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Abstract

This project explores the impact of Barack Obama’s presidential campaign and the resulting high levels of exposure to a positive, counter-stereotypic Black exemplar, on prejudice and stereotyping among non-Black participants. We found dramatically decreased levels of implicit anti-Black prejudice and stereotyping as compared with bias observed previously at the same institutions and in the literature. Providing some insight why the bias was reduced, Study 1 demonstrated that participants had positive Black exemplars come to mind or anticipated that other people have positive exemplars come to mind when they thought of Black people and this was associated with low levels of racial prejudice. Our second study revealed that participants who had qualities strongly associated with Obama as a political figure (e.g., president) activated when they were primed with “Black” had lower levels of implicit prejudice. These findings indicate that the extensive exposure to Obama resulted in a drop in implicit bias.

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... These lessons can be conveyed in part through messages transmitted about identity-for example, by the presence or absence of different identities. Such messages, in books and beyond, can influence children's beliefs about themselves and others, their effort, and their learning ( Plant et al. 2009 ;Fuchs-Schündeln and Masella 2016 ;Riley forthcoming ). Given persistent racial and gender inequality, better understanding of the representation contained in the images and text of books may help us better understand and address these and related structural inequities. ...
... When children do or do not see others represented, their conscious or unconscious perceptions of their own potential and that of groups with identities different than theirs can be molded in detrimental ways and can erroneously shape subconscious defaults. For example, the representations that children see can shape the beliefs of members of the dominant group about the capacity of members of the underrepresented group to participate in different spheres of society ( Plant et al. 2009 ;Alrababah et al. 2021 ). ...
... i. Famous individuals. Exposure to salient examples of historical figures or celebrities from marginalized backgrounds can lead to meaningful changes in social attitudes toward people who hold those identities, as well as changes in beliefs about one's self, and improvements in academic performance among children who share those identities ( Marx, Ko, and Friedman 2009 ;Plant et al. 2009 ;Alrababah et al. 2021 ). To identify mentions of famous characters, such as Martin Luther King Jr. or Amelia Earhart, we match the entities identified by NER that have at least two names (for example, a first and last name) with a preexisting data set, Pantheon 2.0, that contains data from over 70,000 Wikipedia biographies ( Yu et al. 2016 ). ...
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Books shape how children learn about society and norms, in part through representation of different characters. We use computational tools to characterize representation in children’s books widely read in homes, classrooms, and libraries over the past century and describe economic forces that may contribute to these patterns. We introduce new artificial intelligence methods for systematically converting images into data. We apply these tools, alongside text analysis methods, to measure skin color, race, gender, and age in the content of these books, documenting what has changed and what has endured over time. We find underrepresentation of Black and Latinx people in the most influential books, relative to their population shares, though representation of Black individuals increases over time. Females are also increasingly present but appear less often in text than in images, suggesting greater symbolic inclusion in pictures than substantive inclusion in stories. Characters in these influential books have lighter average skin color than in other books, even after conditioning on race, and children are depicted with lighter skin color than adults on average. We present empirical analysis of related economic behavior to better understand the representation we find in these books. On the demand side, we show that people consume books that center their own identities and that the types of children’s books purchased correlate with local political beliefs. On the supply side, we document higher prices for books that center nondominant social identities and fewer copies of these books in libraries that serve predominantly White communities.
... This practice of selecting frames involves some other factors as well; being within organizations or outside organizations have an impact on the selection of frames by journalists. A study conducted by Plant et al. (2009) on media framing of 2008 United States elections and Barack Obama's presidency depicts how differently mainstream media treated Obama as African-American during the campaign period and the elections (Plant et al., 2009). Examining the framing in US media, Plant et al. (2009) argue that unlike the usual framing of African-Americans in US news media as violent and indifferent, Obama's image was constructed in a positive light (Plant et al., 2009). ...
... This practice of selecting frames involves some other factors as well; being within organizations or outside organizations have an impact on the selection of frames by journalists. A study conducted by Plant et al. (2009) on media framing of 2008 United States elections and Barack Obama's presidency depicts how differently mainstream media treated Obama as African-American during the campaign period and the elections (Plant et al., 2009). Examining the framing in US media, Plant et al. (2009) argue that unlike the usual framing of African-Americans in US news media as violent and indifferent, Obama's image was constructed in a positive light (Plant et al., 2009). ...
... A study conducted by Plant et al. (2009) on media framing of 2008 United States elections and Barack Obama's presidency depicts how differently mainstream media treated Obama as African-American during the campaign period and the elections (Plant et al., 2009). Examining the framing in US media, Plant et al. (2009) argue that unlike the usual framing of African-Americans in US news media as violent and indifferent, Obama's image was constructed in a positive light (Plant et al., 2009). Numerous researches have been conducted to access importance of frames in media according to the impact they have on audience and the interpretations they extract from those frames (Levin et al., 1998;Nisbet et al., 2003;Scheufele, 1999;Valera-Ordaz, 2019;Vreese et al., 2001). ...
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This paper analyses how Pakistani print news media framed two armed conflict that occurred between India and Pakistan post-Pulwama attack in 2019 using five framing categories; conflict, morality, responsibility human interest, and solution. Using census approach subset of data; 282 opinions and editorials were collected from a population of 1,321 published number of items. Results from content analysis showed that media published a significant amount of content in editorials and opinions regarding armed conflicts. Content analysis disclosed that Pakistani print media placed emphasis on the use of conflict frame, and the use of human-interest frame was seen slightly low in numbers across all the newspapers during framing of Balakot airstrike and Pakistani retaliation after the Pulwama attack. However, there was no significant difference found between framing categories used by print news media. Findings are discussed in the context of journalistic priorities in selecting specific frames during framing of armed conflicts that holds national and international prominence.
... (e.g., Shields et al., 2018), the sociohistorical context could also affect perceivers' judgments of anger appropriateness. Indeed, the COVID-19 pandemic that currently is sweeping the world is a reminder that historic and cultural events can have a broad effect on psychological phenomena (e.g., Plant et al., 2009;Sawyer and Gampa, 2018;Yates and Okimoto, 2019). Psychologists have been most engaged with investigating the direct effects of these events (e.g., Rudman et al., 2013). ...
... Events that are occurring only in the backdrop of our research may also color the research landscape, having temporary, or perhaps even lasting, influence on what we believe to be established patterns of results. For example, during Barack Obama's presidential candidacy, Plant et al. (2009) did not replicate expected patterns of implicit anti-Black bias. Their unexpected findings served as a springboard for "the Obama Effect, " the finding that participants' accessibility of Obama as a counter-stereotypic Black exemplar was associated with lower than typical rates of anti-Black implicit bias (Plant et al., 2009), with individual difference factors (e.g., anti-prejudice motivations) and contextual factors (e.g., media portrayals) affecting the strength of the effect (Rivera and Plant, 2016). ...
... For example, during Barack Obama's presidential candidacy, Plant et al. (2009) did not replicate expected patterns of implicit anti-Black bias. Their unexpected findings served as a springboard for "the Obama Effect, " the finding that participants' accessibility of Obama as a counter-stereotypic Black exemplar was associated with lower than typical rates of anti-Black implicit bias (Plant et al., 2009), with individual difference factors (e.g., anti-prejudice motivations) and contextual factors (e.g., media portrayals) affecting the strength of the effect (Rivera and Plant, 2016). ...
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Researchers investigating gender and anger have consistently found that White women, but not White men, are evaluated unfavorably when experiencing anger in the workplace. Our project originally aimed to extend findings on White women’s, Black women’s, and White men’s workplace anger by examining whether evaluations are exacerbated or buffered by invalidating or affirming comments from others. In stark contrast to previous research on gender stereotyping and anger evaluations, however, results across four studies (N = 1,095) showed that both Black and White women portrayed as experiencing anger in the workplace were evaluated more favorably than White men doing so. After Study 1’s initial failure to conceptually replicate, we investigated whether perceivers’ evaluations of women’s workplace anger could have been affected by the contemporaneous cultural event of #MeToo. Supporting this possibility, we found evaluations were moderated by news engagement and beliefs that workplace opportunities are gendered. Additionally, we found invalidating comments rarely affected evaluations of a protagonist yet affirming comments tended to favorably affect evaluations. Overall, findings suggest the need for psychologists to consider the temporary, or perhaps lasting, effects of cultural events on research outcomes.
... 2001; Plant et al. 2009). Moreover, past work has shown that even brief contact with a successful female scientist or role model (i.e., a person with whom one feels similar and aspires to be like; Gibson 2004) can increase women's attraction to STEM fields (Stout et al. 2011). ...
... However, learning about counterstereotypical exemplars (i.e., warm and kind scientists) can alter masculine stereotypes and alleviate the associated detrimental outcomes. Indeed, researchers have found that exposure to counter-stereotypical exemplars reduces stereotypic beliefs about women leaders (Dasgupta and Asgari 2004) and Black individuals (Columb and Plant 2011;Dasgupta and Greenwald 2001;Plant et al. 2009). ...
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Although interactions with Black female scientists can alter beliefs about STEM (science, technology, engineering, mathematics) and encourage Black female students’ interest in these fields, this strategy may overburden the few Black women working in STEM. To address this issue, we explored whether a brief video presentation of a Black female computer scientist would be an effective intervention compared to an identical written transcript. We found that participants from the general U.S. population (Experiments 1, n = 201, and 2, n = 745) and Black women U.S. students (Experiment 3, n = 217) perceived the computer scientist as warmer and felt more virtual connection (i.e., sense of friendship, identification) with the scientist in video compared to written format. The video also was more effective for promoting feelings of friendship with the scientist relative to audio alone or a written transcript with pictures (Experiment 2). Most importantly, Black female students who watched the video of the computer scientist reported greater interest in computer science compared to those who read about the computer scientist and those in a no narrative control condition (Experiment 3). The current findings not only demonstrate that videos are useful tools for diversity practitioners but also highlight the importance of representation in popular movies and TV shows.
... . More specifically, Americans may have looked to the 2016 election's outcome to inform their perceptions and attitudes about gender in society. Some research indeed suggested that the election of Barack Obama reduced implicit racial bias (Columb & Plant, 2011;Plant et al., 2009; but see Skinner & Cheadle, 2016), although other work suggested it weakened support for redressing racial inequality (Kaiser, Drury, Spalding, Cheryan, & O'Brien, 2009), and that endorsing Obama could license people to subsequently favor Whites over Blacks (Effron, Cameron, & Monin, 2009). These studies could have informed predictions about how the election of America's first female President would affect gender-bias expression, but cannot inform predictions about the effect of Donald Trump's victory. ...
... By examining a one-time historic event, we move beyond the intraindividual, interpersonal or cultural factors traditionally examined (Fiske et al., 2002;Fiske & North, 2015;Glick et al., 2000;Swim et al., 2001). Additionally, whereas intergroup research has investigated the effects of political events signalling societal change (Columb & Plant, 2011;Effron et al., 2009;Kaiser et al., 2009;Plant et al., 2009;Sawyer & Gampa, 2018;Skinner & Cheadle, 2016;Tankard & Paluck, 2017), the present work suggests that a political event signalling the confirmation of the gender status quo (i.e., the election of a male U.S. president) may shape intergroup attitude expression above and beyond self-reported political ideology, at least among those who supported the winning candidate. Thus, these findings offer novel theoretical insights into the study of when people express gender bias. ...
Article
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Did the 2016 U.S. presidential election’s outcome affect Americans’ expression of gender bias? Drawing on theories linking leadership with intergroup attitudes, we proposed it would. A preregistered exploratory survey of two independent samples of Americans pre- and postelection (ns = 1,098 and 1,192) showed no pre–post differences in modern sexism, concern with the gender pay gap, or perceptions of gender inequality and progress overall. However, supporters of Donald Trump (but not of Hillary Clinton) expressed greater modern sexism post- versus preelection—which in turn predicted reporting lower disturbance with the gender pay gap, perceiving less discrimination against women but more against men, greater progress toward gender equality, and greater female representation at top levels in the United States. Results were reliable when evaluated against four robustness standards, thereby offering suggestive evidence of how historic events may affect gender-bias expression. We discuss the theoretical implications for intergroup attitudes and their expression.
... Research on African Americans in the United States, as well as historical minorities in Britain and other parts of Western Europe, provides evidence of a decline in overt prejudice (Dovidio & Gaertner, 1986;Stupar, van de Vijver, Te Lindert, & Fontaine, 2014). This decline can be explained by the normative and structural changes that led to counterstereotypic examples (Plant et al., 2009), and thereby decreased entitativity beliefs about the group. The decrease in entitativity beliefs is connected to racial identity diversification (Augoustinos & De Garis, 2012), the context of which makes the overt expression of prejudice politically incorrect (leading to admonitions of the practice of overt racism that take the form "I know what you mean but you can't say that"). ...
... We further acknowledge that, as social norms change over time, target perceptions also change. For example, the level of entitativity beliefs about African Americans may have declined in the United States due to powerful counter-stereotypic examples (Plant et al., 2009;Ramasubramanian, 2011), but recent events, such as the strengthening of white supremacy movements, as well as the Black Lives Matter movement, point to a change in both target politicization and entitativity perceptions. ...
... Many Black Americans reported greater optimism regarding race relations following the election (Saulny, 2009) and research showed improved test performance for Black American students (Marx, Ko, & Friedman, 2009). Among the White majority, Obama's appointment led to a decrease in implicit (Columb & Plant, 2011;Plant et al., 2009) and explicit (Welch & Sigelman, 2011) racial bias toward Black Americans. ...
... Notably, it is also clear that role models can also have impact beyond the target's particular demographic category. Barack Obama's 2008 election success also impacted White American attitudes and beliefs, showing decreased racial bias following the election (Columb & Plant, 2011;Plant et al., 2009;Welch & Sigelman, 2011). Extending these findings into the 2016 U.S. election, the effects of Hillary Clinton's election loss may also not be limited to female perceivers. ...
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Scholars have discussed the implications of positive leadership role models, including the impact of Barack Obama and Hillary Clinton’s political rise for aspiring leaders of underrepresented groups. However, there are also potential ramifications when those role models fail, shaping broader beliefs about the permeability of the glass ceiling. The current research tests this idea by evaluating the perceived promotability of male and female business leaders before (n = 165) and following (n = 159) the 2016 U.S. presidential election. Results indicated that the election result negatively affected the perceived promotability of women relative to men. A conceptual replication study (N = 997) manipulating election reminders yielded a similar pattern. Notably, respondents’ own beliefs about the glass ceiling and willingness to work with the targets did not change, suggesting that Clinton’s failed leadership bid informed predictions about the behavior of others, but it did not shift personal attitudes toward female leaders.
... Research from lab studies showed that exposing people to counter-stereotypical members of a negatively associated social group can weaken both explicit and implicit racial bias (Dasgupta & Greenwald, 2001). For instance, exposure to Barack Obama during the 2008 election cycle was associated with lower levels of implicit bias against Black people (Plant et al., 2009). The problem in the current political climateat least in the United Statesis that people who harbor bias against minorities are more likely to be exposed to reinforcing negative information about members of these groups due to selective use of social media. ...
Chapter
The concept of implicit bias – the idea that the unconscious mind might hold and use negative evaluations of social groups that cannot be documented via explicit measures of prejudice – is a hot topic in the social and behavioral sciences. It has also become a part of popular culture, while interventions to reduce implicit bias have been introduced in police forces, educational settings, and workplaces. Yet researchers still have much to understand about this phenomenon. Bringing together a diverse range of scholars to represent a broad spectrum of views, this handbook documents the current state of knowledge and proposes directions for future research in the field of implicit bias measurement. It is essential reading for those who wish to alleviate bias, discrimination, and inter-group conflict, including academics in psychology, sociology, political science, and economics, as well as government agencies, non-governmental organizations, corporations, judges, lawyers, and activists.
... The election of Barack Obama brought about political views from both liberals and conservatives that America had finally become a post-racial nation and that racial issues would no longer be a central concern for the nation (Dawson & Bobo, 2009). In this postracial zeitgeist, researchers suggested that following Obama's election whites were less prejudiced and less hostile to Black people, thereby making post-racialism a new American ideal (Bernstein, Young, & Claypool, 2010;Plant et al., 2009). ...
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This essay argues that our conversations about Critical Race Theory (CRT) must move beyond criticism of conservative interpretations of CRT and instead advocate for Black youth, as they are the most vulnerable to these attacks. Moreover, I illuminate how conservatives strive to construct, and therefore repress, Black critiques of America as a threat to the national order. This essay is grounded in Derrick Bell's theory of racial realism.
... Exposure to exemplars of an underrepresented group has been found to decrease implicit and explicit negative stereotypes (e.g., Gawronski & Bodenhausen, 2006). For example, multiple studies following Barack Obama's election in the 2008 U.S. presidential election found a general decrease in implicit negative stereotypes about African Americans (Bernstein et al., 2010;Plant et al., 2009;Roos et al., 2013;but also see FitzGerald et al., 2019). ...
Article
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Women and underrepresented minoritized (URM) persons remain marginalized in physical science, technology, engineering, and math (pSTEM). Relative to non-URM men, URM women may experience a double disadvantage based on their gender and race whereby they observe few same-gender and few same-race role models in pSTEM while additionally internalizing stereotypes linking pSTEM with non-URM men. Our hypothesized model was partly supported in a sample of undergraduates ( N = 1,068; 68% women, 44% URM). First, perceiving same-gender or same-race pSTEM role models predicted lower explicit stereotypes among women and URM individuals regarding gender and race, respectively. Second, explicit and implicit associations linking pSTEM with men and White/Asian persons predicted (a) lower pSTEM identity among women and URM students and (b) higher identity among men and non-URM students. Finally, both implicit and explicit pSTEM identity positively predicted expectancy–value beliefs.
... Participants' implicit identities were measured using an APT, which required participants to respond to positive and negative words that were primed by pictures that represented either English or Pakistani identities. As noted by Plant et al. (2009), faster responses to positive words that appear after primes representing a specific identity indicate a preference for this group (e.g., faster responses to positive words that follow Pakistani primes indicate Pakistani identification). Participants may identify with both ethnic groups; thus, the two constructs were measured independently. ...
Article
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Individuals belonging to ethnic minority groups are less likely to experience symptoms of psychosis, such as paranoia, if they live in areas with high proportions of people from the same ethnic background. This effect may be due to processes associated with group belonging (social identification). We examined whether the relationship between perceived discrimination and paranoia was moderated by explicit and implicit Pakistani/English identification among students of Pakistani heritage (N = 119). Participants completed measures of explicit and implicit Pakistani and English identity, a measure of perceived discrimination, and a measure of paranoia. Perceived discrimination was the strongest predictor of paranoia (0.31). Implicit identities moderated the relationship between perceived discrimination and paranoia (−0.17). The findings suggest that higher levels of implicit Pakistani identity were most protective against high levels of paranoia (0.26, with low implicit English identity; 0.78, with medium English identity; 1.46, with high English identity). Overall, a complex relationship between identity and paranoia was apparent.
... Such events may encourage some members of the majority population to question fixed images, consider the perspective of members of ethnic minorities, and recognize the effects of exclusion (Adida et al., 2018). This event may then reduce prejudice against minority groups (Adida et al., 2018;Goldman & Hopkins, 2018;Plant et al., 2009). In our case, a symbol that represents (ethnic) Albania shown by an (autochthonous) role model on the national team may result in a blurred demarcation between Swiss natives and Kosovo-Albanians who are otherwise excluded from (full) ingroup membership. ...
Article
Members of ethnic and racial minorities across North America and Europe continue to face discrimination, for instance, when applying for jobs or seeking housing. Such unequal treatment can occur because societies categorize people into groups along social, cultural, or ethnic and racial lines that seemingly rationalize differential treatment. Research suggests that it may take generations for such differences to decline, if they change at all. Here, we show that a single gesture by international soccer players at the World Cup 2018 – followed by an extensive public debate – led to a measurable and lasting decline in discrimination. Immediately after the galvanizing event, invitation rates to view apartments increased by 6 percentage points for the migrant group represented by the players, while responses to the native population did not change noticeably. We demonstrate that anti‐immigrant behavior can disband rapidly when the public receives messages challenging the nature of ethnic and racial categories while sharing a common cause. This article is protected by copyright. All rights reserved
... Two of these studies investigated a hypothesized "Obama effect" (Schmidt & Axt, 2016;Schmidt & Nosek, 2010), proposing that former U.S. President Barack Obama, as a high-status Black exemplar with unprecedented visibility, may have caused a societal shift in implicit racial attitudes. The hypothesis cited experimental evidence that exposure to Obama as a counter-stereotypical exemplar reduced anti-Black implicit bias (Columb & Plant, 2011, 2016Plant et al., 2009). However, after examining national IAT-Race data and accounting for demographic shifts, the studies concluded that implicit and explicit attitudes did not change meaningfully during Obama's campaign or presidency. ...
Article
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Recently, interest in aggregate and population-level implicit and explicit attitudes has opened inquiry into how attitudes relate to sociopolitical phenomenon. This creates an opportunity to examine social movements as dynamic forces with the potential to generate widespread, lasting attitude change. Although collective action remains underexplored as a means of reducing bias, we advance historical and theoretical justifications for doing so. We review recent studies of aggregate attitudes through the lens of social movement theory, proposing movements as a parsimonious explanation for observed patterns. We outline a model for conceptualizing causal pathways between social movements and implicit and explicit attitudes among participants, supporters, bystanders, and opponents. We identify six categories of mechanisms through which movements may transform attitudes: changing society; media representations; intergroup contact and affiliation; empathy, perspective-taking, and reduced intergroup anxiety; social recategorization; and social identification and self-efficacy processes. Generative questions, testable hypotheses, and promising methods for future work are discussed.
... Indeed, Americans in general expressed increased optimism about the state of race relations, and Black Americans specifically reported being better off than they were 5 years before the 2008 election of the country's first Black president (Pew Research Center, 2010). Empirical work also suggested an initial reduction in automatic prejudice upon increased exposure to President Obama (Plant et al., 2009). By contrast, the highly publicized killings of unarmed Black men in the mid-2010s challenged America's "postracial" status. ...
Article
Recently, major societal events have shaped perceptions of race relations in the US. The current work argues that people’s motivations to be nonprejudiced toward Black people have changed in concert with these broader societal forces. Analyses of two independent archival datasets reveal that nonprejudiced motivations changed predictably in accordance with shifts in the social milieu over the last 15 years. In one dataset (N = 13,395), we track movement in internal and external motivations to respond without prejudice from 2004 to 2017. Internal motivation initially decreased before ticking upward following multiple events suggesting worsening race relations (e.g., noteworthy killings of unarmed Black men, resurgent racialized politics). Conversely, external motivation initially increased but reversed course across the same time span. A second dataset (N = 2,503) corroborates these trends in two conceptually related nonprejudiced motivations. Results suggest that changes in nonprejudiced motivations may reflect broader shifts in the sociopolitical climate.
... Participants' implicit identities were measured using an APT, which required participants to respond to positive and negative words that were primed by pictures that represented either English or Pakistani identities. As noted by Plant et al. (2009), faster responses to positive words that appear after primes representing a specific identity indicate a preference for this group (e.g., faster responses to positive words that follow Pakistani primes indicate Pakistani identification). Participants may identify with both ethnic groups; thus, the two constructs were measured independently. ...
Article
Full-text available
Individuals belonging to ethnic minority groups are less likely to experience symptoms of psychosis, such as paranoia, if they live in areas with high proportions of people from the same ethnic background. This effect may be due to processes associated with group belonging (social identification). We examined whether the relationship between perceived discrimination and paranoia was moderated by explicit and implicit Pakistani/English identification among students of Pakistani heritage (N = 119). Participants completed measures of explicit and implicit Pakistani and English identity, a measure of perceived discrimination, and a measure of paranoia. Perceived discrimination was the strongest predictor of paranoia (0.31). Implicit identities moderated the relationship between perceived discrimination and paranoia (-0.17). The findings suggest that higher levels of implicit Pakistani identity were most protective against high levels of paranoia (0.26, with low implicit English identity; 0.78, with medium English identity; 1.46, with high English identity). Overall, a complex relationship between identity and paranoia was apparent.
... Els enfocaments d'intervenció psicosocials en la reducció de biaixos intergrupals poden dividir-se en dos àmbits: intragrupals i intergrupals. En les primeres es troba el treball amb exemplars contraestereotípics (Plant et al., 2009), les estratègies basades en la dissonància cognitiva (Festinger, 1957, citat en Rodríguez, 2019) i la promoció de l'empatia (Galinsky & Moskowitz, 2000;Stephan & Finlay, 1999). Com a estratègies intergrupals s'identifiquen les basades en la hipòtesi del contacte (Allport, 1954, citat en Rodríguez, 2019 i les basades en la teoria de la categorització social o estratègies sociocognitives (Tajfel & Turner, 1979). ...
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En 2013, El present estudi va tenir com a objectiu dissenyar un programa d'intervenció psicosocial, per a la promoció de la integració intercultural en la Universidad Central “Marta Abreu” de Las Villas, des d'un enfocament historicocultural de les mediacions per la subjectivitat. La recerca és d’intervenció i continua un enfocament qualitatiu i interpretatiu. En aquest marc, es va realitzar una sistematització d'experiències i es va proposar un programa d'intervenció psicosocial. El programa integra els següents components: fonaments teoricometodològics psicosocials, estructura organitzativa i avaluació del programa. L'avaluació del programa, abans de la seva implementació, va correspondre al tipus d'avaluació qualitativa i externa. Va produir valoracions sobre les fortaleses i febleses del programa, així com recomanacions per a fer més efectiu el programa d'intervenció, en funció de les quals es van introduir modificacions.
... Past research has shown that success and failure of politicians can have downstream consequences on observers. Hence, following Barack Obama's successful presidential campaign levels of implicit prejudice have been found to be strongly reduced (Plant et al., 2009), whereas Hillary Clinton's nonsuccessful presidential bid elicited a reduction in the perceived promotability of women relative to men for leadership positions (Yates & Okimoto, 2019). Based on the findings of Studies 1a and 1b, we hypothesized that in particular liking for a woman with a nontraditional job background who is politically unsuccessful would be influenced in contrasting ways by RWA and SDO. ...
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In three studies (N1 = 160, N2 = 100, N3 = 135), the effects of right-wing authoritarianism (RWA) and social dominance orientation (SDO) on the social judgment of working women (i.e., perceived warmth and competence) were examined. In each study, type of job (traditional vs. nontraditional job background) as well as the job-related success (Studies 1a and 1b) or political success (Study 2) of women was manipulated. Across studies, we found that RWA and SDO affected liking for a target who violated shared expectations (woman with a nontraditional job background without job-related/political success) in contrasting ways—with RMA predicting increased liking and SDO predicting decreased liking. Perceptions of stereotypic targets (e.g., the woman with a traditional job background without success, the woman with a nontraditional job background with success) were not consistently related to ideological attitudes. Theoretic implications as well as consequences for working women are discussed.
... Urbiola, Willis, Ruiz-Romero, Moya (2014) sistematizan estrategias para la reducción de prejuicios que dividen en individuales (para modificar sentidos y comportamientos individuales) e intergrupales (para cambiar las interacciones entre los grupos o los límites inter-grupales). Entre las estrategias intra-grupales se encuentran: el trabajo con ejemplares contra-estereotípicos (Plant et al., 2009), estrategias basadas en la disonancia cognitiva (Festinger, 1957) y estrategias para promover la empatía o la toma de perspectiva (Galinsky y Moskowitz, 2000;Stephan y Finlay, 1999). ...
... Unique events, including elections, economic downturns, and extreme weather events, can shift individual attitudes across a range of issues as individuals update beliefs based on realworld events (Albarracin and Shavitt, 2018;McCann, 1997;Margalit, 2019;Page and Shapiro, 1992). For example, the election of Barack Obama positively affected racial attitudes by reducing stereotypical thinking about African-Americans (Goldman and Mutz, 2014;Plant et al., 2009;Welch and Sigelman, 2011) while simultaneously increasing racial resentment and racializing signature policy issues such as health care reform (Tesler and Sears, 2010). Who wins or loses an election can also alter partisan views of the economy and even shape subsequent economic behaviors (Bartels, 2002;Huber, 2009, 2010). ...
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In this paper, we utilize a module from the Cooperative Congressional Election Study to explore how individual perceptions of media bias changed over the course of the 2016 presidential campaign. While previous literature has documented the role of partisan affiliation in perceptions of bias, we know considerably less about how these perceptions change during a presidential election. Consistent with existing theories of attitude change, perceptions of bias polarize with strong Democrats moving toward believing the media were biased against Hillary Clinton (and in favor of Donald Trump) and independent-leaning Republicans moving toward believing the media were biased against Donald Trump. At the end of the 2016 election, more individuals believed the media were biased against their side. These effects were moderated by how much attention individuals paid to the campaign.
... Such attempts include decreasing perceived outgroup homogeneity and hence proclivity for collective blame and stereotyping (Aboud & Fenwick, 1999;Bruneau, Kteily, & Falk, 2018). Other attempts include perspective taking (Chung & Slater, 2013;Galinsky & Moskowitz, 2000;Vescio, Sechrist, & Paolucci, 2003) and elicitation of empathy towards the outgroup (Batson et al., 1997), the use of positive, counter-stereotypic exemplars to change perceptions of the outgroup and reduce prejudice (Blair, Ma, & Lenton, 2001;Columb & Plant, 2011;Columb & Plant, 2016;Dasgupta & Greenwald, 2001;Plant et al., 2009), as well as training in non-stereotypic responding (Gawronski, Deutsch, Mbirkou, Seibt, & Strack, 2008;Kawakami, Dovidio, & van Kamp, 2007;Kawakami, Dovidio, Moll, Hermsen, & Russin, 2000). ...
Article
Fair treatment and social acceptance are paramount to human well‐being, yet, society often withholds these crucial needs and discriminates against certain groups, including ex‐prisoners. Discrimination and lack of social support by the public reduces ex‐prisoners’ well‐being and threatens successful reintegration into society after release from prison, perpetuating conflict and impeding social justice. Identifying strategies to reduce discrimination against ex‐prisoners and to foster prosocial behaviors towards them is therefore of high relevance. Building on past evidence, we assess the viability of a values affirmation intervention given to members of the general public to reduce their discrimination against ex‐prisoners and to foster prosocial motivation towards them. Across two studies in two cultural contexts, Nigeria and the United States, we provide evidence that engaging in values affirmation can significantly reduce discriminatory behavioral tendencies, for instance in the employment sector, and motivate prosociality towards ex‐prisoners, such as supporting educational rehabilitation programs. These results point towards a potential avenue for shifting the public's discriminatory views and behavioral tendencies towards ex‐prisoners, in an effort to support reintegration and to further social justice.
... than did so before the election (see Table 7 for weighted results). This finding is in line with those of a variety of studies that showed white Americans became more positive toward African Americans during the early years of Mr. Obama's tenure (Bernstein, Young, and Claypool 2010;Columb and Plant 2011;Plant et al. 2009;Welch and Sigelman 2011). This provides a basis for more confidence that the changes we saw from pre-election (ACASI mode) to post-election (oral mode) in the ANES data were not the result of changes in social desirability bias driven by changing the mode of data collection. ...
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... In the most basic sense, "racial attitudes," refer to how favorable a person's viewpoints are toward African Americans. Moreover, those who study the Obama effect on racial attitudes (e.g., Columb and Plant 2011;Goldman 2012;Goldman and Mutz 2014;Ong, Burrow, and Cerrada 2016;Plant et al. 2009;Schmidt and Nosek 2010) conceptualize Obama's prominence in terms of his media activity (the degree to which the press covers him and/or voters are exposed to coverage about him). ...
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... In an APT, relatively faster RTs to positive compared with negative words following ingroup (Emirati) compared with out-group (American) primes are viewed as indicative of ingroup positivity and preference (Plant et al., 2009). The primes in the present study were images (n = 12) associated with Emirati national identity (e.g., landmark buildings, the UAE flag, and traditional clothing, etc.). ...
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... Darüber hinaus können sie auf zusätzliche, gruppenspezifische Heuristiken zurückgreifen (z. B. die Orientierung an der Mehrheit oder Meinungsführern,Kerr et al. 1996; Tindale und Kameda 2000).Im Kontext von Vorurteilen legen etwa implizite Messungen bei Individuen nahe, dass Obamas Präsidentschaftskampagne 2008 durch die Herstellung positiver Assoziationen zu geringeren impliziten negativen Einstellungen gegenüber schwarzen Menschen geführt hat(Plant et al. 2009) -hier wurden also im automatischen Modus anhand oberflächlicher Hinweise wie der Prominenz eines Gruppenmitglieds neue Informationen generiert. Auf Gruppenebene wurde andererseits gezeigt, dass sich Gruppen unter den Bedingungen automatischer offener Informationsverarbeitung stärker von stereotypen Informationen beeinflussen lassen(De Dreu et al. 1999). ...
Book
Im Alltag haben viele Menschen fast ausschließlich über Medieninhalte Kontakt zu Angehörigen verschiedener anderer gesellschaftlicher Gruppen (Outgroups). Gleichzeitig nutzen und verarbeiten sie Medieninhalte häufig gemeinsam in ihrer eigenen Gruppe (Ingroup). Johanna Schindler und Anne Bartsch beleuchten den Einfluss der Medienrezeption in Kleingruppen auf Vorurteile gegenüber Outgroups. Dazu systematisieren sie wissenschaftliche Erkenntnisse zu Vorurteilen und zur Medienrezeption in Gruppen und verbinden diese miteinander. Außerdem stellen die Autorinnen die Ergebnisse einer explorativen Feldstudie vor. Auf diese Weise wird eine integrative Perspektive auf Gruppenphänomene in der modernen Mediengesellschaft ermöglicht.
... Darüber hinaus können sie auf zusätzliche, gruppenspezifische Heuristiken zurückgreifen (z. B. die Orientierung an der Mehrheit oder Meinungsführern,Kerr et al. 1996; Tindale und Kameda 2000).Im Kontext von Vorurteilen legen etwa implizite Messungen bei Individuen nahe, dass Obamas Präsidentschaftskampagne 2008 durch die Herstellung positiver Assoziationen zu geringeren impliziten negativen Einstellungen gegenüber schwarzen Menschen geführt hat(Plant et al. 2009) -hier wurden also im automatischen Modus anhand oberflächlicher Hinweise wie der Prominenz eines Gruppenmitglieds neue Informationen generiert. Auf Gruppenebene wurde andererseits gezeigt, dass sich Gruppen unter den Bedingungen automatischer offener Informationsverarbeitung stärker von stereotypen Informationen beeinflussen lassen(De Dreu et al. 1999). ...
Chapter
Zunächst soll ein kurzer Überblick über den Vorurteils-Begriff und seine inhaltlichen Dimensionen gegeben werden.
... Darüber hinaus können sie auf zusätzliche, gruppenspezifische Heuristiken zurückgreifen (z. B. die Orientierung an der Mehrheit oder Meinungsführern,Kerr et al. 1996; Tindale und Kameda 2000).Im Kontext von Vorurteilen legen etwa implizite Messungen bei Individuen nahe, dass Obamas Präsidentschaftskampagne 2008 durch die Herstellung positiver Assoziationen zu geringeren impliziten negativen Einstellungen gegenüber schwarzen Menschen geführt hat(Plant et al. 2009) -hier wurden also im automatischen Modus anhand oberflächlicher Hinweise wie der Prominenz eines Gruppenmitglieds neue Informationen generiert. Auf Gruppenebene wurde andererseits gezeigt, dass sich Gruppen unter den Bedingungen automatischer offener Informationsverarbeitung stärker von stereotypen Informationen beeinflussen lassen(De Dreu et al. 1999). ...
Chapter
Als Nächstes steht die Medienrezeption in Gruppen im Mittelpunkt. Dabei wird zunächst ihre Bedeutung eingeordnet und ein kurzer Überblick über bisherige Untersuchungen zum Zusammenspiel von Medienrezeption in Gruppen und Vorurteilen gegeben.
... Karch et al. (2016) Recency bias Act of making incorrect decision based on recent performance of a product or service Ward (2002) Salience Use of available (imperfect) information to make decisions Tiefenbeck et al. (2016) Selective perception Blocking the resource that deny the belief of researcher Mesgarani and Chang (2012) Stereotyping False perception about all products from the same enterprise Plant et al. (2009) ...
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Previous research demonstrates that confronting prejudicial comments reduces bias towards minority groups and that perceptions of those who confront prejudicial comments differ as a function of factors such as confronter race. The current study extends on previous research examining how participants’ race, confronters’ race, assertiveness, and racial bias affect the perceptions of individuals who confront prejudice towards interracial couples on Twitter. Black and White participants throughout the United States (N=154) viewed a Twitter post from a Black-White interracial couple followed by a racist comment and a confronting comment varying by confronter race and assertiveness. Results indicated that confronters were perceived more positively when using a low assertive than a high assertive approach and were rated more negatively by Black compared to White participants. Additionally, those with more explicit biases towards the outgroup perceived the confronter more negatively. This work can inform interventions focused on increased confronting and highlights the importance of allyship.
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This article examines how the racial composition of newsrooms and that of the news audiences influence campaign coverage of candidates. Using observational data compiled from multiple sources for analyses, our findings suggest that candidate trait coverage is influenced by what we term racial congruence at two levels. First, when the number of non-white journalists increases in newsroom, white candidates are more likely to receive positive trait coverage than non-white candidates, which is likely compounded by multiple constraints racial minority journalists face in the newsroom. This racial congruence phenomenon is also present in areas with large non-white adult populations. The larger this population, the higher is favorable news coverage for non-white candidates compared to white candidates. The race of candidates, journalists, and audiences does not have a combined effect on news coverage, indicating that the effects of more diverse newsroom members are not necessarily driven by market incentives.
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The election of President Obama, the first African American president of the United States, was an historic and symbolically important event that may have influenced the workplace attitudes of minority federal workers, although this question has yet to be tested empirically. Using difference-in-differences analyses of data from the 2008 and 2010 Federal Employee Viewpoint Surveys, this study explores the influence of Obama’s election on minority employees’ sense of inclusion and job satisfaction in the Department of Education (DoEd) and the Department of Housing and Urban Development (HUD), the two federal agencies with the largest proportion of African American employees. The findings suggest that minority employees in the DoEd and HUD experienced a net increase in their sense of inclusion and job satisfaction after the presidential election. The effect size is small, however, and we found little evidence of an Obama effect across other federal agencies.
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Prior research finds that exposure to outgroup exemplars reduces prejudice, but it has focused on most-likely cases. We examine whether salient outgroup exemplars can reduce prejudice under more challenging conditions, such as when they are counter-stereotypical but not well-liked, and the audience is heterogeneous and holds strong priors. Specifically, we assess the impact of the Obama exemplar under the less auspicious conditions of the 2012 U.S. presidential campaign. Using panel data, we find that racial prejudice declined during the campaign, especially among Whites with the most exposure to Obama through political television. Liking Obama proved irrelevant to these effects, as did partisanship. Racial prejudice increased slightly after the campaign ended, but the effects remained largely intact weeks later.
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Conventional wisdom suggests that progress for women in the domain of top leadership representation will naturally spread to other domains of gender inequality, whether in organizations or beyond. Extending social-cognitive theories of exemplar-based information processing to the study of social progress perceptions for stigmatized groups, we theorized that perceiving substantial female representation in top leadership may instead reduce people's concern with ongoing gender inequality in other domains. Study 1 (N = 331) finds that perceiving greater female representation in top corporate echelons decreases people's disturbance with the gender pay gap, but not with wealth inequality generally. Study 2a (N = 350) and its replication Study 2b (N = 1,098) present correlational evidence of the proposed psychological mechanism: an overgeneralization of women's access to equal opportunities. Study 3 (N = 454) provides experimental evidence for this psychological process, tests attributions of the gender pay gap to women's personal career choices as an alternative mechanism, and introduces a control condition to determine the directionality of the effect. Study 4 (N = 326) replicates and extends the basic effect across various domains of gender inequality within and outside of the workplace. Taken together, these studies highlight the importance of acknowledging the fragmented nature of social progress across domains of inequality, and highlight the psychological underpinnings of a previously overlooked potential barrier for progress toward gender equality. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2019 APA, all rights reserved).
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The study of hostile orientations toward out‐groups is divided between three great kingdoms: a) overt (explicit, old‐fashioned, or hostile) prejudice, b) veiled (implicit, modern, aversive, or subtle) prejudice, and c) stigma. To date, there is no systematic account as to which form of hostility is likely to be expressed toward members of particular target groups. We propose a model that integrates the two forms of prejudice and the concept of stigma into a single framework. The contingency model of stigma and prejudice expression (SPEM) postulates that overt or veiled prejudice is a function of an interaction of prevailing perceptions of target groups within their cultural context. There are four major target perceptions that influence prejudice expression through increasing threat perception: visibility, target politicization, responsibility, and entitativity. These target perceptions describe the process and the qualitative conditions that determine the expression of prejudice toward members of different groups and social categories. This article is protected by copyright. All rights reserved.
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Objective To explore whether increases in diversity give partisans immunity from claims of racial prejudice. To assess when individuals are more likely to report racially progressive attitudes when their party is accused of racism and racial representation in the party varies. Method We implement a survey experiment where individuals are told their party harbors either racial or religious prejudice and then are asked to vote on a party primary election in which the race of the candidates varies. Results We find that white Republicans modify their racial attitudes in response to accusations of racism. However, this effect disappears when white Republicans are presented with evidence of racial/ethnic diversity in their party. Conclusion Our results demonstrate that racial/ethnic diversity in one's political party may delegitimize claims of racial bias and minimize these accusations' ability to alter racial attitudes.
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Although most research on the control of automatic prejudice has focused on the efficacy of deliberate attempts to suppress or correct for stereotyping, the reported experiments tested the hypothesis that automatic racial prejudice is subject to common social influence. In experiments involving actual interethnic contact, both tacit and expressed social influence reduced the expression of automatic prejudice, as assessed by two different measures of automatic attitudes. Moreover, the automatic social tuning effect depended on participant ethnicity. European Americans (but not Asian Americans) exhibited less automatic prejudice in the presence of a Black experimenter than a White experimenter (Experiments 2 and 4), although both groups exhibited reduced automatic prejudice when instructed to avoid prejudice (Experiment 3). Results are consistent with shared reality theory, which postulates that social regulation is central to social cognition.
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Three studies tested basic assumptions derived from a theoretical model based on the dissociation of automatic and controlled processes involved in prejudice. Study 1 supported the model's assumption that high- and low-prejudice persons are equally knowledgeable of the cultural stereotype. The model suggests that the stereotype is automatically activated in the presence of a member (or some symbolic equivalent) of the stereotyped group and that low-prejudice responses require controlled inhibition of the automatically activated stereotype. Study 2, which examined the effects of automatic stereotype activation on the evaluation of ambiguous stereotype-relevant behaviors performed by a race-unspecified person, suggested that when subjects' ability to consciously monitor stereotype activation is precluded, both high- and low-prejudice subjects produce stereotype-congruent evaluations of ambiguous behaviors. Study 3 examined high- and low-prejudice subjects' responses in a consciously directed thought-listing task. Consistent with the model, only low-prejudice subjects inhibited the automatically activated stereotype-congruent thoughts and replaced them with thoughts reflecting equality and negations of the stereotype. The relation between stereotypes and prejudice and implications for prejudice reduction are discussed.
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In reporting Implicit Association Test (IAT) results, researchers have most often used scoring conventions described in the first publication of the IAT (A. G. Greenwald, D. E. McGhee, & J. L. K. Schwartz, 1998). Demonstration IATs available on the Internet have produced large data sets that were used in the current article to evaluate alternative scoring procedures. Candidate new algorithms were examined in terms of their (a) correlations with parallel self-report measures, (b) resistance to an artifact associated with speed of responding, (c) internal consistency, (d) sensitivity to known influences on IAT measures, and (e) resistance to known procedural influences. The best-performing measure incorporates data from the IAT's practice trials, uses a metric that is calibrated by each respondent's latency variability, and includes a latency penalty for errors. This new algorithm strongly outperforms the earlier (conventional) procedure.
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Past research has shown specific situational interventions can reduce implicit prejudice against outgroups, but nothing is known about who is most sensitive to these situations and whether they influence behavior. The present study examined the combined influence of short-term situational exposure to admired outgroup members (gays and lesbians) and individual differences in prior long-term contact on implicit antigay attitudes and discriminatory behavioral intentions (voting). Results snowed that in the absence of any intervention, participants with little contact with gays and lesbians showed more implicit antigay attitudes and discriminatory voting intentions than participants with high contact. However, after the short-term intervention, participants, regardless of prior contact, showed low levels of implicit prejudice and discriminatory voting intentions. The observed reduction of bias in implicit attitudes and behavioral intentions occurred independently; attitude change did not mediate behavioral change. We suggest that different underlying mechanisms drive changes in implicit attitudes versus explicit behavioral intentions.
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The research examines an unobtrusive measure of racial attitudes based on the evaluations that are automatically activated from memory on the presentation of Black versus White faces. Study 1, which concerned the technique's validity, obtained different attitude estimates for Black and White participants and also revealed that the variability among White participants was predictive of other race-related judgments and behavior. Study 2 concerned the lack of correspondence between the unobtrusive estimates and Modern Racism Scale (MRS) scores. The reactivity of the MRS was demonstrated in Study 3. Study 4 observed an interaction between the unobtrusive estimates and an individual difference in motivation to control prejudiced reactions when predicting MRS scores. The theoretical implications of the findings for consideration of automatic and controlled components of racial prejudice are discussed, as is the status of the MRS. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
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Examined the role of anticipated-interaction instructions on memory for and organization of social information. In Study 1, Ss read and recalled information about a prospective partner (i.e., target) on a problem-solving task and about 4 other stimulus people. The results indicated that (a) Ss recalled more items about the target than the others, (b) the target was individuated from the others in memory, and (c) Ss were more accurate on a name–item matching task for the target than for the others. Study 2 compared anticipated interaction with several other processing goals (i.e., memory, impression formation, self-comparison, friend-comparison). Only anticipated-interaction and impression formation instructions led to higher levels of recall and more accurate matching performance for the target than for the others. However, the conditional probability data suggest that anticipated interaction led to higher levels of organization of target information than did any of the other conditions. Discussion considers information processing strategies that are possibly instigated by anticipated-interaction instructions. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
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Two studies tested the conditions under which social environments can undermine automatic gender stereotypic beliefs expressed by women. Study 1, a laboratory experiment, manipulated exposure to biographical information about famous female leaders. Study 2, a year-long field study, took advantage of pre-existing differences in the proportion of women occupying leadership positions (e.g., female professors) in two naturally occurring environments—a women’s college and a coeducational college. Together, these studies investigated: (a) whether exposure to women in leadership positions can temporarily undermine women’s automatic gender stereotypic beliefs, and (b) whether this effect is mediated by the frequency with which female leaders are encountered. Results revealed first that when women were in social contexts that exposed them to female leaders, they were less likely to express automatic stereotypic beliefs about their ingroup (Studies 1 and 2). Second, Study 2 showed that the long-term effect of social environments (women’s college vs. coed college) on automatic gender stereotyping was mediated by the frequency of exposure to women leaders (i.e., female faculty). Third, some academic environments (e.g., classes in male-dominated disciplines like science and math) produced an increase in automatic stereotypic beliefs among students at the coed college but not at the women’s college—importantly, this effect was mediated by the sex of the course instructors. Together, these findings underscore the power of local environments in shaping women’s nonconscious beliefs about their ingroup.
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Three studies tested basic assumptions derived from a theoretical model based on the dissociation of automatic and controlled processes involved in prejudice. Study 1 supported the model's assumption that high- and low-prejudice persons are equally knowledgeable of the cultural stereotype. The model suggests that the stereotype is automatically activated in the presence of a member (or some symbolic equivalent) of the stereotype group and that low-prejudice responses require controlled inhibition of the automatically activated stereotype. Study 2, which examined the efforts of automatic stereotype activation on the evaluation of ambiguous stereotype-relevant behaviors performed by a race-unspecified person, suggested that when subjects' ability to consciously monitor stereotype activation is precluded, both high- and low-prejudice subjects produce stereotype-congruent evaluations of ambiguous behaviors. Study 3 examined high- and low-prejudice subjects' responses in a consciously directed thought-listing task. Consistent with the model, only low-prejudice subjects inhibited the automatically activated stereotype-congruent thoughts and replaced them with thoughts reflecting equality and negations of the stereotype. The relation between stereotypes and prejudice and implications for prejudice reduction are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Article
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The research examines an unobtrusive measure of racial attitudes based on the evaluations that are automatically activated from memory on the presentation of Black versus White faces. Study 1, which concerned the technique's validity, obtained different attitude estimates for Black and White participants and also revealed that the variability among White participants was predictive of other race-related judgments and behavior. Study 2 concerned the lack of correspondence between the unobtrusive estimates and Modern Racism Scale (MRS) scores. The reactivity of the MRS was demonstrated in Study 3. Study 4 observed an interaction between the unobtrusive estimates and an individual difference in motivation to control prejudiced reactions when predicting MRS scores. The theoretical implications of the findings for consideration of automatic and controlled components of racial prejudice are discussed, as is the status of the MRS.
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An implicit association test (IAT) measures differential association of 2 target concepts with an attribute. The 2 concepts appear in a 2-choice task (2-choice task (e.g., flower vs. insect names), and the attribute in a 2nd task (e.g., pleasant vs. unpleasant words for an evaluation attribute). When instructions oblige highly associated categories (e.g., flower + pleasant) to share a response key, performance is faster than when less associated categories (e.g., insect & pleasant) share a key. This performance difference implicitly measures differential association of the 2 concepts with the attribute. In 3 experiments, the IAT was sensitive to (a) near-universal evaluative differences (e.g., flower vs. insect), (b) expected individual differences in evaluative associations (Japanese + pleasant vs. Korean + pleasant for Japanese vs. Korean subjects), and (c) consciously disavowed evaluative differences (Black + pleasant vs. White + pleasant for self-described unprejudiced White subjects).
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Although most research on the control of automatic prejudice has focused on the efficacy of deliberate attempts to suppress or correct for stereotyping, the reported experiments tested the hypothesis that automatic racial prejudice is subject to common social influence. In experiments involving actual interethnic contact, both tacit and expressed social influence reduced the expression of automatic prejudice, as assessed by two different measures of automatic attitudes. Moreover, the automatic social tuning effect depended on participant ethnicity. European Americans (but not Asian Americans) exhibited less automatic prejudice in the presence of a Black experimenter than a White experimenter (Experiments 2 and 4), although both groups exhibited reduced automatic prejudice when instructed to avoid prejudice (Experiment 3). Results are consistent with shared reality theory, which postulates that social regulation is central to social cognition.
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Research on implicit stereotypes has raised important questions about an individual's ability to moderate and control stereotypic responses. With few strategies shown to be effective in moderating implicit effects, the present research investigates a new strategy based on focused mental imagery. Across 5 experiments, participants who engaged in counterstereotypic mental imagery produced substantially weaker implicit stereotypes compared with participants who engaged in neutral, stereotypic, or no mental imagery. This reduction was demonstrated with a variety of measures, eliminating explanations based on response suppression or shifts in response criterion. Instead, the results suggest that implicit stereotypes are malleable, and that controlled processes, such as mental imagery, may influence the stereotyping process at its early as well as later stages.
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Heretofore, no research has shown that meaningful variability on the Implicit Association Test (IAT) relates to intergroup discrimination or to explicit measures of prejudice. In the current study, White undergraduates interacted separately with White and Black experimenters, and their behavior during these social interactions was assessed by trained judges and by the experimenters themselves. The participants also completed explicit measures of racial prejudice and a race IAT. As predicted, those who revealed stronger negative attitudes toward Blacks (vs Whites) on the IAT had more negative social interactions with a Black (vs a White) experimenter and reported relatively more negative Black prejudices on explicit measures. The implications of these results for the IAT and its relations to intergroup discrimination and to explicit measures of attitudes are discussed.
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This research investigated the nature of contemporary racial stereotypes and their role in social cognition. A priming experiment was conducted in which racial categories (black, white) were presented as primes, and positive and negative black and white stereotypic words were presented as test stimuli. Subjects were asked to indicate (by pressing a response key) whether the test word characteristic could “ever be true” of the prime category or was “always false,” and reaction time was recorded. As predicted, primes of black and white most facilitated response to traits stereotypically attributed to these social groups. Thus, there appear to be important similarities between the information processing of object categories and the representation and use of stereotypes in social categorization. In addition, responses to the positive and negative evaluative words suggest that positive traits are more strongly associated with whites than with blacks, and negative characteristics are more strongly associated with blacks than with whites. Implications of these findings for social cognition, racial attitudes, and nonreactive measurement are discussed.
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This study examined the influence of interracial interaction on the cognitive functioning of members of a dominant racial group. White participants had a brief interaction with either a White or a Black confederate, and then completed an ostensibly unrelated Stroop color-naming test. Prior to the interaction, participants' racial attitudes regarding Whites and Blacks were measured via the Implicit Association Test. Racial attitudes were predictive of impairment on the Stroop test for individuals who participated in interracial interactions, but not for those who participated in same-race interactions. The results are consistent with recently proposed resource models of self-regulation and executive control in that interracial interaction, a particularly taxing exercise of self-regulation for highly prejudiced individuals, negatively affected performance on a subsequent, yet unrelated, test of executive function.
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This research examined whether stigma diminishes people's ability to control their behaviors. Because coping with stigma requires self-regulation, and self-regulation is a limited-capacity resource, we predicted that individuals belonging to stigmatized groups are less able to regulate their own behavior when they become conscious of their stigmatizing status or enter threatening environments. Study 1 uncovered a correlation between stigma sensitivity and self-regulation; the more Black college students were sensitive to prejudice, the less self-control they reported having. By experimentally activating stigma, Studies 2 and 3 provided causal evidence for stigma's ego-depleting qualities: When their stigma was activated, stigmatized participants (Black students and females) showed impaired self-control in two very different domains (attentional and physical self-regulation). These results suggest that (a) stigma is ego depleting and (b) coping with it can weaken the ability to control and regulate one's behaviors in domains unrelated to the stigma.
Mind bugs: The psychology of ordinary prejudice. Paper presented at the Midwestern Psychological Association meeting Imagining stereotypes away: The moderations of implicit stereotypes through mental imagery
  • M R Banaji
  • I V Blair
  • J E Ma
  • A P Lenton
Banaji, M. R. (2005). Mind bugs: The psychology of ordinary prejudice. Paper presented at the Midwestern Psychological Association meeting, Chicago, May. Blair, I. V., Ma, J. E., & Lenton, A. P. (2001). Imagining stereotypes away: The moderations of implicit stereotypes through mental imagery. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 81(5), 828–841.
Studies 1–3 and Study 1 of the present project
  • Iat D-Scores From Amodio
IAT D-scores from Amodio and Devine (2006) Studies 1–3 and Study 1 of the present project. Amodio and Devine (2006) Present work Study 1 Study 2
Mind bugs: The psychology of ordinary prejudice. Paper presented at the Midwestern Psychological Association meeting
  • M R Banaji
Banaji, M. R. (2005). Mind bugs: The psychology of ordinary prejudice. Paper presented at the Midwestern Psychological Association meeting, Chicago, May.