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Umwege bei der Navigation im Labyrinth
Abstract
Zusammenfassung: Das Navigieren auf Routen und generell die Orientierung im Raum hängen stark von der topographischen Beschaffenheit von Arealen und Routen ab. In sechs Erkundungsexperimenten wird untersucht, welche Umwege Versuchspersonen beim Vorliegen von Hindernissen in geschlossenen Labyrinthen wählen. Sie navigierten per Head Mounted Display und Joystick in virtuellen Labyrinthen mit variabler City-block-Struktur. Die Wahl von Umwegen erweist sich in erster Linie abhängig von konfiguralen Merkmalen alternativer Umwege und von der visuellen Perspektive, unter der sich die Versuchspersonen durch das Labyrinth bewegen. Die Versuchspersonen bevorzugen unter Default-Bedingungen (Fußgängerperspektive, Rechteckstruktur des Areals) weder den kürzesten Weg zur Umgehung des Hindernisses (= Strategie der Minimalumgehung) noch einen direkten Weg zum Ziel (= Zielvektor-Strategie), sondern das “Um-den-Block-Gehen” (= City-block-Strategie). Wir haben geprüft, unter welchen spezifischen Bedingungen diese Präferenz verschwindet. Bei der Verwendung der City-block-Strategie in geschlossenen Labyrinthen vermeidet man unter Default-Bedingungen die unsichere Schätzung schiefer Winkel und nimmt dabei auch relativ längere Wege vom Hindernis zum Ziel in Kauf.
Zusammenfassung. Durch bekannte und fremde Raumkonstellationen zu navigieren, ist ein entscheidender Teil unseres täglichen Lebens. Wir müssen neue Wege suchen und schon bekannte wiederfinden. Entscheidungspunkte als Orte, an denen ein falscher Weg gewählt werden kann, spielen demnach eine wichtige Rolle. Einfluss auf erfolgreiche Navigation haben die Repräsentation und die konfigurale Beschaffenheit von Entscheidungspunkten. Ein Überblick zu Befunden zur neuronalen Repräsentation von Entscheidungspunkten zeigt, dass navigationsrelevante Information im räumlichen Gedächtnis gespeichert und automatisch wieder aktiviert wird. Reaktionszeiten und Augenbewegungen zu schief- und rechtwinkligen Entscheidungspunkten zeigen zum einen besondere Wegfinde-Schwierigkeiten bei schiefwinkligen Kreuzungen und zum anderen, dass auch die Perspektive beim Betreten einer Kreuzung Einfluss auf die Wegfindeleistung hat.
Much effort has been made to understand the role of attention in perception; much less effort has been placed on the role attention plays in the control of action. Our goal in this chapter is to account for the role of attention in action, both when performance is automatic and when it is under deliberate conscious control. We propose a theoretical framework structured around the notion of a set of active schemas, organized according to the particular action sequences of which they are a part, awaiting the appropriate set of conditions so that they can become selected to control action. The analysis is therefore centered around actions, primarily external actions, but the same principles apply to internal actions—actions that involve only the cognitive processing mechanisms. One major emphasis in the study of attentional processes is the distinction between controlled and automatic processing of perceptual inputs (e.g., Shiffrin & Schneider, 1977). Our work here can be seen as complementary to the distinction between controlled and automatic processes: we examine action rather than perception; we emphasize the situations in which deliberate, conscious control of activity is desired rather than those that are automatic.
An analysis of the underlying structure of simple stories is presented. It is claimed that this type of representation of stories is used to form schemata which guide encoding and retrieval. A type of tree structure containing basic units and their connections was found to be adequate to describe the structure of both single and multi-episode stories. The representation is outlined in the form of a grammar, consisting of rewrite rules defining the units and their relationships. Some transformational rules mapping underlying and surface structures are discussed. The adequacy of the analysis is first tested against Bartlett's protocols of “The War of the Ghosts.” Then a developmental study of recall is presented. It is concluded that both children and adults are sensitive to the structure of stories, although some differences were found. Finally, it is suggested that the schemata used to guide encoding and recall are related but not identical and that retrieval is dependent on the schemata operative at the time of recall.
I examine the phenomenon of implicit learning, the process by which knowledge about the rule-governed complexities of the stimulus environment is acquired independently of conscious attempts to do so. Our research with the two seemingly disparate experimental paradigms of synthetic grammar learning and probability learning, is reviewed and integrated with other approaches to the general problem of unconscious cognition. The conclusions reached are as follows: (a) Implicit learning produces a tacit knowledge base that is abstract and representative of the structure of the environment; (b) such knowledge is optimally acquired independently of conscious efforts to learn; and (c) it can be used implicitly to solve problems and make accurate decisions about novel stimulus circumstances. Various epistemological issues and related problems such as intuition, neuroclinical disorders of learning and memory, and the relationship of evolutionary processes to cognitive science are also discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Summary. For an interdisciplinary approach to spatial cognition the research concerning route- and configurational knowledge is of central importance. (See also Bloom et al. 1996; Chown et al. 1995; Habel 1989; Herrmann et al. 1995; Landau & Jackendoff 1993; Schweizer et al. 1998; Taylor & Tversky 1992; Wender & Wagener 1990; Werner et al. 1997). The documented position in the relevant literature for theoretical analysis and definitions of route- and configurational knowledge and its development is unsatisfying. There is no consent determination of what landmarks, routes, cognitive maps, configurational or survey knowledge are and what kinds of discriminating attributes they have. (See Buhl 1996; Cohen 1989; Downs & Stea 1982; Engelkamp 1990; Evans 1980; Freksa & Habel 1990; Moore & Golledge 1976; Siegel & White 1975; Wagener-Wender 1993). With the following conceptual analysis we try to make some proposals for definitions and theoretical considerations. On the one hand we refer to generally accepted fields of application, on the other hand we make novel proposals. Some suppositions still need to be examined and refer to the conditions under which route- and configurational knowledge are developing and especially to the change from route to configurational knowledge. We want to discuss our suggestions to contribute to an improvement of definitions and the terminological situation. Zusammenfassung. Fr die interdisziplinre Erforschung der Raumkognition ist der Problemkomplex des Routen- und berblickswissens von zentraler Bedeutung. (Man vergleiche dazu Bloom et al. 1996; Chown et al. 1995; Habel 1989; Herrmann et al. 1995; Landau & Jackendoff 1993; Schweizer et al. 1998; Taylor & Tversky 1992; Wender & Wagener 1990; Werner et al. 1997.) Der in der einschlgigen Literatur dokumentierte Stand der begrifflich-theoretischen Analyse des Routen- und des berblickswissens und ihrer Entstehung lt jedoch zu wnschen brig. So gibt es so gut wie keine theoretisch zufriedenstellende und bei den beteiligten Forscherinnen und Forschern konsensuelle Bestimmung dessen, was Landmarken, was eine Route, was eine kognitive Karte, was berblickswissen u. dgl. sind bzw. welche diskriminativen Merkmale sie besitzen knnten. (Dazu Buhl 1996; Cohen 1989; Downs & Stea 1982; Engelkamp 1990; Evans 1980; Freksa & Habel 1990; Moore & Golledge 1976; Siegel & White 1975; Wagener-Wender 1993.) Aus der im folgenden versuchten konzeptuellen Analyse ergeben sich einige begrifflich-terminologische Vorschlge und provisorische theoretische Abgrenzungen, mit denen wir zu einem Teil auf eine weithin einvernehmlich akzeptierte Verwendungspraxis zurckgreifen, zum anderen Teil sind unsere Vorschlge aber auch neuartig. Einige Vorschlge betreffen prfungsbedrftige Annahmen zur bedingungsabhngigen Entstehung von Routen- und berblickswissen und speziell zum bergang vom Routen- zum berblickswissen. Wir mchten unsere Vorschlge zur Diskussion stellen, um dazu beizutragen, die begrifflich-terminologische Situation in diesem Problembereich gemeinsam mit anderen zu verbessern.
A theoretical model proposed by the first author (Frank 1980) hypothesizes that timber wolves (Canis lupus) should perform better than dogs (C. familiaris) on problem-solving tasks requiring ‘insight’, such as the detour test devised by Kohler (1927) and adapted by Scott & Fuller (1965) for use with 6-week-old domestic dog pups. Three barrier problems (short barrier, long barrier, and U-barrier) were administered to four 6-week-old Eastern wolf (C. l. lycaon) pups. Post hoc comparisons with results obtained by Scott & Fuller confirm the hypothesis.
The neural basis of navigation by humans was investigated with functional neuroimaging of brain activity during navigation
in a familiar, yet complex virtual reality town. Activation of the right hippocampus was strongly associated with knowing
accurately where places were located and navigating accurately between them. Getting to those places quickly was strongly
associated with activation of the right caudate nucleus. These two right-side brain structures function in the context of
associated activity in right inferior parietal and bilateral medial parietal regions that support egocentric movement through
the virtual town, and activity in other left-side regions (hippocampus, frontal cortex) probably involved in nonspatial aspects
of navigation. These findings outline a network of brain areas that support navigation in humans and link the functions of
these regions to physiological observations in other mammals.
Contends that control theory provides a model of self-regulation that is useful in the analysis of human behavior. As an illustration of the breadth of its applicability, the basic construct of control theory––the discrepancy-reducing feedback loop––is presented, and certain implications for theory in 3 areas of human psychology are discussed. In personality-social, clinical, and health psychology, the construct proves to fit well with known phenomena and with the theories most recently developed to account for the phenomena. Moreover, in each case control theory appears to make a unique contribution to the state of the area. The integrative potential suggested by these illustrations and some issues that should receive attention in future work are noted. (3 p ref)
Blindfolded sighted, adventitiously blind, and congenitally blind subjects performed a set of navigation tasks. The more complex tasks involved spatial inference and included retracing a multisegment route in reverse, returning directly to an origin after being led over linear segments, and pointing to targets after locomotion. As a group, subjects responded systematically to route manipulations in the complex tasks, but performance was poor. Patterns of error and response latency are informative about the internal representation used; in particular, they do not support the hypothesis that only a representation of the origin of locomotion is maintained. The slight performance differences between groups varying in visual experience were neither large nor consistent across tasks. Results provide little indication that spatial competence strongly depends on prior visual experience.
Previous research on spatial memory indicated that memories of small layouts were orientation dependent (orientation specific) but that memories of large layouts were orientation independent (orientation free). Two experiments investigated the relation between layout size and orientation dependency. Participants learned a small or a large 4-point path (Experiment 1) or a large display of objects (Experiment 2) and then made judgments of relative direction from imagined headings that were either the same as or different from the single studied orientation. Judgments were faster and more accurate when the imagined heading was the same as the studied orientation (i.e., aligned) than when the imagined heading differed from the studied orientation (i.e., misaligned). This alignment effect was present for both small and large layouts. These results indicate that location is encoded in an orientation-dependent manner regardless of layout size.
In cross-cultural studies it was noted that "the perception of motion as represented in the rotating trapezoidal window is governed, under optimal conditions, by nativistic determinants or by the unconscious utilization of residual (but not immediately relevant) experience, or both At the same time, object connotation (meaning) based on closely relevant cultural experience helps to determine the nature of the perceived movement under marginal conditions." 24 references.
Chimpanzees master bent-wire detour problems more rapidly than do rhesus monkeys. Adult chimpanzees were superior to juveniles.
The Rabinovitch-Rosvold detour problems were presented to groups of chicks which were 3, 13, 23, 33, and 43 days old. Errors decreased monotonically as a function of age and appeared to approach an asymptote very quickly, suggesting that in chicks, unlike mammals, umweg behavior matures more rapidly than the capacity for reversal learning.
The domestic chick less than 2 weeks of age posthatch can learn to solve a problem situation requiring it to leave a clear view of a desired goal in order to achieve that goal. The learned behavior appears to be predominantly age dependent, and strikingly independent of the number of learning trials. The age at which learning occurs is coincident with the age at which gamma-aminobutyric acid reaches maximal levels in the brain of this animal. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2006 APA, all rights reserved).
. In visual navigation, landmarks can be used in a number of different ways. In this paper we investigate the role of global and local landmarks in virtual environment navigation. We performed an experiment in a virtual environment called "Hexatown". Hexatown consists of a regular hexagonal grid of junctions joined together by streets. At each junction there are three buildings, or other objects. Additionally, we provide global direction or compass information by three distant "global landmarks" (a hilltop and a television tower at a mountain range, and a skyline of a distant city). Participants navigated in Hexatown by pressing the buttons of a computer mouse. According to their movement decisions, egomotion was simulated. Participants had to learn the route back and forth between two specific buildings. In the test-phase individual junctions were approached and the participants' movement decision was recorded. We performed two experiments with the same task but different paradigms. I...
Research on spatial cognition is a rapidly evolving interdisciplinary enterprise for the study of spatial representations and cognitive spatial processes, be they real or abstract, human or machine. Spatial cognition brings together a variety of - search methodologies: empirical investigations on human and animal orientation and navigation; studies of communicating spatial knowledge using language and graphical or other pictorial means; the development of formal models for r- resenting and processing spatial knowledge; and computer implementations to solve spatial problems, to simulate human or animal orientation and navigation behavior, or to reproduce spatial communication patterns. These approaches can interact in interesting and useful ways: Results from empirical studies call for formal explanations both of the underlying memory structures and of the processes operating upon them; we can develop and - plement operational computer models obeying the relationships between objects and events described by the formal models; we can empirically test the computer models under a variety of conditions, and we can compare the results to the - sults from the human or animal experiments. A disagreement between these results can provide useful indications towards the re nement of the models.
Three experiments explore the relationship between performance on a cognitive task and the explicit or reportable knowledge associated with that performance (assessed here by written post-task questionnaire). They examine how this relationship is affected by task experience, verbal instruction and concurrent verbalization. It is shown that practice significantly improves ability to control semi-complex computer-implemented systems but has no effect on the ability to answer related questions. In contrast, verbal instruction significantly improves ability to answer questions but has no effect on control performance. Verbal instruction combined with concurrent verbalization does lead to a significant improvement in control scores. Verbalization alone, however, has no effect on task performance or question answering.
Path integration (dead reckoning) is a computational process by which an animal can keep track of its position relative to some starting point by relying on self-generated information collected en route. The purpose of this paper is two-fold: first, to review four important models of path integration, analysing how the different models have evolved as a result of the authors’ particular focus; second, to assess what they have brought to the understanding of path integration. The more specific the model, the less it will be possible to apply it to different situations; the more general its nature, the less adequately it will represent the details of the behaviour to be modelled. In this context, the paper discusses how the authors envisioned the role of homing errors. The usefulness and limits of the different perspectives is discussed, in particular how well the models fit with observations. Finally, ways of improving and developing the modelling process are proposed.
Die computergestützte Simulation virtueller Realitäten (VR) bietet interessante neue Möglichkeiten der Untersuchung von Fragen der Raumwahrnehmung und Raumkognition (Ellis, 1991; Regian, Shebilske, & Monk, 1992; Wickens & Baker, 1995). Methodische Vorteile gegenüber herkömmlichen Methoden der Untersuchung von räumlich-kognitiven Leistungen ergeben sich beispielsweise aus der erhöhten Freiheit bei der Gestaltung von Rauminhalten und -strukturen (z.B. Kontrolle von Vorerfahrung, gezielte Manipulation von Umwelteigenschaften), aus den erweiterten Eingriffsmöglichkeiten in die Kopplung von Wahrnehmung und Handlung (z.B. Variation der zur Verfügung stehenden propriozeptiven Informationsquellen), aber auch aus den bequemen Möglichkeiten der Online-Erfassung von räumlichen Verhaltensdaten (z.B. elektronische Aufzeichnung von Bewegungstrajektorien). Bislang liegen vergleichsweise wenige Beispiele für die Nutzung von virtuellen Umgebungen zu Zwecken der grundlagenorientierten Kognitionsforschung vor. Mit den rapiden Entwicklungen im Bereich der VR-Technologien dürfte sich dieses Bild aber schon bald ändern (Brauer, Freksa, Habel, & Wender, 1995; Durlach & Mavor, 1995).
focuses on relations between memory schemata and mental models in text comprehension / schemata are viewed as abstract, long-term, stored knowledge structures which guide the construction and reconstruction of mental models of situations described in texts / based on examples in current research and on the results of 3 of the author's experiments, evidence indicates that (1) spatial schemata can compensate deficiencies of the text base, (2) mental models qualitatively differ according to the degree to which they are based on memory schemata or on the text base, (3) the construction and reconstruction of text-based and schema-based mental models differ with regard to temporal characteristics / it is proposed to extend this approach to the impact of temporal and causal schemata on mental model construction
experimental demonstration I: text ambiguity and spatial schemata / experimental demonstration II: text- and schema-based mental models / experimental demonstration III: temporal aspects of constructing and reconstructing text- and schema-based mental models (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
examines the major proposals for representing complex knowledge domains and attempts to show that many of the crucial theoretical differences can be captured by an analysis in terms of . . . a distinction between underlying knowledge structures and the episodic representations formed from these underlying structures and . . . a distinction between representations which are derived from old generic knowledge and representations which are constructed at the time of use / directions for future research / situational models (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Obtained over 200 maps of Cuidad Guayana, Venezuela, showing local areas and the whole city. These were processed by structural type and type of error. A wide range of map types was found. Sequential and spatial-element maps were identified, as well as 4 subtypes within each main type. Group differences in structuring the city proved to be significant, particularly between varying education, travel mode, and familiarity. The evidence suggests that structuring can depend on element and attribute types, on various methods for relating the parts, and on schematization and inference. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
The ability to give accurate route directions is an important way of expressing environmental information, but the development of this ability has received little attention, therefore an experiment was designed to assess how children and adults gave route directions from a map. In an extension of a previous, small scale, experiment (Brewster & Blades, 1989Journal of Environmental Education and Information, 8, 141–156). Four groups of children (aged 6, 8, 10, and 12 years) and one group of adults described two routes from maps and the route descriptions were assessed for both their accuracy and content. The six and eight year olds were unable to give correct route directions, but a few of the ten year olds and many of the 12 year old children were able to provide directions for most of the route, and all the adults gave accurate route descriptions from the maps. Analyses were carried out on the content of the descriptions, the effect of the presence of landmarks at turns on the route, and the effects of direction of travel when approaching turns. The main finding was a major developmental contrast in the style and content of the descriptions: the younger children relied predominantly on landmarks and vague indications of direction; the older children and adults included information about the type of road junction at the turn and about the road sequence (e.g. ‘first left’, ‘second right’). The implications of the results for further research are discussed.
Seventy-three Jersey cows, including 14 pairs of monozygotic twins, were tested after six days' training on 12 detour problems in the Closed-field Test. Analysis of the error pathways indicated the cows' ability to adapt to the apparatus quickly, to maintain consistent times for trials and to learn rapidly. Few subjects erred after the fourth of the eight runs required in each detour test problem. The problems varied considerably in difficulty for cows. Cows show a marked constancy of time to cover the distance during problem solution. As a method for the study of the learning ability of cattle, the Closed-field Test compares well with others. Cows compare favourably with small mammals in their ability on this test.
We investigated the effect of different visual perspectives on the acquisition of spatial knowledge and on wayfinding strategies. An experiment was carried out to test whether detour behaviour follows a simple general strategy, like the tendency to use right-angled paths. Alternatively, detour behaviour can depend on which perspective is used during knowledge acquisition. If the latter is true participants are expected to choose varying detours depending on the visual condition. After learning a route in a virtual environment, participants performed different tasks: they had to find a new way around a barricade, to point to the end of the path and to draw a map from the environment. The perspective was varied in three conditions: participants moved either in a field perspective with a viewpoint of a person that is within the scene or with a bird's eye (i.e. an observer) perspective. In the third condition, participants had to mentally transform their viewpoint from a field into an observer perspective. The results show that the visual conditions determine navigation behaviour. Strategies for making a detour differ between perspectives. In the field perspective condition, subjects prefer right angles at intersections to go back to the former route whereas subjects in the observer condition use oblique angled paths more frequently to return to the learned route.
A script pointer+tag hypothesis assumes that the conceptual representation which interrelates actions in scripted activities, for example, going to a restaurant, consists of a “pointer” to a generic script as a whole, plus a “tag” for each action that is not typical of the generic script. The hypothesis predicts, and two experiments confirmed, that (a) memory discrimination is better for atypical actions in a passage than for typical script actions and (b) there is no memory discrimination for very typical actions. The typicality of actions robustly predicted false alarm rates but not hit rates. The results suggested that discriminative accuracy is best explained by properties of a passage's representation rather than the amount of cognitive resources allocated at acquisition.
Evidence is presented for systematic errors in memory for real and artificial maps, local environments, and visual forms. These errors are attributed to two heuristics that are derived from principles of perceptual organization. Maps of countries or localities are conceived of as figures in backgrounds. Remembering the absolute location of figures is difficult, and is facilitated by remembering locations relative to other figures and/or relative to the natural directions of the figure. In alignment, figures are lined up relative to one another, a phenomenon related to perceptual grouping by proximity. In rotation, the natural axes induced by a figure converge with frame axes (north-south, east-west, or horizontal, vertical), a phenomenon related to perceptual organization by common fate. Heuristic-induced errors occur in a variety of tasks, and even when subjects are explicitly forewarned. These heuristics may be invoked in forming representations as well as in inference, and function analogously to syntax in locating smaller elements in larger units.
A structural aspect of personal memories was examined in four studies. In some memories, one has the perspective of an observer, seeing oneself “from the outside.” In other memories, one sees the scene from one's own perspective; the field of view in such memories corresponds to that of the original situation. The existence of “observer” and “field” memories was confirmed in Study 1, using a recall questionnaire. In Study 2, the similarity structure of a specified set of eight to-be-recalled situations was established: the significant dimensions were “emotionality” and “self-awareness.” Study 3 related these dimensions to the observer-field distinction; situations involving a high degree of emotion and selfawareness were most likely to be recalled with an observer perspective. Recall set was varied in Study 4: a focus on feelings (as opposed to objective circumstances) produced relatively more field memories. Studies 3 and 4 also showed that events reported as more recent tend to be recalled in the field mode. Thus a qualitative characteristic of personal memories—the perspective from which they are experienced—is apparently related to characteristics of the original event, to the individual's purpose in recalling that event, and to the reported recall interval.
The importance of scale to the psychology of space (perception, thinking, memory, behavior) is discussed. It is maintained that scale has an important influence on how humans treat spatial information and that several qualitatively distinct scale classes of space exist. Past systems of classification are reviewed and some novel terms and distinctions are introduced. Empirical evidence for the need to distinguish between spatial scales is presented. Some implications of these scale distinctions are briefly considered and research needs identified.
The configuration of a spatial layout has a substantial effect on the acquisition and the representation of the environment.
In four experiments, we investigated navigation difficulties arising at oblique angled intersections. In the first three studies
we investigated specific arrow-fork configurations. In dependence on the branch subjects use to enter the intersection different
decision latencies and numbers of errors arise. If subjects see the intersection as a fork, it is more difficult to find the
correct way as if it is seen as an arrow. In a fourth study we investigated different heuristics people use while making a
detour around a barrier. Detour behaviour varies with the perspective. If subjects learn and navigate through the maze in
a field perspective they use a heuristic of preferring right angled paths. If they have a view from above and acquire their
knowledge in an observer perspective they use oblique angled paths more often.
The analysis of route directions provides a relevant context for the study of relationships between language and spatial cognition. This research examines the theoretical issue of the cooperation between differing cognitive representational systems possessing contrasting functional properties. In addition, this research domain offers a unique opportunity for psychology, linguistics, computer science, and human-machine communication to work together, thereby contributing to the understanding of cognitive processes and improving the design of navigational systems adjusted to the cognitive capacities of their users. This paper outlines the cognitive operations involved in producing route directions and identifies certain invariant features of route descriptions beyond the diversity of individual protocols. Data collected in natural environments were analyzed and used to construct “skeletal descriptions” that reflected the essentials needed for navigating along a route. The functional value of these descriptions was assessed by their ability to guide navigation in unfamiliar environments.
Die folgenden Darstellungen zur Repräsentation von Wissen und Sprachbeherrschung erfolgen vom interdisziplinären Standpunkt der Künstlichen Intelligenz und Kognitiven Linguistik. Die spezielle Sicht — bzw. Vorgehensweise dieser Disziplinen, die insbesondere durch die für die Forschung zentrale Stellung von Prozessen charakterisiert werden kann, wird in bezug auf die Problemstellungen der Repräsentation räumlichen Wissens und der Textgenerierimg erläutert werden. Die Ziele der Arbeit bestehen darin,
die Einflüsse der ’Mutterdisziplinen’ (bzw. ’Nachbardisziplinen’) Linguistik, Psychologie, Informatik und Philosophie deutlich zu machen und hierbei insbesondere die Eigenständigkeit der interdisziplinären Synthese aufzuzeigen,
die für diesen Bereich charakteristische ’empirische Fundierung’ der Untersuchungen zu demonstrieren
und die für die KI typische Vorgehensweise eines ’stufenweisen Vorgehens’ (bestehend aus Vorschlag — Kritik — Revision) am Beispiel zu erläutern.
Editors' overviewIntroductionAn analysis of cognitive mapping processesThe concepts of perception, cognition, attitude and preferenceThe nature and function of cognitiveA terminology for changeA typology of change: accretion, diminution, reorganizationReferencesFurther readingSee also
Täglich bewegen wir uns in bekannten und fremden Raumkonstellationen. Bekannte Wege müssen wiedergefunden, neue entdeckt werden. Voraussetzung dafür ist das Kennenlernen verschiedener Orte, Objekte und Richtungen und ihre Speicherung und Repräsentation im Gedächtnis.
Anhand aktueller Studien zur Raumkognition und auf experimenteller Grundlage untersucht Gabriele Janzen das komplexe Zusammenwirken von Orts- und Richtungsinformationen im räumlichen Gedächtnis. Ein wichtiges Ergebnis ihrer Analyse ist die Erkenntnis, dass die Wegrichtung nur über funktional bedeutsame Orte wie Kreuzungen und Weggabelungen im Gedächtnis verankert wird.
Spatial behavior in humans and animals includes a wide variety of behavioral competences and makes use of a large number of sensory cues. Here we studied the ability of human subjects to search locations, to find shortcuts and novel paths, to estimate distances between remembered places, and to draw sketch maps of the explored environment; these competences are related to goal-independent memory of space, or cognitive maps. Information on spatial relations was restricted to two types: a visual motion sequence generated by simulated movements in a virtual maze and the subject's own movement decisions defining the path through the maze. Visual information was local (i.e., no global landmarks or compass information was provided). Other position and movement information (vestibular or proprioceptive) was excluded. The amount of visual information provided was varied over four experimental conditions. The results indicate that human subjects are able to learn a virtual maze from sequences of local views and movements. The information acquired is local, consisting of recognized positions and movement decisions associated to them. Although simple associations of this type can be shown to be present in some subjects, more complete configurational knowledge is acquired as well. The results are discussed in a view-based framework of navigation and the representation of spatial knowledge by means of a view graph.
Die geometrischen Eigenschaften von Überblickswissen: Experimente mit inkonsistenten, virtuellen Routen
- R Rothkegel
- K F Wender