n es s, a ng er, a n d
fr u st ra t io n , r es pec t ively.
9
Th e z er o- ord er co r r elation s b et w een t h e intensit y of th e emot io n s a n d t h e absen ce o f a
positiv e o utco m e w er e alm ost id e nt ic al t o t he pa r t ial co rrel at io n s. T h ere wa s a s ign can t
n ega t ive c o rr ela t io n b et wee n th e tw o a p p r ai sa l q u est io n s ( r=2.21, P< .05 ).
10
Th e zer o -o rd er co r rela tio n s b etw een t he intens it y of th e emo t io n s a nd t h e p resence o f a
nega tive o utcom e were a lm o st id e nt ical to the p a r tial corr ela t io ns.
Thus, ou r r es ults sup p o r t t h e not ion th at d isappo in t m ent is bett er
ch a ra ct erised b y th e ab s en ce of a p o sitive ou tco m e t h a n by t h e p r es ence
o f a n eg at ive o u tc om e. F u r t h er m or e, re su lt s sh o we d t h a t di sa pp o in t m en t
ca n be dist in gu ished on t h e b a sis of type of negat ive o u tc ome from s adn ess,
a ng er, f ru s tr a ti on , a n d r e gre t. T h a t i s, d isa p p oi nt m en t is m o re a sso ci at ed
with the ab sence of a posit ive o utcom e than sadne ss, a nger, fr ustr a tio n ,
and regr et .
In t h e p r esent st u dy we a sked p a r t ic ip a n ts to give ratings o f t h e exte nt t o
wh ich t h e situ ation involved t h e a bse nce o f som et h in g p o sit ive o r t h e
p re se nce o f s om e th in g n e ga tiv e. T h is m et h od o lo gy m i gh t suf fer fro m a t
lea s t t wo p r o bl em s, a s R os em a n et a l. ( 1996 ) re ce nt ly p o in t ed o u t . F ir st ,
ask in g fo r r a t in gs ch a r a cte rising th e co n t ent c ou ld b e d iff er ent fro m a sking
ab o u t t h e cau se of an exp erien ced em o t io n (see a ls o Fr ijd a , 1993;
Park in so n & M a n stea d , 1992; Rosem a n et al., 199 0). Th is co u ld lea d t o
a less c o rr ec t id e nt i® c at io n of th e cau s es o f em o t io n s. Se co nd , em o tio n
ep iso d es d e scr ib ed b y p a r ti cip a n ts c o uld en co m p as s se ver a l e m o ti on s, e ac h
wi th t he ir o w n a p p ra is al de te rm in a n t s (s ee a lso Sc h er er, 19 93; Sm it h &
Ellswort h, 1987). Rosema n e t al. (199 6, p. 245) sta ted th at ``U nless the
su b ject is in st r u cte d t o spe cify the ap p r a isals t h a t a r e r eleva n t to t h e
p rim a r y e mo t io n u n d er inv est iga t io n , a pp r a isa ls r ele va nt t o o t h er
em o t io ns m ay b e r ep o rt e d, o b scu r in g t ru e a p p r ais a l-e mo t io n r ela ti on -
sh ip s’ ’ . R o sem a n e t al . (199 6) r eco m m en d ed c or r ec tin g t he se p ro b lem s
by: (a) a sk in g pa rticipant s to rat e th e ca u se of an emotion ra t h er th a n
the though t s th a t they had o n ce th e emot io n h a d b eg un: a nd (b) asking
p ar t ici pa n t s a b ou t th e app raisals t h at l ed t o t h eir e m ot io n s, r a t he r t ha n by
ask in g t h em a b out t h e event t h a t led to t heir em o t io n .
STUDY 2
In Study 2 we t r ied t o rep licate th e ® n d in gs o f Study 1 usin g th e m et h o d -
o lo gy r eco m m en d ed b y R o sem a n e t a l. ( 1996 ). A s in St u dy 1 , p a rt ic ipa n t s
were as ked to recall an inten se situation in which they exp erien ce d one of
the ® ve tar get e motio n s. Part ic ip a n t s were a sked t o indica t e to wha t ext ent
the t a r ge t e m o tio n w a s a ssocia t ed with one of the two t ypes o f n ega tive
outco m es. Th e que stion that captu red t he ty p e o f n egative o u t com e wa s
adapt e d fro m R o sem a n e t a l.
11
DISAPPOINTMENT AND TYPE OF NEGATIVE OUTCOME 137
11
In th e R o sem a n et al. (19 96) t h eo r y, th is q u est io n is intend ed to ca p t ure t h e a pp r aisa l
d ime n sio n o f m o tiv at io n a l s ta t e. We did n o t in cl ud e a me a su re o f sit u a tio n a l s t at e be ca u se an
n ega t ive ou t co m e is a ss um ed t o b e ap p r a ised a s m ot ive inc o ns ist en t . T hi s s tu d y w as in t en d ed
to exa m in e wheth er t h e em o tion s un d er in vest iga ti on s a re eit h er in co n sis t ent wit h a n
ap p et it ive m otive (incons ist en t w it h at t a ini ng a rewa rd ) or in c ons ist en t with an aver sive
mo t ive (i nco n si ste nt w it h a vo id ing a pu n is h me nt ).
Method
De sign an d Participa nts. Study 2 ha d a ® ve grou p b etween-su b jects
d es ign (D i sa pp o in t m en t vs. Sa d n es s vs. F r u st r at io n vs. A n ge r v s. R eg ret ).
St u d en t s a t th e U n ive r sit y of A m s te rd a m ( N= 110) p a r t icip a ted in t h is
st u dy. Th ere w ere 22 p a r t icip a n t s in e ach con ditio n . T his st u dy wa s p a r t o f
a large ap p r a isal study, th a t wa s ad m in istra t ed d u r in g a large-scale exp eri-
m en t al s ess ion . P a rt ic ip a nt s w e re pa id 10 D u t ch g u ild er s (a pp r ox im a te ly
$5.00) fo r their participa t ion .
Procedu re. Q u est io n na i re s we re r a n do m ly d ist r ibu t ed a m o n g t h e
p a rt ic ip an t s. D ep e nd in g o n t h e c on d it io n t h ey w er e in , p a rt ic ip an t s w er e
a sk ed t o d esc rib e a sit u a tio n in w h ich t h ey f elt e ith e r i n te ns e d isa p p oi nt -
m en t , sa dn e ss, fr us tr a ti on , a n ger, o r r eg ret . P a rt ic ip an t s w er e a s ke d to
a n swer t h e q u es ti on : ``M y [em o ti on te r m ] w as ca u se d b y: w a nt in g t o get
r id of o r avo id so m et h in g p a in fu l o r w a n tin g t o get o r kee p s om e th in g
pleas urab le . P articip a n ts co u ld a n swe r o n a 9-poin t sc ale la belled avoiding
something painful (1) to wanting something ple as urable (9).
Results and Discussion
Scores on t h e m a in d e pen d ent va r iab le (typ e o f n egative o u tcom e ) we re
en t er ed i nt o a n A N O VA , t h e s in gle f ac to r b ein g e mo t io n . A na lys is r eve al ed
a sig n i® ca n t m a in eff ect d ue t o em o t io n [F(4,105) = 4.9 8, P< . 001]. T h e
m ea n a p praisal s co r es of t h e ® ve t a rget emotions a re sh o wn in Tab le 3.
12
A co n t ra s t a n a lysi s, in w hic h d is ap p o in tm e n t w as co n t ra s te d a ga in st t h e
o th e r fou r e mo t io n s, r e vea led t h a t di sa pp o in t m en t is m or e st ro n gly
associa ted wit h wanting somet hin g plea sura b le th a n t h e oth er em o t io n s
[t(100) = 4.03, P< . 00 1]. A p pr a is al r at in gs fo r d isa pp o in t m en t we re h igh er
than t h e r a t in gs for t h e o t h er t a rget emotion s (s ee Ta ble 3). T h is im plies
t ha t d isa p po i nt m e nt w as m or e c lo sely a s so cia te d w it h w a n tin g so m et hi ng
pleas urab le t h a n were sadn ess, an ger, fr u str a t io n , a n d regr et. M or eover,
only disa p p o in t m e nt a p p r aisal r a tin gs d iffere d sign cantly from t h e
neu t ra l midpoin t o f the sc ale, imp lyin g th a t d isap p oint ment w as asso -
cia t ed m o r e st r ongly w it h o n e t y pe o f n egative o u tco m e, t h a t is, t he
ab s en ce o f a p o sit ive o u t co m e [t(21) = 5.40, P< .00 1]. Sa d n es s, a ng er,
138 van DIJK, ZEELENBE RG, van der PL IGT
12
Th e m ea n in t en sity rat in gs fo r dis ap p o in t men t, sa d n ess, a ng er, fr ust ra t io n, an d r egr et
we re 6.81, 7.73, 7. 64, 7.50, 6.48, r esp ect iv ely. Th e on ly sig n i® ca nt differences were tho se
between sad n es s an d re gr et , an d a n ger a n d re gr et (Ps < .0 5) . N o t e, h o we ver, t h a t d es p ite it s
st a ti stic a l s ign i® ca n c e, t h e dif fer en ce b et w een t he le a st in t en se a n d t he m o st in t en s e em o t io n i s
sm a ll in a b solu t e t e rm s.
fr u st r a tio n , a n d r eg ret we re no t differ ent ia lly assoc iated with o n e t ype of
n ega t ive o u t co m e ( ts < 2. 04, n .s.).
Thus, the result s of this st u d y sup por t o u r predict ion s and r eplicat e t h e
® n di ng s o f St u d y 1. D isa p po in t m en t a pp e ar s t o be m o r e c au s ed b y t h e
ab sen ce of a p o sitive o u tco m e t h a n by t h e p resence o f a n ega t ive o u t come.
M o re over, re sults sh o wed t h a t d isapp o in tm ent c an b e dist ingu ishe d fro m
the rela ted emotio ns of sad n ess, an ger, fru s tra t ion, a n d regre t on the basis
o f ty p e o f n ega t ive o u tc o m e. I n S tu d y 3 we a tt em p t t o e xt en d t h es e ® n d in gs
usin g a d ifferen t appro a c h.
STUDY 3
In t he two p r eviou s stud ies pa r t icip a n t s were asked to r ec all an in s tance of
a ta rget emo tion an d to rate the exten t t o wh ich this emotio n was ca u sed by
a spec c typ e o f n egative o u t com e. In t h e p resent stu d y w e use d a scena r io
m et h od , in wh ic h we m a n ip u lat e d t yp e o f n eg at ive o u t co m e a n d a sk e d fo r
in t en sit y r at in gs o f t h e ta r ge t em o t io ns. P a r ti cip a n ts we re c on fr o nt e d wi th
eit h er t h e abs en c e of a p o sitive o u t co m e or t h e p r esence of a n ega tive
o u tco m e. W e exp e ct th a t d isa p po in t m en t r at in gs a re h igh er in t h e fo r m er
sit u at io n th a n in th e la tt e r s it u at io n . F u r th e rm o r e, w e e xp ect th a t in t h e
fo rm e r s it ua t io n d isa pp o in t m en t r a t in gs a r e h igh er t h a n a r e s ad n es s, a n ge r,
fr u st ra t io n , a nd r eg re t r a ti ng s.
Method
De sign an d Partic ipa nts. Study 3 ha d a t wo -group b etween-sub jects
design (Po sit ive-Ab sen ce vs. N eg ative-P res ence ). St ud en ts a t th e U ni ver-
sit y of Su ss ex, U K (N= 40) p a r ticipate d in t h is stu dy o n a vo lunt ary b a sis.
Ther e were 20 p a r t ic ip a n t s p er co n d ition.
DISAPPOINTMENT AND TYPE OF NEGATIVE OUTCOME 139
TABLE 3
Mean Appraisal Ratings for Each of the Five Emo tions (Study 2)
Emotions
App rai sal D isa ppoi ntm ent S adn ess A nge r Fr ust rat ion R egre t
Avo id in g p a inf u l vs.
Wa n ti ng p lea s ur ab le 7.4 5
c
5.41
a, b
4.27
a
5.7 3
b
5.95
b
Not e: Scor es could r a n ge from (1 ) avoiding som ething painful t o ( 9) wanting som e-
th in g pleasurable. M ea n s w it h in a ro w n o t sh a r in g a co m m o n su p er sc ri pt d iff er
sign i® c an t ly ( P< .05).
Procedu re. Q u est io n na i re s we re r a n do m ly d ist r ibu t ed a m o n g t h e
particip a n t s. Pa r t ic ip a n t s in t h e P ositive-Absenc e co n d ition (PA ) r ea d t h e
fo llo win g s t or y:
It is th e tim e of year wh en yo u h ave to ® ll in you r t ax fo r m . You h ave sor t ed
out all you r ® na n cia l in s and o u t s. You h ave ® lled in yo u r tax for m t o t h e best
o f yo ur ab ilit i es. You h ave d o n e th i s b efo r e, so it is n o t t o o b ig a h a ssle. A ft er
re-exa m in in g your ta x fo rm a n d sign in g it, you exp ect th a t yo u ge t a t ax
rebat e o f £150. A ft er a whil e yo u r eceive a let ter fro m t h e t ax o ce. D u e t o a
n ew t a x r ul e, so m e o f yo u r ca l cu lat i on s w ere n o t va lid a n d so yo u wi ll n ot
receive t h e exp ect ed rebat e of £1 50. Yo u do not have to p a y any extra t a xes.
H o w w ou ld yo u fe el a bo u t t hi s o u tco m e?
Particip a n t s in th e N egat ive-Pr esence co n d it ion (N P ) rea d the follo wing
st o r y:
It is th e tim e of year wh en yo u h ave to ® ll in you r t ax fo r m . You h ave sor t ed
out all you r ® na n cia l in s and o u t s. You h ave ® lled in yo u r tax for m t o t h e best
o f yo ur ab ilit i es. You h ave d o n e th i s b efo r e, so it is n o t t o o b ig a h a ssle. A ft er
re-exa m in in g your ta x fo rm a n d sig ni n g it, you exp ect t h at yo u wo n’t h ave to
pay any extr a t ax, but you also exp ect that yo u wo n’ t g et a ny t a x rebat e. After
a wh ile yo u receive a let te r fr o m the ta x o ce. D u e t o a n ew t a x ru le, so m e o f
your calcu la t io n s were not va lid a n d n ow you h ave to pa y £150 in ext r a ta xes.
H o w w ou ld yo u fe el a bo u t t hi s o u tco m e?
Aft er r ead ing the st o r y p a r t icip a n t s we re ® rst ask ed to in d icat e h o w
negat ive their feelings wou ld b e in gen eral a ft er th e ou tco m e. Th is r a ting
wa s d o n e o n a 9 -p o in t sca le with e nd-p o in t s lab elled not at all negative (1)
to very negative (9 ). T h is question wa s asked in o r d er to give participa n t s
an o p p o r t u n ity t o give a gen er a l evaluation o f t h e situ a t io n . N ext, p arti-
cip a n t s were a s ked t o give int en sity r a t in gs of more spec c em o t io n s, (i.e.
disap p o in t m e nt , re gr et, fru stration, sa d n ess, and a n ge r). T h ese questio ns
had the follo w in g word in g: ``H ow mu ch [emotion ter m ] wou ld you exp er i-
en ce a f te r t h is o u tc om e ?’’ R a t in gs o f t h e sp ec i® c e m o tio n s we re a ll m a d e o n
9- po in t sc al es w it h en dp o in t s la b elle d none (1) to a lot (9).
Results and Discussion
F ir s t, w e e xa m in ed n e ga tive f ee ling s i n ge ne ra l t h at wo u ld b e ex pe rie n ce d.
Th e results sh o we d t h a t n egative fe elings we re m o re inten se in t h e N P
co n d it ion (M= 7.05) th a n in th e PA co nd it io n [(M= 6.10), t(38) = 2.71,
P< .01]. Th e m e a n in t ens it y r a tin gs for t he ® ve target emotions a re
re p or t ed in Tab le 4 . I n te ns it y r at in gs o f t h ese e m ot io n s we re e n te re d
in t o a n A N OVA , u s ing co n d it ion a s a b et wee n- su b jec ts fa ct or an d
140 van DIJK, ZEELENBE RG, van der PL IGT
em o t io n as a w it h in -su b je cts fa ctor. An a lys es r evealed a m a r ginally
sig n i® ca n t m a in e ffec t o f c on d it io n [F(1,38) = 3. 52, P< . 07 ], a n d a
sig n i® ca n t t wo -w ay in te r ac tio n b et we en co n d iti on a n d em o t io n [F( 4,35)
= 5.58, P< .001].
U n ivaria te tests r evea led t h a t d is appoin t m ent was m o r e in t ens e in t h e
PA co n d it ion than in th e N P con ditio n [F(1,38) = 4.40 , P< . 05], whereas,
anger and f rust r ation we re mo re inte nse in the NP co n d it io n than in t h e PA
co n d it io n (Fs > 7. 00 , Ps < .0 5). N o d iffer enc es b etween con dit ion s were
found for sa d n ess an d r egret (Fs < 2.14, n.s.) .
We a l so p r ed ict ed t h a t d is ap p oi nt m e nt w o ul d b e t h e d o m in a n t em o t ion
in t h e PA c on d it io n . Pl an n e d c om p a r iso n s co n® r m ed th is p re d ict io n a n d
re vea le d t h at d i sap p o in t m en t is m o re in t en se in t he PA co n d it io n t h a n t h e
oth er ta r ge t e mo tio n s (all Ps < .0 05) . A lt h ou g h d isa p p oin t m en t wa s m o re
in ten se in t h e N P con ditio n than we re sad n ess and regret (Ps < .005),
d isa p po in t m en t wa s t h e o n ly e mo t io n th a t wa s m o r e in t en se i n t h e PA
co n d it io n t h a n i n t h e N P co n d it io n .
Thus, the resu lt s o f Stu d y 3 support ou r p r edictio n s a n d replica te and
ext end the ® n dings of Stu d ies 1 and 2. D isa p p o in tme nt is more inten se
a ft er ex pe rie n cin g t h e a b se nc e o f a p o sit ive o ut c om e t ha n a f te r exp er ie n-
cin g t h e p re se nce o f a n eg at ive o u t co m e. M o r eo ver, d is ap p o in tm e nt is m o r e
in ten se t h a n sa d n ess, an ger, fru stration, an d r egret aft er experienc in g th e
ab se nce o f a p o sit ive o u tc om e. H o we ver, i t sh o ul d b e n ot ed t h at t h is s tu dy
wa s a s im ul at io n (i .e. p a rt ic ipa n t s w er e i nf err in g w ha t t h ey wo u ld f ee l if
the y were in th ese situatio ns), a n d t h ere is no 1 00% guar ant ee th a t t h eir
in fe ren ce s we re fu lly a ccu r at e. To o ver co m e t h is pr o b lem w e d es ign ed a n
a dd it io n a l ex pe ri m en t in w h ich o n -lin e e m ot io n a l r ea ct io ns t ow a rd t h e t wo
t yp es o f n eg at ive o u t co m es we re as ses se d.
DISAPPOINTMENT AND TYPE OF NEGATIVE OUTCOME 141
TABLE 4
Mean Intensity Ratings per Condition for Each of the Five Emotions
(Study 3)
Emotions
Outcome Disappointment Sadness Anger Frustration Regret
PA 7.25
c(a )
3.15
a(a )
4.95
b( a )
5.25
b( a)
3.10
a(a )
N P 6.3 0
b (b)
4.10
a(a )
6.6 0
b (b)
7.0 0
b( b)
3.85
a(a )
No te: PA, p os itiv e a b sen ce; N P, n ega t ive p r ese nc e. A h igh er sco r e i nd i-
ca tes a h igh er i nt en sity o f th e emo tio n. Mean s wit h in the sa m e row n ot
sh a rin g a co mm o n ® r st su p er scr ip t dif fer sig n i® ca n tly (P< .00 5). M e an s
wi th in t he sa m e c olu m n n o t sh a rin g a co m m on seco n d (b et w een pa r en t he ses )
su p er sc ri pt d iffe r sig n i® ca n tly (P< . 005) .
STUDY 4
I n t he ® r st t wo s tu d ies we u s ed a r et ro s pe cti ve m e th o d , i n wh ich pa r t ici-
pants re ca lled a c tu a l events in wh ic h t h ey expe rienced p a r t icula r emotio n s
a n d m e asu r es c on ce rn in g t yp e o f n eg at ive o u t co m e we re o bt a in ed . I n
St u d y 3 we used a sc en a rio m e thod, in w h ich we ma nip ula t ed t ype of
n eg at ive o u tc om e a n d a sk ed for in te n sit y ra t in gs o f t h e t ar ge t em o t io n s.
In the p resent st u dy we fo cu s on on-line emotional reactions. Pa r t ic ipa n t s in
this experim ental study were conf ron ted w it h eith er th e a bsence o f a (rea l)
p o sit ive o u tc o m e o r t h e p re se nce o f a ( re al) n e ga tive o u t co m e. T hi s w as
done by u sing a fr a m in g p r oce du r e in wh ic h a n id e ntica l outco m e wa s
p re sen t ed e it he r in win - ter m s o r in lo ss- te rm s. T h is is b o t h a co m m o n a nd
effec tive p r o cedure u sed in the ® e ld of b ehavioural de cisio n ma k ing (se e
e.g . K a hn eman & T ver sky, 198 2). We exp ect t o rep lica te our p rev iou s
® n d ing , th at is, we expect th a t d isappo in tmen t r a tin gs are hig h er in the
fo rm e r sit u at io n t ha n in t h e la t te r. F u r th e rm o r e, w e ex pe ct th a t in
the form er situ a tion d isapp o in t m ent r a tin gs a r e h igh er th a n ar e sad ness,
anger, frus t ration, and r egret r a t in gs.
Method
De sign and Participants. St u d y 4 h a d a t wo-gro u p b e tween-sub je cts
d es ign (P os it ive- Ab s en ce vs. N e ga tive -P re se nc e). S tu d en t s a t N ij m ege n
U nivers ity ( N= 40) p art icipa t ed in t h is s tudy. Th er e we re 20 p ar ticipan ts
in ea ch c on d it io n .
13
T h is s t ud y wa s a d m in ist ra t ed du r in g a la r ge exp e ri-
m en t al s ess ion . P a rt ic ip a nt s w e re pa id 10 D u t ch g u ild er s (a pp r ox im a te ly
$5 .00 ) fo r t he ir p ar t ic ip at io n in t h e la r ge e xp er im en t a l s es sion , a n d, a s p a r t
o f t he pr e sen t s tu d y, co u ld ga in a n ad d it io n a l 5 D u t ch g ui ld er s.
Procedu re. A ll p a rt ic ip a nt s we re p r om is ed 10 D u t ch gu ild er s fo r t he ir
p ar t icip at io n. H o wev er, p ar t icip a nt s in t h e N e gat ive -Pr ese nc e c on d iti on
we re e nd owe d wit h 5 D u tch g uilde rs ext ra . They we re given 15 G ui lde rs
at t h e st a r t o f t h e exper im e nt a n d were t old t h a t t h ey wo uld p lay a ga me at
the en d of the session in wh ich t h ey co u ld w in or lose 5 D u t ch guild ers or
t he y c ou ld wi n o r lo s e n o m on e y. A t t h e en d o f t h e se ssi on q u es tio n n a ir es
we re r a n do m ly d ist r ib ut e d a m o n g th e p a r ti cip a nt s. P a rt ic ipa n t s in t h e
N ega tive-P r es ence co n dit io n r ead t he follo win g instr uct io n (T he Posit ive-
A b sen ce c on d it io n i s s h ow n i n b r ac k ets ):
142 van DIJK, ZEELENBE RG, van der PL IGT
13
In or d er t o o b t a in 2 0 p a rt icip a n t s in t h e t wo r elev a nt co nd it io n s t h e ga m e wa s p layed
wi th 84 p ar t icip a n t s. On ly t he da t a of t ho se p ar t icip a n ts w h o lo s t t h e ga m e w er e in clu d ed in
this stu d y.
We are about to p la y a game in which m o n ey ca n b e lost [won]. This research
is c on cer n ed wi th you r ch oi ces a n d you ca n lo se [win ] r ea l m o n ey. I t i s
th er efo r e d if feren t f ro m m o st o t h er r esea r ch th a t is co nc er n ed wit h h yp o -
th eti ca l cho ices an d co n seq u en ces. [T h e mo n ey yo u ca n win is ind ep e n den t
fro m t h e 10 Dut ch guild er s th a t you r eceive for yo u r part icip ation in th e
wh ole sessio n , t h is m o n ey yo u get a n yw ay.] H ow does the ga m e wo rk? I n a
mom en t yo u m ay th row a d ie and if you t h r ow a lo sing [winnin g] num ber yo u
lose [win ] 5 D ut ch guild er s. I f yo u t h row on e o f t h e o t her n u mb er s yo u lose
[win ] n o t h in g. You m a y th row th e die you r self and also ch o o se th r ee nu m b er s
wit h whic h you lo se [win] m o n ey and t h r ee nu m b er s wit h which you lose [win ]
n ot h in g.
Aft er p a r t icip an ts read t h e in st r u ction a n d ® lled in the three win nin g or
lo sin g n u m be rs t h e exp er im e nt e r c a me a l on g w it h a d ie a n d t he g am e w as
played. P a r t icipa n ts were p a id im m ediate ly accord ing to t h e r esult o f t h eir
t hr ow. Fo r p a rt ic ip an t s in t h e P o sit ive- A bs en ce c on d it io n t h is m e an t th a t
the y did not win the e xt r a 5 guild ers, a nd fo r t h o se in the N egat ive-P r es ence
co n d it io n it m e an t th a t t h ey lost 5 gu il de rs. (B ec au se p a rt ic ip an t s in t h e
N e ga tiv e-P r ese nc e c on d it io n h a d re ce ived 15 gu ild e rs a t t h e b e gin n in g o f
t he la rge r e xp er im en t al ses sio n , a ll p a r t ici pa n t s l eft wi th 10 gu ild e rs m o r e
t ha n w he n t h ey e n te re d t h e ex pe ri me n t. ) N e xt , p a rt ic ip an t s we re ® r s t a sk ed
to in d icate h ow negative their feelings are in gen era l after the outc om e. T h is
ra t ing wa s d o n e o n a 9-po int sca le with e nd-p o in ts lab elled not at all ( 1) t o
very much (9). Th is questio n wa s a sk ed in ord e r t o give participants a n
op po rt un ity t o give a gener al affective eva lu at ion of t he situa tio n. N ext ,
particip a n t s we re a s ked t o give in ten sity ra t in gs of m ore spec c em o t io ns,
namely, disa p p o in t m e nt, re gr et , fru stration, sa d n ess, and a n ger. T h ese
q u est io ns ha d t h e fo ll ow in g wo rd in g : ``H o w m uc h [em o t io n t e rm ] a r e yo u
exp erien cing aft er th is ou tc om e?’ R atin gs of t h e sp eci® c emotion s wer e all
m a de o n 9 -p o in t s ca les w it h en d p o in ts la b ell ed non e (1) to very much (9).
Results and Discussion
F ir st, w e e xam in ed n ega tive f eelin gs in ge ner a l t ha t w ere exp er ien ced. Re sul ts
showed t h at n egat ive feelin gs in gen er a l were no t m ore in t ense in t h e N P
condition (M= 4.00) than in the PA c ond ition [(M= 3.7), t(38) < 1, n .s.]. T he
mean intensity ratin gs fo r the ® ve target emo t io n s are repor t ed in Ta ble 5.
In t ens ity ra tin gs o f t he se em ot io ns w ere ent er ed in t o a n A N OVA , u sin g
condition as a b et ween-su b jects factor a n d emo t io n a s a w ithin-su b jec ts
fact or. Analyses revea led o n ly a signi® cant two-way int er a ct io n b etw een
condition a n d em o t io n [F(4,35) = 3.15, P< .05].
U n ivaria te tests reve aled th at , a s p r edict ed, d isapp oin t m ent wa s mo re
in ten se in t h e PA co n d it io n th a n in t he N P co n d itio n [F(1,38) = 6.05.,
DISAPPOINTMENT AND TYPE OF NEGATIVE OUTCOME 143
P< . 05 ]. C o n ce rn in g t h e o t h er e m ot io n s n o s ign i® c an t d iffe re nc es b e tw ee n
the t wo co n d it ions were fou nd (Fs < 3. 60 , n .s.).
We a lso p r ed ict ed t h at d is ap p oi nt m e nt is t h e d om in a n t e m o ti on in
t he PA c on d it io n . P la nn e d co m p a ri so ns c on ® r m ed t h is pr e dic ti on a n d
revealed t h a t d is app oin tm ent was more inten se in t h e PA conditio n t h a n
we re t h e o t h e r t a r ge t emotio ns (Ps < . 00 5). A lt h o u gh d isa p p o in t m e nt
wa s m o r e in t ense in th e N P condit io n t h a n were sa d n ess, a nger a n d
re gr et (Ps < . 05 ), d isa pp o in t m ent was the on ly emotion t h a t wa s m ore
in t en se in t h e PA c on dit io n t h a n in t h e N P c ondit io n . A po ssib le r ea s on
wh y d is ap p o in tm e nt ra t in gs wer e al so r ela tiv ely h igh in t he N P c on d i-
tio n co u ld be th at so m e particip a n t s in t his cond it io n d id no t uneq u i-
vo cally p erceive th e s ituation ( i.e. losin g mo n ey) a s t h e p r es en ce o f a
n eg at ive ou t co m e. Th e se p a r t ici pa n t s m a y h av e b ee n p ar t ly r es po n d in g
to th e absence of a po sitive outco m e, that is, not having mo n e y.
14
This
iss ue may b e re solved b y in clu d in g in fut ure r esearch qu es tions co n cern-
in g how participant s app r a ise th e sit u a tio n with wh ich th ey ar e
co n fro n t ed.
Th us, th e results of St u d y 4 su p p o r t o u r p redictio n s a n d r eplica t e a n d
ex te nd t h e ® n d in gs o f St u d ies 1 , 2, a n d 3. D is ap p o in tm e n t wa s m o re
in t en se aft er exper iencin g th e ab s en ce of a pos it ive outco m e t h a n a fter
ex pe ri en cin g t h e p re se nce o f a n eg at ive ou t co m e. M o r eo ve r, d is ap p o in t -
m en t w as m o r e in te n se th a n sad n e ss, a n ge r, fr u st ra t io n , a n d r e gre t a ft er
ex pe ri en cin g t h e ab s enc e o f a p o sit ive ou t c om e.
144 van DIJK, ZEELENBE RG, van der PL IGT
TABLE 5
Mean Inte nsity Ratings per Condition for Each of the F ive Emotions
(Study 4)
Em ot ions
Outcome Disappointment Sadness Anger Frustration Regret
PA 4.7 5
a(a )
1.35
d( a )
1.40
d(a )
2.25
c(a )
3.10
b(a )
N P 3.4 0
a(b )
1.70
c(a )
1.6 5
c(a )
2.60
a, b (a )
1.95
b, c(a )
Not e: PA , po s it ive ab se nc e; N P, n eg at ive p r esen c e. A h igh er s cor e in d ica te s
a h igh er in t en si ty o f t he e m ot io n . M e ans wit hi n t h e sa m e ro w n o t sh a r in g a
co m m on ® rst s up er sc ri pt d if fer sig n i® ca n tly (P< .00 5) . M ea n s w ith in t h e s am e
co lu m n n ot s h ar in g a co m m on seco n d ( be tw een p a re nt h ese s) su pe rs cr ip t dif fer
sig ni® can t ly (P< .05).
14
Th is co uld a ls o ac co u n t fo r t h e r ela t ive h igh d isa p po in t m en t r a tin g s in t h e N P co nd it io n
of St udy 3.
GENERAL DISCUSSION
In t h e p r ese nt p a pe r we d is ti ng u ish ed b et we en tw o t yp es o f n e gat ive o u t-
co m es, th e ab s en ce of a p o sitive o u t come and t h e p r esence of a n egative
outco m e. I t is a r gu ed that disap p o in t m e nt , b eca u se of it s c lo se lin k wit h
h o pe, de s ire, a n d p ro m is e, is m o r e ca u se d b y t h e fo r m er t yp e o f o u tc o m e
tha n the lat t er. Mo reover, disa p p o intm en t can b e dist in gu ished o n t h e ba sis
of typ e o f n eg at ive o u t co me fr om r elate d emo tions, suc h a s sadne ss, anger,
fr u st ra t io n , a n d re gr et . D is ap p o in tm e nt i s ca u se d m o r e b y t h e ab s en ce o f a
p o sit ive o u t co m e th a n t h ese o t h er em o ti on s. R e su lt s o f fo u r st u di es u si ng
diffe re nt m et h o d o logies p ro vide con vergen t support fo r these p red iction s.
T he se re su lt s al so s up p o r t t he e xpl ic it di st in ct io n b e tw een b e ing
d isp le as ed ab o u t t he d is co n® r m a t io n of t h e p r os pe ct o f a d e sir ab le eve nt
(i. e. d is ap p o in tm e n t) a n d b ein g d isp le ase d a bo u t t h e c o n® r m a tio n o f t h e
pro spect of a u n d es ir able event ( i.e. fear s-con ® r m ed) ma d e by O r to ny et a l.
(1988).
T he d e® n it io n s o f d isa p p oi nt m e nt d es cri b ed e a rli er in t h is p a pe r s ug ges t
tha t d isappoin t m ent is pr ima rily exp erien ced in a situation in which so m e-
thin g p o sitive wa s exp ected but d id n o t occur. This se em s c lo se ly lin ked
wi th h o p e, d es ire, a n d p r om is e. I t s ho u ld b e n ot ed , h ow eve r, t ha t , a lt h ou g h
exp e cta t io n s, h o p e, d e sir e, a n d p r om is e a r e re la te d, t h ey a r e n ot syn o ny -
m o us. F or e xa m p le, o n e m a y ho p e for so m et hi ng w ith o u t ex pe ct in g i t to
h ap p en . I n o u r vie w d is ap p o in tm e nt i s t h e r e su lt o f e xp ec ta tio n s t ha t w er e
u n ful ® lled , a n d w ere in it ia lly d e sir ed o r h o p ed fo r. A s Sh a n d (1 914 , p. 48 7)
st at e d ``D is ap p o in t me nt . . . i m pl ies t ha t w e h a ve h it h er t o b ee n h o pe fu l o f
t he i ssu e, if n o t co n® d en t’ ’ .
Altho ugh d isappoin tm ent was th e main emotion under invest igat ion, we
a lso in ve st iga te d t h e re la tio n b e tw ee n sa d n es s, a ng er, f ru st r a tio n , a n d
re gr et a n d t yp e o f n e gat ive o u t co m e. T h is en a ble d u s to c om p a r e o u r
re su lt s c on c ern in g t hi s r el at io n wit h t h e p r ed ict io n s o f seve ra l em o tio n
re se ar ch er s. A c co rd in g t o m a ny t h eo r ist s, s a dn e ss i s m o r e o ft en a sso ci at ed
wi th t he ab se nc e o f a p o sit ive o u t co m e, w he rea s a n ge r, fr u st ra t io n , a n d
re gr et a r e m o re o ft en a ss oc iat e d w ith b ot h t yp e s o f n e ga tiv e o u t co m es
(F r ijda, 1986; H iggins, 198 9; R o sem a n , 1984; Rosem a n et al., 1990,
199 6). I n o u r st u d ies we fo u nd t h a t a ng er, fr u st r at io n , a nd r eg ret a r e
assoc iated wit h b o t h t ypes of negative ou t c omes. Co ncern ing sad n ess we
did n o t ® n d evid enc e th at t his emot ion is str o n gly associa ted w it h t h e
ab sen ce of so m et h in g p o s it ive. A possible explan ation fo r t he la ck of a
st ro n g r e lat io n b et we en sa d ne ss a n d th e ab se nc e o f a p o sit ive ou t c om e
co u ld b e a p ro ce ss o f p syc ho lo gi ca l ``r ep a ck a gin g’ ’ .
15
P eo p le ca n t r a ns for m
an a p p r a isa l of the ab sen ce of posit ive o u t come in t o a n ap p r a isal of the
DISAPPOINTMENT AND TYPE OF NEGATIVE OUTCOME 145
15
We t h an k a n a n on ym o u s r eview er fo r br in g in g t h is p o ssib ilit y t o o ur a tt en t io n .
presence o f a n ega tive o u t come. F o r examp le, o ne could feel sad becau s e o f
the dea t h o f a loved o n e. D epe ndin g on o n e’s fo c us, th is exp e rien ce co u ld
be app raised a s t h e a b se nce of so m e thing p o sitive (e.g. when t he focu s is on
the ab sen ce of a lo ved o n e ) o r as th e p rese nc e of a n egative outco m e (e.g.
wh en t h e fo cus is o n t h e p resence of d eat h ). T he focu s o n eith er the ab se nce
o f a p o sit ive o u t co m e o r t h e p r es en ce o f a n e gat ive o ut c om e m ay c h an g e in
tim e. Th e result o f th ese different fo c uses co u ld h elp to exp la in why
sa d n ess, in o u r st u d ie s, wa s n o t a ssociat ed with o n e t ype of n egative
o u tc om e. Pe rh a p s fu r t he r r e ® n e me n ts i n th e m e as u re me n t o f a p p ra i sal s
co u ld h elp t o cla r ify this issue. Th e results o f the pre sent stu dies, h o wever,
im p ly t h a t d isa p p oi nt m e nt is l es s a ffe ct ed by t he p ro ce ss o f p sy ch ol ogi ca l
``r ep a ck a gin g’ ’ . In o u r fo ur s tu d ies di sa pp o in t m en t wa s c lea rl y a s so cia t ed
with o n e t ype of negat ive outc om e, t h at is, the a b sen ce o f a positive
o u tc om e.
U nti l rec ent ly ve ry lit tle e mo tio n r esear ch h as fo cused o n disa pp oin t-
m en t . H o we ver, in t he ® eld o f de c isio n m a k in g d isa p po in t m en t i s
co n sider ed t o b e an im po rtant em o t io n . D e cisio n r es ea rch er s (e.g . Bell,
1985; L o o m e s & S ugd en, 1986) h ave st resse d t h e n o t io n t h a t d ecision
m a ke rs a n tic ip at e d isa pp o in t m en t a n d t ak e i t in t o a cc ou n t wh en m a k in g
d ec isio ns. I f p eo p le d o a n t icip a te di sa pp o in t m en t , r es ea rc h o n d is ap p o in t-
m en t co ul d b e h e lpf ul in u n d er st a nd in g h o w t h is e mo t io n a ff ec ts d ec isio n
proc es se s. For in st a n ce, th e fa ct t h a t d isap p ointm en t is pr im arily asso -
cia t ed with the absenc e of po s it ive o utco m e s, toget h e r with p eo p le’s
tend en c y to avo id d is appoin t m ent , co u ld h elp to exp la in why peo ple
tend to be c a u t io u s in th eir de cision m a k in g when d ealin g with posit ive
outco m es. K a h n eman and Tver sky (1982), for ins tance, showed th a t
peo p le a r e gen era lly risk -avers e and t hat t h is te nd en cy is st r on ger in
the domain of ga in s (wh er e t yp e o f n e ga t ive o u tco m e is t h e absence of
so m eth in g p o sitive) t h a n in t h e d o m a in o f los se s. On e r eason fo r this
t en d en cy co u ld b e t ha t t a k in g ris k s i n t he d o m a in o f ga in s is a sso ci at ed
wi th m or e a n t icip a te d d isa p p oi n tm en t . T h is i n cre a sed an t ic ipa t io n o f
d isa p po i nt m en t c ou ld m a k e p e op le m o r e ris k -ave rs e. W h en p eo p le a re
risk -avers e they a r e like ly t o get wh a t th ey expect a n d therefo r e d o not
r un th e r isk o f b ec om in g d isa p p o in te d.
H o weve r, disapp o intmen t is not o nly an u n p le asa n t emotion t h at is
a n ti cip at e d o r a voi de d. T he e xp er ien ce o f d isa p p oin t m en t co u ld a ls o
have a br ight sid e. Sh a n d (1914, p. 489) stre ss ed the useful functio n o f
disap p o in t m e nt in d esire: ``D is a ppoint m ent , in it s after -e ffe ct on desire,
alwa ys t e nds to count e ract th e excesses o f h o p e, t o evoke anx io u s q u es-
tio n in gs, t o suppre ss all co n® den ce th at is not we ll-foun d ed; so fa r as it is
ch ecked a n d ba lanced b y hope itself . O r as Stanley (cited in Shand, 191 4,
p. 4 88) s ta t ed , ``D is ap p o in t me n t t u rn s lif e fr om f a lse d re a m s t o s te rn
re alit ie s: I t pro m p ts a n inves tiga tio n o f cau s es a n d a r ouses co gn ition to a
146 van DIJK, ZEELENBE RG, van der PL IGT
full u n d ers tandin g o f t h e situ a t io n . H o pe th ereby, be com es m o re rational
and realisa b le.
M a n us crip t r ec eived 1 8 Ju ly 199 7
R evis ed m an u scr ip t r ece ived 19 Ju ly 1 998
REFERENCES
Ar n o ld , M . B. (19 60) . Emotion and personality. N ew Yor k : C o lu mb i a.
Bell , D. E . (19 82) . Re gr et in d ec isio n m a k in g un d er u n cer t a in ty.Operations Research,30,
961±981.
Be ll , D .E . ( 1 98 5). D is ap p o in t m e n t in d eci si on m a k in g u n d er un c er t a in t y. Operations
Res earch ,33, 1±27.
F rij da , N .H . (19 86) . The e mo ti ons, C a m b r id ge, U K : C a m b ri dg e U n iver s it y P re ss.
F rij da , N . H . (19 93) . T he p la ce o f ap p r ais a l in e mo t io n . C og nit io n and Em ot ion,7, 357±387.
H ig gins, E . T. ( 198 9). S elf -d iscr ep a nc y t h eo r y: w h at p at t er ns o f s elf -beli ef ca u se p eo p le to
suffer? Ad vances in Expe rimental S ocial P sychology,22, 93 ±136.
In m a n , J.J., D yer, J.S ., & J ia , J. (1997). A gen e ra liz ed ut ilit y m o d el o f disa pp o in t m en t a n d
re gr et e ffe ct s o n p o st -c ho ice va lu a tio n . M arketing Science,16, 97±11 1.
K a h nem a n , D ., & T ver sk y, A . (198 2) . T h e p sy cho lo gy o f p r ef eren ce s.Scienti® c American,
246, 136±14 2.
Le vin e, L . J. ( 1996 ). T h e a n at o my o f d isa p p oin t m en t : A n at u ra list ic t est o f a pp r ai sa l m od e ls
of sa dness, a n ger, a n d h o p e. Cognition and Emotion,10 , 337±359.
Lo o m es, G . , & Su gd en , R . (19 82) R eg r et T h eo r y: A n a lt e rn a t ive t h eo ry o f r at io n a l ch o ice
un d er u n cer t a in ty.Economic Journal,92, 805±824.
Lo o m es, G ., & S u gd en , R . (19 84) . T he im p or t a nc e o f wh at m igh t h ave b een . I n O . H a gen a n d
F. Wen str op (Ed s.), Progress in uti lity and risk t heory ( pp. 219 ±235) . D o r dr ec ht : D . R eid el.
Lo o m es, G ., & Su gd en , R . ( 198 6). D is a p po in t m en t a n d dyn a m ic in co n si st en cy in ch o ice
un d er u n cer t a in ty.Review of Economic St udi es,53 , 271±282.
M o wre r, O. H . ( 1960) . Learning theory and behavior. N ew Yor k : W iley.
Or t o ny, A ., C l or e, G .L . , & C ol lin s, A . (19 88) . The cognitive structure of emotions. N e w York :
C am b r id ge U n iver sit y Pr es s.
Pa rk in so n, B. , & M a n ste ad , A .S.R . ( 1992) . A pp ra isa l a s a c au se o f em o tio n. In M . S. C lar k
(E d.), Review of personali ty and so cia l ps ycho log y ( Vo l. 13 , p p. 1 22±149) . N ew bu ry P ar k,
CA: Sa ge.
Ro se ma n , I. J. (19 84). C o gn it ive d e te rm i na n t s o f em o t io ns : A st r uc tu r a l t he o ry. I n P. Sh ave r
(E d.), Review of personality and social psychology ( Vol, 5 , p p. 11±36 ). B ever ly H ills, C A:
Sa ge.
Ro se ma n , I. J. (19 91) . Ap p ra is a l d et er m in an t s o f d iscr et e em o tio n s.Co gni tio n and E mo ti on,5,
161±200.
Ro se ma n , I. J., A nt o n io u, A .A . , & Jo se, P.E . ( 199 6). A p p ra is al d ete r min a n t s o f em o tio n s:
C on st r uc ti ng a mo r e ac cu r at e an d com p r eh en sive t h eo r y. Cogni ti on an d Em ot ion,10,
241±277.
Ro sem a n, I.J., Spind el, M .S ., & Jo se, P.E . ( 199 0) . App r a isa l of em ot i o n- elicit in g eve n ts :
Tes tin g a t heo r y o f d iscr e te e m ot io n s. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology,59,
899±915.
Sch er er, K . R . (1 984 ). E m ot io n a s a m ult i- co m p on e nt p r oc ess. In P. Sh ave r (E d .) , R evie w of
personality and social psychology: Vol: 5. Emotions, relationships, and health ( pp. 37±63).
N ew bu ry Pa r k, C A: S a ge.
DISAPPOINTMENT AND TYPE OF NEGATIVE OUTCOME 147
Sc herer, K .R . (1993). St u dyi ng t h e em ot io n -a n teced ent a p pra isa l p ro ce ss: An e xp er t syst e m
ap p ro a ch .C ogn iti on and Emot ion,7, 325±355.
Sh a nd, A . F. (1914). The foundations of character. L o n d on : M a cm illa n .
Sh ep p er d , J.A ., O ue llet t e, J.A ., & F er n a n d ez, J.K . (1 996 ). A ba nd o n in g u n re al ist ic o p tim ism :
Pe rfo r m a n ce es tim at es a n d th e t em p o ra l p r o xim it y of s elf -re leva n t feed b a ck .Journal of
Person al ity and S oci al Psy chology,70 , 844±855.
Sm it h , C. A ., & E llswo r th , P.C . (1 985) . Pat ter ns o f co gn it ive a p p ra is al in em o t io n .Journal of
Person al ity and S oci al Psy chology,48 , 813±838.
Sm it h , C .A . & E llswort h , P.C . (1987). P a t te rn s o f app r a isa l a n d emo t io n r ela t ed t o ta k in g a n
exa m .Jou rnal of Person ality and Social Ps ychol ogy,52 , 47 5±488.
va n D ijk , W. W., & van d er P ligt , J. (19 97) . T he im p act o f pr ob a bilit y an d m a gn it ud e of
o ut co m e on d is ap p o in t me n t a n d e lat io n .Organizational Behavior and Human Decision
Pro ces ses,69 , 277±284.
va n D ijk , W.W., va n d er P lig t, J., & Zeelenberg, M. (199 8a ). E ffo rt inves te d in vain: The
impact of effort on the intensity of disappointment and regret. M a nu sc ri pt su b m it te d fo r
pub licat io n .
va n D ijk , W.W., va n d er P ligt , J., & Z eelen b e rg , M . ( 199 8b ) . Investigating the apprai sal
patterns of outcome-related and person-related disappointment. M a n u scr ip t s u bm it t ed fo r
pub licat io n .
Webster’s Third New International Dictionary (3rd ed .). ( 1981 ). Sp rin g® e ld, M A : M er ria m -
Webster.
Wein e r, B. , Ru s sel, D ., & Le rm a n , D . (19 79) . Th e co gn it io n -em o t io n p r oc ess in a ch iev em en t -
re lat ed c ont ext s.Journal of Personality and Social P sychology,37 , 121 1±1220.
Z eelen b er g, M . , & Bea t t ie, J. (1 997 ). C on s eq ue nc es o f r egr et aver sio n : 2 . A dd it io n a l ev ide n ce
for effects of fee db a ck o n decision ma k in g. O rgani zat iona l B ehav ior a nd H um an D eci sio n
Pro ces ses,72 , 63±78.
Z eelen b er g, M ., B ea tt ie, J., v an d er P ligt , J., & d e Vr ies, N . K . (1 996) . Co n se qu en ce s of r egr et
aver sio n : E ff ect s o f e xp ect ed f eed b ac k o n ri sk y d ecisi on ma k in g. Organizational Behavior
and Human Decision Processes,65, 148±158.
Z eelen b erg, M ., v an D ijk , W.W., M a n ste ad , A .S.R . , & v an de r P ligt , J. (1 998a ). T he e xper ien ce
o f r egr et a n d di sa pp o in t m en t. C ognition and Emotion,12, 2 21±230.
Z eelen b er g, M . , va n D ijk , W.W., va n d er P ligt , J., M a n st ea d , A .S. R ., va n E m p elen , P., &
Rein d er man , D . ( 1998b ). E m o t io n al r ea ctio n s t o t h e o ut com es of d ecisio n s: T h e role o f
co u n te rf ac tu a l t h o u gh t in t he ex pe ri en ce o f re gr et a n d di sa pp o in t m en t. O rganizational
Behavior and H uman D ecision Processes,75, 117±141.
148 van DIJK, ZEELENBE RG, van der PL IGT
... Benign envy results from enviers' evaluation that they failed to reach a desired outcome (Lange et al., 2018;Van de Ven et al., 2012). This appraisal also leads to disappointment (Van Dijk et al., 1999). Disappointment is part of the basic sadness emotion family (e.g., Shaver et al., 1987) and, correspondingly, shares a facial expression with it (e.g., Ekman, 1993;Niewiadomski & Pelachaud, 2007;Van Doorn et al., 2012). ...
... In envy situations, enviers' disappointment or anger could reveal information about the envier's desires to observers. Given that disappointment is associated with a missed positive outcome (Van Dijk et al., 1999; here the envied person's advantage), observers may infer that the (benign) envier desires the advantage. Conversely, given that anger is associated with blaming others (Ellsworth & Scherer, 2003; here the envied person) for an unfair situation, observers may infer that the (malicious) envier wants to harm the envied person. ...
... Indeed, both emotional displays (e.g., Hareli & Hess, 2010) and attention allocation (e.g., Frischen et al., 2007) may independently tell observers something about the targets motivational orientation. For instance, if observers infer from a display of disappointment that a target failed to reach a desired outcome (Van Dijk et al., 1999), then observing such a display when a target encounters an advantaged other may suffice to foster inferences of benign envy. Moreover, turning toward the advantage may imply to the observer that the target will focus any future motivation on getting the advantage, again fostering inferences of benign envy independent of the emotional display. ...
Article
Full-text available
Envy shapes social hierarchies. To protect their rank, envied persons react to the threat posed by enviers. Doing so requires that envied persons initially perceive who envies them. However, a common perspective is that envy lacks a unique expression and that enviers disguise their experience, preventing the social perception of envy. In contrast to this perspective, recent evidence indicates that observers perceive benign and malicious forms of envy accurately when they can integrate information about targets. These findings suggest that observers infer envy based on multiple, contextual cues. We hypothesized that observers infer envy from facial and bodily expressions in comparison situations. Specifically, observers should infer benign envy when a target, who encounters an advantaged person, turns with disappointment toward the advantage. Conversely, observers should infer malicious envy when the target turns with anger toward the advantaged person. Three preregistered studies tested these hypotheses (total N = 693). In Studies 1 and 2, targets turned with an emotional or neutral expression either toward a person silhouette or a valuable object, and participants rated targets' envy. In Study 3, participants performed the same task with more realistic stimuli. Across studies, emotional display and head turning had independent effects on inferences of benign and malicious envy. Furthermore, observers inferred envy more when the target expressed an emotion instead of remaining neutral. We discuss how the results inform research on the social perception of envy. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2022 APA, all rights reserved).
... Interestingly, none of the two empirically relevant recipes explaining avoidance entails customer's negative emotions. This is unsurprising (Higgins, 1989;Van Dijk et al., 1999). The absence of negative emotions from the recipes explaining avoidance intentions shows that not having the positive emotions the customer expected is enough to explain avoidance (Van Dijk et al., 1999). ...
... This is unsurprising (Higgins, 1989;Van Dijk et al., 1999). The absence of negative emotions from the recipes explaining avoidance intentions shows that not having the positive emotions the customer expected is enough to explain avoidance (Van Dijk et al., 1999). These results provide evidence in support of both RP1 (a) and (b). ...
Article
The critical role of built environment (servicescape) on customers' psychological and behavioral responses has been extensively documented in tourism and hospitality. Researchers, however, have relied on a variety of ways to operationalize the servicescape effects on customers' responses, none of which accounts for the subjectivity governing how customers perceive and interact with the servicescape. Through a qualitative and a quantitative study across full-service restaurants, this study demonstrates that customers perceive servicescape components in configurations rather than in isolation, ad hoc groups, or holistically. Moreover, contrary to what past research has declared, customers' future behavioral responses (i.e., approach/avoidance) emerge not in a sequential/linear mode but rather through a complex/combinatory process. On the basis of these findings, the study showcases a set of methods and analytical techniques for helping researchers and practitioners gauge customer-generated servicescape configurations and identify the complex pathways through which such configurations shape customers’ behavioral intentions.
... The precise mapping of appraisals to emotions varies across people and cultures, but there are some consistent tendencies [18][19][20] . For example, disappointment arises when an outcome is less good than expected, and anger arises when a person thinks they have been treated unfairly 21,22 . ...
... Whilst biology undoubtedly plays a part in the emotion process (Parkinson 2012), other researchers emphasise that emotions are deeply immersed in cognitive processes. From this perspective, emotions are not best understood as ANS responses, facial expressions, or behavioural responses, but as a cognitive understanding of what the emotion episode means (van Dijk et al. 1999). Shame, for instance, is not activated by subcortical brain structures, but by cognitive evaluation of a situation as shameful (Tangney & Dearing 2002). ...
Thesis
This thesis represents the first extended attempt by an archaeologist to construct an evolutionary theory of emotion. The handful of attempts that have appeared since the 1990s have failed to gain any real traction with archaeologists caught in a theoretical deadlock over the way in which an ‘archaeology of emotion’ should be approached. This thesis will attempt to break the deadlock by reframing the debate around a ‘deep history of emotion’. It will be argued that it is only through a comprehensive longue durée approach that emotion can be understood in a prehistoric context. This requires the construction of a theory that can explain both the early biological origins of emotion and the later cultural constructions that characterize modern human societies. This will be achieved through an appraisal of the interdisciplinary literature on emotion in search of a definition of emotion amendable for the archaeological enterprise. It is argued that rather than seeking discrete emotions directly, archaeologists should focus on the process by which emotional experiences are psychologically constructed and the cognitive traits that combine to produce complex emotional experience. Child development will be proposed as a starting point to understand how emotions are constructed from more basic cognitive ingredients. Ultimately, three hypothetical mindstates will be proposed as heuristics through which hominin emotional capacities may be approached. Archaeological evidence for life history patterns and the cognitive ingredients of emotion will be used to anchor these mindstates in the past, providing predictions for the emotional vocabulary of hominins and possible new ways to interpret behaviour and material culture. This thesis demonstrates that archaeologists can consider the emotional abilities of ancestral hominin by using innovative theoretical methods. An approach of this sort can provide new ways of looking at old data with the objective of expanding our appreciation of the decision-making processes that inform action.
Article
Democratic societies have to face the challenge of increasing affective polarisation - a strong, emotionally fuelled, opposition between adherents of different political parties, or conflicting views and attitudes in different social groups. Social and psychological sciences can contribute to a better understanding of this phenomenon and the special role of emotion theory and research in this respect. In their invited contribution, Bakker and Lelkes note the lack of conceptual precision of the term affective and invite emotion scientists to fill this notion with a theoretical structure that encourages systematic research across different problem areas and cultures. Two invited comments on this article support this initiative but favour an approach that privileges discrete emotions. In his comment, Von Scheve argues that intentionality and the associated action tendencies are essential to understand the emotional basis of polarisation. Halperin et al., based on a conceptual analysis and their own empirical research, they highlight the multi-faceted emotion of disappointment, covering both negative and positive aspects, as the most promising candidate. Finally, I consider the potential role of mixed or blended emotions as well as the potential contributions of appraisal theory, especially with respect to appraisal bias and ensuing emotion dispositions and action tendencies.
Article
Negative consumer emotions increasingly attract the attention of brand researchers and managers. Especially in today’s digital world, these emotions can cause considerable damage to a brand through widespread communication. A growing body of brand research has recently investigated negative emotions. However, most studies focus on brand hate, while other negative emotions receive less attention. Based on five studies, this article provides comprehensive empirical findings on negative brand emotions. Study 0 identifies seven negative emotions that are particularly common in the context of brands. Study 1 maps the perceived (dis)similarities between the seven emotions. Study 2 defines them with regard to their nature. Study 3 provides a profile for all seven emotions based on key characteristics (intensity, duration, control, activity, physical effort, and mental effort). Study 4 analyzes the correlations of the seven emotions with behavioral outcomes (negative word-of-mouth, online complaining, complaining, brand switching, brand avoidance, and revenge).
Article
Purpose The purpose of this paper is to explore the role of emotions that consumers experience following service failures and to assess the effects of each of these emotions on important behavioral outcomes. Design/methodology/approach This paper extends the work of Wetzer et al. (2007) and draws upon the existing literature to test a series of research hypotheses tying emotions to four important behavioral outcomes primarily using stepwise regression. Findings When a service failure occurs, customers experience any of a variety of negative emotions. The effect on behavioral outcomes depends on the specific emotion experienced by the consumer. The current research, which benefits by using retrospective experience sampling, finds that frustration is the predominant emotion experienced by customers following service failure, but that anger, regret and frustration affect behavioral outcomes. Uncertainty also plays a role. Research limitations/implications Future research should investigate the antecedents of propensity for emotions and predisposition toward industries, as well as the consequences of word-of-mouth (WOM) praise and WOM activity. Additionally, emotions could be examined by service stage. Several other moderators could be investigated, including severity, complaining behavior, repeat occurrence, service importance, remedies and forgiveness, product vs process failures, tenure, gender and age. Practical implications The current research emphasizes the importance of understanding which emotion is being experienced by a customer following service failure to identify the behavioral outcomes that will be most impacted. The specific managerial implications depend upon the specific emotional response experienced by the customer and are discussed separately for anger, regret and frustration. Service personnel must be trained to recognize and address specific customer emotions rather than to provide a canned or generalized response. Originality/value To date, there has been little, if any, systematic research into the effects of multiple discrete negative emotions on multiple desirable behavioral outcomes. The current study examines six discrete emotions. Predominant emotions are differentiated from emotional intensity. The behavioral outcomes of reconciliation and reduced share-of-wallet are added to the traditional outcomes of repatronage intentions and negative WOM. While existing research tends to rely on a scenario approach, this study uses the retrospective experience sampling method. The authors distinguish between mixed emotions and multiple emotions. The relative effects of disappointment and regret are examined for each of the four outcomes. Finally, importance-performance map analysis was applied to the findings to prioritize managerial attention. Numerous managerial and research implications are identified.
Article
Full-text available
Recent research has suggested strong relations between characteristic patterns of appraisal along emotionally relevant dimensions and the experience of specific emotions. However, this work has relied primarily upon ratings of remembered or imagined past events associated with the experience of relatively pure emotions. The present investigation is an attempt to examine cognitive appraisals and emotions during an emotional event in which subjects experience complex emotional blends. Subjects described both their cognitive appraisals and their emotional states just before taking a college midterm examination and, again, immediately after receiving their grades on the exam. Analysis of the ratings revealed that at both times the majority of subjects who felt emotion experienced complex blends of two or more emotions. Correlation and regression analyses indicated that even in the context of these blends, patterns of appraisal, highly similar to those discovered in our earlier research on remembered emotions (Smith & Ellsworth, 1985), characterized the experience of emotions as they were actually felt.
Article
Full-text available
In order to move toward a more accurate, complete, and integrative theory of the causes of emotions, empirical evidence relevant to a recently proposed appraisal theory was examined, and hypotheses from several alternative appraisal theories were compared and tested. Given questions that focused on the cognitive causes of emotions rather than their phenomenological contents, 182 subjects rated the appraisal determinants of emotion experiences that they recalled. Results suggest that appraisals of unexpectedness (not unexpected/unexpected), situational state (motive-inconsistent/motiveconsistent), motivational state (aversive/appetitive), probability (uncertain/ certain), control potential (low/high), problem source (non-characterological/characterological factors), and agency (circumstances/other person/self), differentiate a large number of widely-discussed emotions. These results are used to formulate a revised, empirically grounded, and more comprehensive model that specifies which appraisals cause 17 different emotions.
Chapter
Expected utility theory is often presented as a normative theory, resting on a few simple axioms that no reasonable person would wish to violate. Arrow (1972, p.21), for example, describes one version of these axioms as ‘a set of assumptions designed to characterise reasonable behaviour under conditions of uncertainty’ he describes particular axioms in such terms as ‘a hallmark of rationality’ (p. 22) and ‘highly acceptable’ (p.24). The claim that these axioms have a special normative status is sometimes used as a second line of defence for expected utility theory in cases where that theory does not predict observed behaviour well. It can be suggested that when people act contrary to the theory, they do so in error. As Morgenstern (1979, p. 180) puts it, ‘if people deviate from the theory, an explanation of the theory and of their deviation will cause them to readjust their behaviour’. Even some of the proponents of alternative positive theories seem to have been prepared to accept some of the normative claims made on behalf of expected utility theory. Kahneman and Tversky (1979, p. 277), for example, regard the behaviour that their theory predicts as #x2018;normatively unacceptable’, and Machina (1982, p. 277) notes the ‘normative appeal’ of expected utility theory before presenting his own theory.
Article
1. Introduction The study of emotion Types of evidence for theories of emotion Some goals for a cognitive theory of emotion 2. Structure of the theory The organisation of emotion types Basic emotions Some implications of the emotions-as-valenced-reactions claim 3. The cognitive psychology of appraisal The appraisal structure Central intensity variables 4. The intensity of emotions Global variables Local variables Variable-values, variable-weights, and emotion thresholds 5. Reactions to events: I. The well-being emotions Loss emotions and fine-grained analyses The fortunes-of-others emotions Self-pity and related states 6. Reactions to events: II. The prospect-based emotions Shock and pleasant surprise Some interrelationships between prospect-based emotions Suspense, resignation, hopelessness, and other related states 7. Reactions to agents The attribution emotions Gratitude, anger, and some other compound emotions 8. Reactions to objects The attraction emotions Fine-grained analyses and emotion sequences 9. The boundaries of the theory Emotion words and cross-cultural issues Emotion experiences and unconscious emotions Coping and the function of emotions Computational tractability.
Article
This study explores the implications of dissapointment, a psychological reaction caused by comparing the actual outcome of a lottery to one's prior expectations, for decision making under uncertainty. Explicit recognition that decision makers may be paying a premium to avoid potential disappointment provides an interpretation for some known behavioral paradoxes, and suggests that decision makers may be sensitive to the manner in which a lottery is resolved. The concept of disappointment is integrated into utility theory in a prescriptive model.
Article
A theory specifying how appraisals of a situation determine one's emotional responses (Roseman, 1979) was subjected to an experimental test. According to the theory, particular combinations of 5 appraisals determine which of 13 qualitatively different emotions will be experienced in any given situation. The appraisals are: motivational state (rewarding/punishing), situational state (presendabsent), probability (certaiduncertain), legitimacy (positivehegative outcome deserved), and causal agency (circumstanced other person/self). The emotions whose occurrence they determine are joy, relief, hope, liking (“warmth-friendliness”), pride, distress, sorrow, fear, frustration, disliking (“coolness-unfriendliness”), anger, regret, and guilt. In the experiment, 120 college students read brief stories in which these appraisals were manipulated, and rated the intensities of various emotions felt by story protagonists. Results showed that each appraisal had a significant effect upon emotions, and that the particular combinations of appraisals specified by the theory predict the relative intensities of particular emotions, across a wide variety of situations. Theoretical predictions were more clearly supported for appraisals of motivational state, situational state and probability than for appraisals of legitimacy and agency. Results provide significant support for the theory, and suggest that it be subjected to further testing and development. Possible modifications in the theory are also discussed.
Article
EVIDENCE EXISTS THAT PEOPLE DO NOT ALWAYS MAKE DECISIONS INVOLVING UNCERTAIN MONETARY REWARDS AS IF THEY WERE MAXIMIZING EXPECTED UTILITY OF FINAL ASSETS. EXPLANATIONS FOR THIS BEHAVIOR POSTULATE THAT THE COGNITIVE DEMANDS OF CONSISTENCY TO SUCH A THEORY ARE TOO GREAT. HOWEVER, SITUATIONS EXIST IN WHICH MORE THAN MENTAL SHORTCUTS ARE INVOLVED AND THESE ANOMALIES RAISE EQUATIONS ABOUT EXPECTED UTILITY THEORY AS A GUIDE TO BEHAVIOR. THIS STUDY EXPLORES THE POSSIBILITY THAT EXPECTED UTILITY THEORY APPEARS TO FAIL BECAUSE THE SINGLE OUTCOME DESCRIPTOR - MONEY - IS NOT SUFFICIENT. AFTER MAKING A DECISION UNDER UNCERTAINTY, A PERSON MAY DISCOVER, ON LEARNING THE RELEVANT OUTCOMES, THAT ANOTHER ALTERNATIVE WOULD HAVEBEEN PREFERABLE. THIS KNOWLEDGE MAY IMPART A SENSE OF LOSS,OR REGRET. THE DECISION MAKER WHO IS PREPARED TO TRADEOFF FINANCIAL RETURN IN ORDER TO AVOID REGRET WILL EXHIBIT SOME OF THE BEHAVIORAL PARADOXES OF DECISION THEORY.
Article
The basic premise of self-discrepancy theory is that it is the relations between and among different types of self-beliefs or self-state representations that produce emotional vulnerabilities rather than the particular content or nature of the actual self or of any other individual self-belief. To distinguish among different types of self-state representations, self-discrepancy theory proposes two psychological parameters: the domains of the self and the standpoints on the self. The chapter presents the reports of associations between particular types of discrepant self-beliefs and particular kinds of discomfort that are generally consistent with the predictions of self-discrepancy theory. However, the effect of the magnitude of different types of self-discrepancies on the intensity of different kinds of discomfort has been tested. For the vulnerability associated with a particular self-belief pattern to eventuate in an episode—that is, an occurrence of suffering—the self-belief pattern must be activated. The chapter explains the various factors that can increase the likelihood that a stored construct will be activated. One source of activation is the applicability of the construct to a stimulus event. According to self-discrepancy theory, the interrelations among attributes constituting an actual/ownself-guide discrepancy represent, as a whole, a negative psychological situation that functions as a construct. Thus, the negative psychological situation represented by such a discrepancy and the emotional-motivational state associated with it are more likely to be activated when the negative psychological situation is applicable to a stimulus event than when it is nonapplicable.
Article
Presents examples in which a decision, preference, or emotional reaction is controlled by factors that may appear irrelevant to the choice made. The difficulty people have in maintaining a comprehensive view of consequences and their susceptibility to the vagaries of framing illustrate impediments to rational decision making. However, experimental surveys indicate that such departures from objectivity tend to follow regular patterns that can be described mathematically. The descriptive study of preferences also challenges the theory of rational choice, as it is often unclear whether the effects of decision weights, reference points, framing, and regret should be considered as errors or biases or whether they should be accepted as valid elements of human experience. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Article
The aim of this book is to achieve a high level of synthesis regarding learning theory and behavior. The author attempts to do so by examining both research and conjecture in a broadly historical context, in addition to presenting new experimental findings not available to earlier system makers and theorists. In this way, it is believed, empirical facts and divergent theories become maximally meaningful and most significantly related. The book begins with an introductory chapter that presents a historical review and perspective of the field of learning theory. Chapter 2 examines the law of effect, conditioning, and punishment. Chapter 3 discusses two versions of two-factor learning theory. In the fourth chapter, two conceptions of secondary reinforcement are presented. Chapters 5 and 6 continue the examination of secondary reinforcement with discussions of a unifying theory and reservations and complications. The topics of Chapter 7 are a revised two-factor theory and the concept of habit, followed by Chapter 8 which comparatively examines other theories and some further evidence. Hope, fear, and field theory are the focus of Chapter 9, and Chapter 10 focuses on reinforcement gradients and temporal integration. The book closes with two chapters on unlearning, conflict, frustration, courage, generalization, discrimination, and skill. The basic argument proposed by the author is epitomized in Chapter 7. Earlier chapters provide the logical and factual background from which this argument evolves; and the five subsequent chapters amplify and apply the argument in more specific ways. Thus, the reader who wishes a quick "look" at this volume as a whole may first read the chapter indicated; but the argument will unfold most naturally and persuasively if the chapters are read in the order in which they appear. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)