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Emotional Stability as a Major Dimension of Happiness
Abstract
Happiness is associated with both extraversion and neuroticism, and extraversion is generally considered the more important. A recent study of happy introverts has shown that extraversion is not always an essential correlate of happiness, and an extensive meta-analysis has found that neuroticism is a greater predictor of both happiness and life satisfaction. It is suggested that the reason for the importance of neuroticism having been overlooked in the past, is the difficulty of handling the idea that (positive) happiness is related to the absence of a (negative) construct. This difficulty could be resolved by the reversal of neuroticism into an alternative and positive concept of “emotional stability”. Happiness could then be regarded as being associated with two positive qualities. With this change of emphasis, a short empirical study has been made of the relationships between happiness as measured by the Oxford Happiness Inventory (OHI) and extraversion and emotional stability. In bivariate and partial correlation, emotional stability was more strongly associated with happiness than extraversion, and accounted for more of the total variability in multiple regression. Emotional stability was also the greater correlate for a majority of the 29 items of the OHI, and the sole significant predictor of the happiness of younger people.
... They employ various methodologies, including correlation studies, regression analysis, analysis of variance, and structural equation modeling. For instance, a notable study led by Hills and Argyle [31], found that emotional stability was more strongly correlated with life satisfaction than extraversion, with coefficients of 0.49 and 0.53, respectively. And recently, it has been found that emotional stability is positively associated with life satisfaction [35]. ...
... This involves the incorporation of life satisfaction, from the perspective of Diener et al. [21] and Kjell and Diener [34], as well as the experience of flow, conceptualized by Getzels and Csikszentmihalyi [27] and Csikszentmihalyi and Larson [18], emphasizing the importance of immersion and intrinsic gratification in work activities. This choice is based on more than two decades of insistence on the relevant role of emotional stability in predicting happiness and life satisfaction [31]. Recent evidence presented by Olaru et al. [40], reinforces the strong relationship between these variables. ...
... These studies have identified numerous variables related to emotional stability. Although classical approaches in psychology studies are based on correlations [16,31] or have explored prospective relationships between variables using multivariate methods, such as structural equations, they may have limitations inherent to the nature and constraints of these statistical models. Nevertheless, we acknowledge in this work that these studies have been crucial to advance the understanding of emotional stability. ...
In contemporary psychological assessments, diverse traits are often evaluated using extensive questionnaires. This study focuses on the trait of emotional stability, and acknowledges the inherent limitations and issues associated with prolonged survey instruments. To address these challenges, we propose a Machine Learning (ML) approach to directly predict emotional stability, offering a more efficient alternative to bulky questionnaires. The study carefully selected variables with previously established relationships to emotional stability, utilizing a dataset of 2203 individuals who responded to a series of psychometric questionnaires. The proposed method yields promising results, achieving an R2 score of approximately 0.71 on the test set, indicating robust predictive performance. These models highlighted the significance of variables such as emotional stress and self-esteem, emphasizing their substantial role in predicting emotional stability. It is noteworthy that even with a reduced set of variables, the models remained statistically equivalent. The results provide valuable insights for predicting stability with smaller sets of variables and contribute knowledge that complements the understanding of emotional stability.
... Yet, there has been little attention to what makes some people experience frequent fluctuations in loneliness while others have a more stable trait level. Among broad Big Five personality traits, neuroticism has been defined as hyperreactivity to social stressors (Bolger & Schilling, 1991;Costa & McCrae, 1992;Eysenck & Eysenck, 1985;Hills & Argyle, 2001;Hisler et al., 2020), resulting in heightened situation-to-situation or day-to-day variability in affect (Ching et al., 2014;Geukes et al., 2017;Kuppens et al., 2007;Mader et al., 2023). Similarly, neuroticismas well as other personality traitsmay be associated with the degree to which a person's experiences of loneliness fluctuate throughout the day. ...
... Such individual differences in within-person variability may arise from differential reactivity to the social context Danneel et al., 2018;Lay et al., 2019;van Roekel et al., 2018). This is consistent with the prominent definition of neuroticism as hyperreactivity to social stressors (Bolger & Schilling, 1991;Costa & McCrae, 1992;Eysenck & Eysenck, 1985;Hills & Argyle, 2001;Hisler et al., 2020): if both the more and the less neurotic individual experience similar kinds of situations, but only the more neurotic individual is affected in their loneliness by being alone, the more neurotic individual will experience greater fluctuations in loneliness from situation to situation than the less neurotic individual. Thus, differential reactivity to social stressor can explain why personality traits may be associated with both the mean level (i.e. ...
... More broadly, differential reactivity means that individuals differ in their responses to situational cues. In particular, neuroticism has been conceptualised as hyperreactivity to social stressors (Bolger & Schilling, 1991;Costa & McCrae, 1992;Eysenck & Eysenck, 1985;Hills & Argyle, 2001;Hisler et al., 2020). Indeed, we found that highly neurotic individuals experienced greater loneliness when they were alone rather than in company. ...
Past research has linked individual differences in loneliness to Big Five personality traits. However, experience sampling studies also show intrapersonal fluctuations in loneliness. These may reflect situational factors as well as stable individual differences. Here, for the first time, we study the relationship between personality traits and within-person variation in loneliness. In a one-week experience sampling study, n = 285 Nepali participants reported feelings of loneliness three times a day (3597 observations). We use Bayesian mixed-effects location scale models to simultaneously estimate the relationship between Big Five personality traits and (a) mean levels and (b) within-person variability in loneliness. We also test whether these relationships vary depending on whether participants were alone or in the company of others. More neurotic individuals felt lonelier, especially (but not only) when they were alone. These individuals also experienced greater intrapersonal fluctuations in loneliness. These findings extend the differential reactivity hypothesis, according to which individuals vary in loneliness due to differential reactivity to social situations, and accord with the conceptual view of neuroticism as hyperreactivity to social stressors. In addition, we document the role of personality and social context in people’s everyday experience of loneliness in a non-WEIRD population.
... From the literature review, an evident positive relationship emerges between happiness and satisfaction (of life, work, personal, etc.), and a negative one with stress (e.g., Peterson et al., 2007;Schiffrin & Nelson, 2010), however, the underlying psychological mechanisms are not completely clear yet. Recently, some research has focused on the role of some psychological skills in the mechanisms of happiness; in particular, several indications seem to highlight the role of some emotional and cognitive regulation mechanisms (e.g., mindfulness, emotion regulation problems, acceptance, awareness; Hills & Argyle, 2001;Crowley et al., 2022;Quoidbach et al., 2010;Van et al. 2023). As such, we further examined the convergent and divergent validity of the measure, and basing on the above mentioned literature indications, we hypothesized that the OHQ total score will be positively associated with greater life satisfaction (e.g., Hills & Argyle, 2001) and mindful attention to the present (e.g., Crowley et al., 2022), and negatively correlated with perceived psychosocial stress (e.g., Argyle et al., 1995;Suh et al., 1996;Schiffrin & Nelson, 2010) and emotion regulation problems (e.g., Hills & Argyle, 2001;Quoidbach et al., 2010). ...
... Recently, some research has focused on the role of some psychological skills in the mechanisms of happiness; in particular, several indications seem to highlight the role of some emotional and cognitive regulation mechanisms (e.g., mindfulness, emotion regulation problems, acceptance, awareness; Hills & Argyle, 2001;Crowley et al., 2022;Quoidbach et al., 2010;Van et al. 2023). As such, we further examined the convergent and divergent validity of the measure, and basing on the above mentioned literature indications, we hypothesized that the OHQ total score will be positively associated with greater life satisfaction (e.g., Hills & Argyle, 2001) and mindful attention to the present (e.g., Crowley et al., 2022), and negatively correlated with perceived psychosocial stress (e.g., Argyle et al., 1995;Suh et al., 1996;Schiffrin & Nelson, 2010) and emotion regulation problems (e.g., Hills & Argyle, 2001;Quoidbach et al., 2010). ...
... Recently, some research has focused on the role of some psychological skills in the mechanisms of happiness; in particular, several indications seem to highlight the role of some emotional and cognitive regulation mechanisms (e.g., mindfulness, emotion regulation problems, acceptance, awareness; Hills & Argyle, 2001;Crowley et al., 2022;Quoidbach et al., 2010;Van et al. 2023). As such, we further examined the convergent and divergent validity of the measure, and basing on the above mentioned literature indications, we hypothesized that the OHQ total score will be positively associated with greater life satisfaction (e.g., Hills & Argyle, 2001) and mindful attention to the present (e.g., Crowley et al., 2022), and negatively correlated with perceived psychosocial stress (e.g., Argyle et al., 1995;Suh et al., 1996;Schiffrin & Nelson, 2010) and emotion regulation problems (e.g., Hills & Argyle, 2001;Quoidbach et al., 2010). ...
Happiness is a basic human emotional state associated with positive life and work-related outcomes. Despite being currently considered a central topic in public health research and practice, there is a paucity of valid and reliable brief
measures of happiness that have been adapted in Italian. Thus, the present study sought to investigate the psychometric
properties of a brief 8-item measure of subjective happiness, namely the Oxford Happiness Questionnaire, within an Italian sample. A total of 917 Italian adults (mean age=37.58±12.69 years; 75.7% females) volunteered for this study, and
completed measures of happiness, perceived stress, emotion dysregulation, mindful attention, and life satisfaction. The
OHQ revealed optimal psychometric properties in terms of internal validity and reliability, with an excellent fit to the
data. Further, the measure evidenced a good convergent validity, being associated with other outcomes and psychological
skills with medium-to-large effects.
... 2014). Emotional well-being during this transition is strongly linked to personality traits, like emotional stability and extraversion (DeNeve & Cooper, 1998;Diener et al., 2009;Hills & Argyle, 2001;Rich & Scovel, 1987). Social connections are also a bulwark against psychological upheaval (Helliwell & Putnam, 2004;Holt-Lunstad et al., 2015;Kawachi & Berkman, 2001). ...
... Social environments, like a university residence hall, contain sources of stress and support, which can toggle psychological distress up or down (Ensel & Lin, 1991). We replicate prior research linking well-being to the individual's emotional stability and extraversion (DeNeve & Cooper, 1998;Diener et al., 2009;Hills & Argyle, 2001;Rich & Scovel, 1987). ...
Emotional well-being has a known relationship with a person’s direct social ties, including friendships; but do ambient social and emotional features of the local community also play a role? This work takes advantage of university students’ assignment to different local networks—or “social microclimates”—to probe this question. Using Least Absolute Shrinkage and Selection Operator (LASSO) regression, we quantify the collective impact of individual, social network, and microclimate factors on the emotional well-being of a cohort of first-year college students. Results indicate that well-being tracks individual factors but also myriad social and microclimate factors, reflecting one’s peers and social surroundings. Students who belonged to emotionally stable and tight-knit microclimates (i.e., had emotionally stable friends or resided in densely connected residence halls) reported lower levels of psychological distress and higher levels of life satisfaction, even when controlling for factors such as personality and social network size. Although rarely discussed or acknowledged in the policies that create them, social microclimates are consequential to well-being, especially during life transitions. The effects of microclimate factors are small relative to some individual factors; however, they explain unique variance in well-being that is not directly captured by emotional stability or other individual factors. These findings are novel, but preliminary, and should be replicated in new samples and contexts.
... Although no previous research has explored the relationships among WOM, SAT, PL, and the BFI, the previous research suggests that happy personality traits of extraversion and emotional stability (Hills and Argyle 2001;Costa and McCrae 1980) could lead to greater SAT, PL, and positive WOM (Pavot, Diener, and Fujita 1990;Hayes and Joseph 2003;Tkach and Lyubomirsky 2006). Likewise, the personality research seems to predict that those who score lower on emotional stability will report lower levels of satisfaction and loyalty and that those reporting lower levels of extraversion will be less likely to engage in WOM (Hills and Argyle 2001;Costa and McCrae 1980). ...
... Although no previous research has explored the relationships among WOM, SAT, PL, and the BFI, the previous research suggests that happy personality traits of extraversion and emotional stability (Hills and Argyle 2001;Costa and McCrae 1980) could lead to greater SAT, PL, and positive WOM (Pavot, Diener, and Fujita 1990;Hayes and Joseph 2003;Tkach and Lyubomirsky 2006). Likewise, the personality research seems to predict that those who score lower on emotional stability will report lower levels of satisfaction and loyalty and that those reporting lower levels of extraversion will be less likely to engage in WOM (Hills and Argyle 2001;Costa and McCrae 1980). Therefore, the research posed the following question and tested the following hypotheses. ...
Within the social media community, influencers engage in a variety of collaborative practices such as tagging, reposting content from, or forming partnerships with other influencers and brands. While such collaborative efforts are a known practice, less is understood about how influencer collaborations affect consumers’ perceptions of the partnering influencers, specifically when a status differential exists within the influencer-influencer collaboration or influencer-brand collaboration. We suggest that such collaborative practices, specifically those where the focal influencer has a higher status than the collaborating partner, may help to weaken consumers’ perceptions that the influencer’s actions are purely self-focused. A pilot study, analyzing Instagram posts of 622 influencer-influencer collaborations and 1,347 influencer-brand collaborations, provides evidence that influencers engage in collaborations with other influencers and brands of different status levels. Two studies then support our theorizing that influencers who collaborate with lower-status influencers are perceived as less self-serving and more altruistic, while influencers who collaborate with lower-status brands are only perceived as less self-serving.
... When viewed alongside neuroticism, the concept of emotional stability provides an optimistic perspective on behavioural characteristics. (Hills & Argyle, 2001). Therefore, achieving organisational citizenship behaviour and the organization's goals may depend heavily on emotional stability. ...
Any organization's lifeline is its workforce. Despite the increasing dependence on technology, controlling and maintaining technical systems requires people. Employees are the most important and versatile resources in any company. The business environment is now extremely competitive due to the swift advancement occurring in all areas of the global economy. Employees now have a plethora of options due to this advancement, which makes it challenging for employers to manage and retain employees. Every organisation must retain competent employees since their skill set along with expertise is crucial for having a competitive advantage. Furthermore, companies constantly have the difficulty of addressing the requirements and expectations of their workforce. Taking into account the vital significance of citizenship behaviour that leads to retention, this study aims to examine previous research and literature on the topic, with a special emphasis on the how personality affects retention.The study has applied the social exchange and the planned behavior theory to throw light on the relationship among Big Five Personality traits, Organizational Citizenship Behaviour (OCB) and Intention to Stay (ITS) of IT & ITES professionals. The data was collected from five IT & ITES firms through online survey from 271 employees under Gen Z category but only 260 were found usable. correlation, mediation analysis, confirmatory factor analysis and Structural Equation model was conducted for testing the model. The results showed that there was strong association between these constructs. This study proves to be a theoretical framework that creates novelty and broadens the scope for future research in personality and employee retention.
... Emotional stability can be viewed as a personality trait [6]. Although researchers believe its concept and construct consistently [7], the majority of studies indicates that emotional stability is the polar opposite of neuroticism [4,8]. ...
Background
The impact of mothers’ socioeconomic status (SES) on late adolescents’ emotional stability, as well as the mechanisms underlying this relationship, remain poorly understood in China. Additionally, the mechanisms by which SES impacts emotional stability may need investigated separately for the male and female adolescents.
Method
This study conducted a snowball sampling and invited undergraduates to complete a survey via online. A sample of 445 Chinese undergraduate students (229 males, age range of 18–25 years) completed questionnaires concerning their mothers’ monthly income and educational levels, emotional stability, and maternal parenting styles. Independent samples t-test, correlation analyses and regression analyses were performed.
Results
The findings suggested the levels of emotional stability in female students were significantly lower than those of male students. Mothers’ SES was related to late adolescents’ emotional stability significantly. Moreover, maternal parenting styles (emotional warmth, punishment, overprotection, and rejection) significantly mediated the relationship between mothers’ SES and late adolescents’ emotional stability. Additionally, the particular features of these relationships varied according to the sex of the late adolescents. For the male students, maternal parenting styles could not significantly serve as mediating roles. For the female adolescents, the effect of maternal SES on emotional stability was partially mediated by four separate pathways: (1) maternal emotional warmth, (2) maternal punishment, (3) maternal overprotection, and (4) maternal rejection. These findings provide crucial practical implications for identification, prevention, and intervention efforts in late adolescents’ emotional stability across sex.
Conclusion
This study sheds light on the relationship between mothers’ SES and late adolescents’ emotional stability, and the indirect effects of maternal emotional warmth, punishment, overprotection, and rejection serving as mediating roles. Maternal parenting styles had a higher effect on the emotional stability in female adolescents than male adolescents. This also provides crucial practical implications for identifying, preventing, and intervening in late adolescent emotional stability, which may differ between female and male adolescents.
... La felicidad es un fenómeno amplio que abarca las reacciones emocionales de las personas, así como sus evaluaciones personales y generales sobre la satisfacción con la vida, es un constructo multidimensional que incluye tanto componentes cognitivos como afectivos, según Hills & Argyle (2001). ...
La presente investigación tiene como objetivo identificar los factores que influyen
en el bienestar laboral para lograr y mejorar un incremento en el índice de
productividad que es la relación existente entre producción e insumos en las
organizaciones. La metodología aplicada se utilizó una técnica de encuesta
semiestructurada realizada de forma virtual y considerada para la recolección de
datos obtenidos de una muestra aleatoria de 53 empresas y se aplicó a personas que
ejercen cargos de ingeniero y liderazgos en las áreas de calidad, procesos,
manufactura, almacén entro otros considerando un 58 % género masculino y 42 %
femenino. Como resultado se precisó que las condiciones laborales tienen una
relación positiva con el bienestar laboral en un 37.85 % seguido de un 20.72 % que
influyen las funciones laborales, impactando el clima laboral en un 20.45 % y la
comunicación laboral en un 20.98 % por lo tanto se concluyó que los ambientes
laborales saludables y positivos incrementan la creatividad, la colaboración entre
colegas y el trabajo experimental siendo motores clave del crecimiento empresarial
... Moreover, to further clarify the relationship between servant leadership and employee engagement dimensions, this study examines the mediating role of emotional stability (ES). ES is defined as the ability of an individual to be successful in managing stress, resisting his or her impulses, and adapting to the changes (Abolin, 1989;Hills & Argyle, 2001). Thus, we believe that emotional stability is essential in developing work engagement among Generation-Z employees, who often face different workplace challenges and pressures. ...
Drawing on job demand resource theory, this study examines the relationship between servant leadership and three dimensions of employee engagement i.e., vigor, dedication and absorption. This research has also investigated emotional stability as a mediator in these relationships. Moreover, it has tested the moderating role of artificial intelligence adoption (AIA) on the relationship between emotional stability and vigor, dedication and absorption. Data were collected from Generation Z employees (born after 1997) working in 3, 4, and 5-star hotels in Bangladesh and were analysed using partial least structural equation modeling. Investigation reveals that servant leadership has a dual influence on vigor, dedication and absorption directly and indirectly through emotional stability. Moreover, AIA was found to be a moderator on the relationship between emotional stability and vigor and dedication. This study has both theoretical and practical implications.
... Similarly, Fig. 7 presents the dependency plot for CEO neuroticism, revealing an inverted U-shaped relationship with CBMA completion. One possible explanation is that lower levels of neuroticism correlate with emotional stability (Hills & Argyle, 2001), enabling CEOs to more calmly assess risks and opportunities in CBMA. They may approach decision-making with greater rationality, maintaining clarity when addressing complex issues. ...
The issue of cross-border merger and acquisition (CBMA) completion has garnered significant attention from scholars, yet existing research primarily focuses on macro- and meso-level determinants, with limited exploration of micro-level factors. Drawing on upper echelons theory, this study examines the predictive power of three categories of CEO characteristics—demographic background, professional background, and personality traits—on CBMA completion. Utilizing a dataset of 4,541 CBMA transactions announced by U.S.-listed firms from 1990 to 2021, we employ the LightGBM machine learning model and SHapley Additive exPlanations (SHAP) algorithms to analyze the importance and predictive patterns of these CEO characteristics. Our findings reveal that CEO personality traits, overall, exhibit the strongest predictive power among the three categories. The top five CEO characteristics identified are CEO conscientiousness, CEO promotion focus, CEO external focus, CEO duality, and CEO neuroticism, with many characteristics displaying non-linear relationships with CBMA completion. This study extends the application of upper echelons theory to the domain of CBMA completion and highlights new avenues for future research.
... Studies conducted to date indicate that in the labour market, health, happiness, and well-being have varying levels of consequences that affect behaviour patterns such as job performance, absenteeism, and turnover (Warr 2011). In accordance with Hills and Argyle (2001), happiness emerges as a multidimensional construct comprising cognitive and emotional facets. Building upon Veenhoven and Argyle's (1989) perspective, happiness may be construed as synonymous with life satisfaction, aligning with the concept of subjective well-being introduced by Diener. ...
... It could be understood that regardless of differences in SES, when students are satisfied with their social relationships and are aware of the supportive resources around them, they feel happier and tend to live healthier lives (Awang, Kutty and Ahmad 2014). This result not only supported but also extended to the previous findings on the importance of social relationships for well-being across a wide range of subjects (Goswami 2012, Hills and Argyle 2001, Myers 2000. Besides, there is no correlation between the quality of relationships and the self-evaluation of academic achievement. ...
The current study investigated the impact of predictive factors on the well-being of undergraduates in Ho Chi Minh City. Those factors were relationship satisfaction, academic achievement satisfaction, and financial well-being. Besides, the study explored the effectiveness of gratitude journaling in increasing students' well-being. There are two phases in this study, in the first phase, referred to as study 1, a total of 102 undergraduates from twenty-two universities in Ho Chi Minh City were surveyed. After being controlled for individual differences in socioeconomic status, the multiple linear regression results showed that satisfaction in the relationship and academic achievement positively predicted overall well-being, while financial well-being did not make a significant contribution. In the second phase, which is study 2, forty-five participants from study 1 agreed to move on to this phase, where they were randomly divided into two groups for a controlled pre and post-experiment. The experimental group practiced self-guided gratitude journaling for seven days. Analysis of covariance assessment was made to evaluate the impact model and the improvement of participants' well-being before and after the experiment. Results showed that the difference in well-being between the control and experimental group was insignificant and did not come directly from practicing gratitude journaling, but might indicate individual and cultural differences in well-being. Further research on cross-cultural differences and standardized protocol is encouraged.
... It is also known that change causes emotional instability about possible outcomes, so people generally resist change (Coch & French, 1948). Similarly, emotional stability has been shown to be a fundamental factor in personal happiness (Hills & Argyle, 2001). Does this mean that people who work in learning organizations that are constantly changing are actually unhappy? ...
This chapter, entitled “Critical review of the concept of the learning organization and the learning enterprise,” from the third part of the book Managing Learning Enterprises, entitled “Possibilities of implementing the concept of a learning organization and enterprise,” highlights numerous problem areas in the implementation of learning organizations, some of which represent real dangers in the implementation of this philosophy and others that deserve to be discredited and debunked. First, the problem of implementing learning disciplines at the individual level was discussed, which are inherently human but require willingness, effort, and dedicated perseverance. The possibility of implementing learning disciplines was discussed through the prism of modern formal education leading to individual career goals. Then there is the problem of organizational democratization when it comes to reaching consensus on shared visions and mental models. Lack of consensus on learning organization ideas and a positivist nature of research were also identified as factors that do not contribute to faster implementation of learning organization ideas. Issues such as individuals identifying with the characteristics of theory X or Y and prior learning experiences were discussed, as well as the fact that constant learning, change, and transformation are challenging for people and disrupt their sense of stability, which can lead to discomfort and stress. However, learning organizations were identified as organizations made up of people with a different mindset and a higher level of awareness, which is explained in more detail in the last chapter of the book.
... It is a multidimensional construct comprising both emotional and cognitive elements. 4 TERMINOLOGIES TO DISTINGUISH FROM: Many terms have been used interchangeably with happiness such as life satisfaction, flow, peak experience, well-being and quality of life. Happiness reflects psychological or subjective well-being, indicating a state of mind associated with success or satisfaction. ...
... The dimension of emotional stability is debated in the literature in relation to its opposite, neuroticism [81], and is grounded in an avoidance temperament, reflecting tendencies to experience fear, sadness, distress and physiological arousal [77,78,82]. Given this vulnerability to distress, neuroticism should lead to emotion-focused coping and disengagement from threats [79]. ...
The complexity of today’s scenario has made it necessary to investigate the need for individuals to make choices that entail increasing exposure to risk and uncertainty. Among the individual resources that could help people to cope with situations of uncertainty, the new construct of subjective risk intelligence (SRI), known as a person’s ability to effectively weigh the pros and cons of a decision in situations where not all the outcomes are foreseen, would seem to play a prominent role. Considering that personality and coping strategies have been shown to be significantly related in previous research, the present study investigates the relationships between subjective risk intelligence, emotional intelligence, personality traits and coping strategies in both adults and adolescents. This cross-sectional study was conducted on 1390 Italian people, divided into two subsamples of 641 adolescents and 749 adults. The results showed that SRI mediated the roles that personality traits and emotional intelligence have in coping strategies differently in the adult sample, in which the mediating role of SRI was found for avoidance coping, and in the adolescent sample, in which SRI influenced all of the antecedents analysed in the study for almost all of the identified coping strategies. In light of these findings, subjective risk intelligence could be activated to deal with uncertain and risky situations, influencing the choice of effective or ineffective strategies in both adults and adolescents.
... Various research studies have been carried out to study the relationship between happiness and academic achievement of students. Hills and Argyle (2001) found a positive relationship of happiness with emotional stability, life satisfaction and self-esteem. Natvig et al. (2003) found no relationship between happiness and stress among adolescents. ...
This research aims to study the level of happiness and its relationship with the academic achievement of senior secondary students studying in government and private schools of Jaipur province in Rajasthan. For this purpose, 157 students studying in class XI in government and private schools in both rural and urban areas of Jaipur province were randomly selected. The sample consists of 78 male and 79 female students. Results show that most of the students have an average level of happiness. Female students are happier than male students. Besides this, the happiness level of senior secondary students is positively correlated with their academic achievement, however, there is no significant correlation between the two.
... Emotional stability is considered to be the stronger predictor of happiness of life and satisfaction in life. ( (Hills Peter, 2001) Hypotheses Based on the review of literature and studies conducted earlier in this regard, the following hypotheses were formulated for verification of the study by the way of empirical investigation. ...
The present study titled “Influence of television serials on the emotional stability of homemakers” aims to discussed about the relationship between demographic features such as age, gender, marital status and education qualification of home makers who are regularly watching television serials on emotional stability and the reasons for watching television serials. Convenience sampling method was adopted for the selection of sample of 97 homemakers in Palakkad district. Friedman test, independent sample t-test and one-way ANOVA was adopted to study the relationship. It was found that there is no substantial difference between age, gender of the homemakers on emotional stability. But the factor marital status and education qualification has a significant relation with the emotional stability. Relaxation is found to be the most important reason for watching television serials by the homemakers.
... The study of economics involves the interaction between goals and limited resources; it is the study of human behavior Robbins (1932). Warner Wilson listed the following qualities of a happy person in 1967: "young, healthy, welleducated, well-paid, extroverted, optimistic, carefree, religious, married, self-sufficient high esteem, good morale, and hard work; low aspirations; of both sexes and numerous distinct intellectuals" Hills and Argyle (2001); B. S. . Recent studies suggest that social capital may be an important factor that has been overlooked Edward Diener, Lucas, and Oishi (2002); Helliwell (2006). ...
By employing data from the world values survey to analyze Pakistan’s determinants of happiness, the new study has expanded our understanding of happiness.The current analysis focused on the seventh wave of data that was looked at for Pakistan between 2017 and 2020. The entire sample size is roughly 1995 people, and a range of sociodemographic and economic factors are taken into account. The estimation was done using the partial least squares (PLS) approach. Several social and economic factors, including religiosity, economic values, social capital, and security, might affect a person’s happiness, according to some theoretical studies. To yet, empirical research on the factors that influence happiness & wellbeing has produced conflicting results. Empirical research on social capital explains how it affects specific people, families, communities, provinces, or even nations. The level from which data is acquired varies amongst those researches. Investigating if social capital actually improved people’s well-being in Pakistan was interesting in this sense. The PLS model’s results support the findings of the earlier research and show that Security is positively insignificant for instance, it has a favorable impact on happiness,but at 5%, it not statistically significant. Similar to the past findings, wealthy people are discovered to be happier. Religiosity, social capital, and economic values all have a favorable impact on happiness.
... Among these studies, one continuously proposed argument was that genetics and personality had key impacts on our levels of subjective wellbeing (SWB) and human happiness [2][3][4][5]. The important individual characteristics that were associated with SWB and its subscales included the big five factors of extraversion, conscientiousness, and emotional stability [6][7][8]. Optimism, as an indicator of personal disposition, is generally conceptualized as an attitude toward or cognitive expectancy of positive outcomes [9]. It is believed that people with greater optimism tend to be more favorably adjusted to difficulties, associated with lower levels of anxiety and depression and better physical or psychological wellbeing. ...
Positive psychology has attracted increasing attention from many scholars worldwide. There is a considerable body of knowledge on the relationship between optimism and subjective well-being (SWB). However, their mediation mechanism has not been fully studied, and most of the current conclusions were formulated within the context of Western culture, with a limited number of empirical studies specifically targeting Chinese people. Based on the theories of self-regulation and stress coping, our research aimed to validate the association between optimism and SWB among Chinese adults and further investigate the mediating effect of positive and negative coping in this relationship. In Study 1, using a national dataset from the Chinese General Social Survey (N = 12,582), we captured the direct positive relationship between optimism and SWB. In Study 2, taking a cross-sectional study (N = 272), we found the mediating effect of positive and negative coping in the relationship between optimism and SWB according to correlation and regression analysis. In Study 3, taking a cross-lagged study (N = 343), we reverified the results of Study 2 and found negative coping no longer played a role as a mediator after accounting for the factors of social desirability and state anxiety in the analysis. These findings are worthwhile for paying attention to Chinese people’s optimistic traits and the pathways to improving their subjective well-being using different coping behaviors.
... Research conducted on elder people in Iran indicates that there is a positive connection between social adjustment and happiness which also supports our current research findings (Moeini et al., 2018). Hills and Argyle (2001) found that emotional stability is the major dimension of happiness among elders and according to Anila and Dhanalakshmi (2016) happiness and well-being had a positive significant correlation with hopefulness. Hayat et al (2016) suggested that a person who lives in the residence of an old age home honestly changes their thinking pattern and makes the optimistic relation between social adjustment and hope. ...
Objective: The prime objective of the current study was assimilating and
extending the knowledge as well as insights which are from earlier researches
and exploring the impact of social adjustment, emotional stability on hope, and
happiness of old age home residents.
Design: Cross-sectional survey research design with purposive sampling was
used.
Place and duration of study: Present study was conducted in Pakistan in Feb�Dec 2020.
Subject and Method: Older adults (N = 150), including Men (n = 75) and
women (n = 75) age range 65 years to 85 years (M= 69.65; SD= 5.58), from old
homes in Lahore and Rawalpindi of Pakistan, completed the Social Adjustment
scale, Neuroticism subscales of NEO FFI), Subjective Happiness Scale), and
Dispositional Hope Scale.
Results and Conclusion: Pearson correlation indicated a significant correlation
among all study variables. Linear regression analysis indicated that social
adjustment and emotional stability are positive predictors of hope and happiness.
Moreover, the effect of demographic variable (gender) was also determined.
Findings from the t-test depicted that emotional stability, happiness and hope is
high in older men than older women. So as a current study planned to investigate
the impact of social adjustment, emotional stability on hope and happiness of old
age home residents, the study’s findings revealed that social adjustment and
emotional stability are a significantly positive impact on hope and happiness.
The findings are also beneficial for its implication in issues related to
gerontology.
Keywords: Social Adjustment; Emotional Stability; Hope; Happiness; Old Age
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... Argyls describes happiness as being in a state of delight and other positive emotions, being satisfied with one's life, and the absence of depression, anxiety, and other negative emotions. [7] Psychologists have offered several definitions of happiness. According to some psychologists, happiness is the degree to which a person generally judges the overall quality of his or her entire life as a perfectly desirable life. ...
BACKGROUND
Happiness and life satisfaction are positive indicators of mental health that should be considered by higher education and health officials. The aim of this study was to investigate the status of happiness and life satisfaction in students of Mazandaran University of Science and Technology during the outbreak of Coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19).
MATERIALS AND METHODS
This research is practical in terms of purpose and descriptive survey in terms of nature. The statistical population of this research was 2500 people. A total of 333 samples were selected by stratified random sampling. Data collection was performed using the standard Oxford Happiness Questionnaire and data analysis was performed by Friedman test, mean, and ranking.
RESULTS
All dimensions of happiness of students of Mazandaran University of Science and Technology at the time of the outbreak of COVID-19 were in a relatively favorable situation. The dimensions of happiness were positive mood (3.57), positive energy (3.56), satisfaction (3.02), self-esteem (2.80), and life satisfaction (2.04). There was a significant difference between the dimensions of happiness and the variables of family income status (students with better financial status had a higher average), field of study (civil engineering students had a higher average), and gender (women had a higher average). No significant difference was found among the variables of marriage, educational level, semester, or rank in terms of several family children, with the dimensions of happiness.
CONCLUSION
Examining the dimensions of students’ happiness during the COVID-19 crisis will help the officials of the higher education system, in addition to planning to maintain the personal health and safety of students and curriculum appropriate to the time of crisis, and implement appropriate programs to maintain and promote the mental health and happiness of students.
... Bu bağlamda mutluluk algılananların beklentileri karşılaması ile doğru orantılı bir kavramdır. Mutluluk, duygusal ve bilişsel unsurları içeren çok boyutlu bir yapıdır (Hills & Argyle, 2001: 1357. Duygusal boyutta olumlu duygular ve olumsuz duygular mutluluğa etki ederken, bilişsel boyutta ise yaşam doyumu mutluluğu etkilemektedir (Kılınç ve Akdemir, 2019: 800) ve bu boyutlarıyla mutluluk sosyal yaşamı olduğu kadar iş yaşamını da etkilemektedir. ...
Günümüzde işletmeler “işte çalışan insan” yerine “işi yönlendiren insanı” tercih etmektedir. Çünkü değişen ve gelişen dünyada teknolojik şartlarla birlikte işletmeler arasındaki rekabet oldukça artmış ve işletmelerin çalışanlardan beklentileri de farklılaşmıştır. İşletme yönetimleri çalışanlarını dinleyerek, onlardan geri bildirimler alarak onların bilgi, beceri ve deneyimlerinden yönetim faaliyetlerinde faydalanmak istemektedirler. Dolayısıyla işyerinde sosyal cesareti ve iletişimi iyi bireylere ihtiyaç duyulmaktadır. Bu sayede çalışanlar işyerinde kendilerini rahat bir şekilde ifade edebilecektir. Sosyal cesaret davranışlarının özendirildiği çalışma iklimi ve ortamı çalışanların mutluluğunu etkileyecek ve neticede çalışmalarına da yansıyacaktır. Bu çalışmada, işyerinde sergilenen sosyal cesaret davranışlarının işyeri mutluluğuna olan etkisi ölçülmek istenmiştir. Bu ana amacın yanısıra çalışanların sergiledikleri sosyal cesaret davranışları ve işyeri mutluluk düzeyleri ile bu düzeylerin çalışanların demografik özelliklerine göre farklılık gösterip göstermediğini belirlemek de çalışmanın diğer amaçlarını oluşturmaktadır. Çalışmanın örneklemini Samsun ilinde yer alan bir belediyenin 188 çalışanı oluşturmaktadır. Çalışanlardan “İşyerinde Sosyal Cesaret Davranışları Ölçeği” ve “İşyerinde Mutluluk Ölçeği” ile elde edilen veriler bağımsız örneklem t-testi, Anova, korelasyon ve regresyon analizleri ile incelenmiştir. Elde edilen sonuçlar çerçevesinde işyerinde gösterilen sosyal cesaretin işyeri mutluluğunu pozitif yönde ve anlamlı bir biçimde etkilediği tespit edilmiştir.
... It is often conceptualized as being prone to experience negative emotional states like fear, depression, anxiety, anger, and shame (Leikas, Mäkinen, Lönnqvist, & Verkasalo, 2009). The existing research shows that while emotional stability is positively correlated with happiness (Hills & Argyle, 2001), life satisfaction (Smith & Konik, 2021), mental well-being (Yıldırım & Atilla, 2021), psychological well-being (Hicks & Mehta, 2018) and subjective well-being (Jensen, Kirkegaard Thomsen, O'Connor & Mehlsen, 2020), it is negatively correlated with depression (Giota & Kleftaras, 2013) and anxiety (Cömertoğlu, 2021). When all these relationships are considered, it can be said that emotional stability is important for the adjustment of the individual. ...
Today, one of the environments where most of the people interact with other people is virtual environments. In these environments, some individuals may be exposed to ostracism by others. This state of exclusion can also have some adverse effects on the psychological adjustment of individuals. In this context, the purpose of the current study is to investigate the mediator role of emotional stability in the relationship between university students' problems of psychological adjustment and cyberostracism. The study employed the relational survey model. The study group of the study is comprised of 320 undergraduate students in the 2021-2022 academic year. In the analysis of the collected data, Pearson Moments Correlation Coefficient analysis was conducted in SPSS-22 and the mediaton analysis was conducted. As a result of the analyses conducted within the context of the current study, it was found that the cyberostracism of the university students negatively and significantly predicted their emotional stability, while it positively and significantly predicted their psychological adjustment problems. In addition, it was determined that emotional stability played a mediator role in the relationship between university students' problems of psychological adjustment and cyberostracism. The findings of the study were discussed in relation to literature and suggestions were made.
... A agradabilidade do líder indica um perfil mais conciliador, cooperativo e agradável (Goldberg, 1990). A estabilidade emocional esperada para o líder está relacionada aos indivíduos que possuem poucas queixas de ansiedades e preocupações pessoais, e que demonstram uma estabilidade emocional, tranquilidade e controle (Hills & Argyle, 2001). A alta conscienciosidade dos indivíduos corrobora o comportamento ético do líder, pois estes valorizam a honestidade, respeito aos deveres e responsabilidades (Walumbwa & Schaubroeck, 2009). ...
Ethical leadership has been increasingly investigated, given the impact it may have on workers and organizations. The objective of this study is to analyze the state of the art of research on ethical leadership, identifying the antecedent and consequent variables, main authors, and locus of publications. Data were collected from the Web of Science platform and analyzed both qualitatively and quantitatively. The results show that the volume of publications grew significantly after 2007, having identified the most influential authors and collaboration networks. Most studies were developed in the United States and China, and they focus primarily on the consequences of the ethical exercise of leadership, however the factors that may favor this behavior in leaders are still incipient. The study advanced the understanding of the construct, identifying contributions and gaps in scientific research, in addition to presenting trends and research opportunities in this field of knowledge.
... This might mean that trainees who are less emotionally stable relate more with EBEs, and this fits with the previous hypotheses that those with lived experience connect with others who also have lived experience. Emotional stability is linked with better mental health outcomes (Hills & Argyle, 2001) and therefore a negative predictor of this could mean that trainees with experiences of mental illness relate more with EBEs, due to their common experiences of emotional instability. Emotional stability also negatively predicted affective trainee identification, and this may be explained through the certainty that comes through belonging to a social identity that reduces emotional instability (Hogg, 2012). ...
There is an exponential growth in lived experience work in the field of mental health, education, and research. Those in lived experience roles are people with personal experience of services and disabilities that use their experiences to help inform service provision that better meets the needs of other service users. The lead researcher has engaged in this type of work herself and noted that it made a profound impact on her identity. However, the current theoretical framework on identity including social identities and role identities, do not account for identities that span service user and service provider, as they are typically considered binary and oppositional. Therefore, this thesis aimed to explore and give greater clarity to the identities within this sector, how they can work together more effectively, and to better support the process of lived experience work. To explore this, Study 1, a systematic review of the literature was conducted to understand the identities of lived experience researchers and providers. The EMERGES framework was developed, encompassing, Empowerment, Motivation, Empathy of the self and others, Recovery model and medical model, Growth and transformation, Exclusion and Survivor roots, factors influencing identity. The findings suggested that identity in the field of clinical psychology was under researched, providing the rationale to study the collective identity of clinical psychology training and its subgroups of Experts by Experience, Expert Carers, Trainee Clinical Psychologists and Experts by Qualification in separate focus groups in Study 2, to observe how their identities were socially constructed. It was hypothesized that the process of identification between trainees and their trainers would be influenced by individual differences in mental health and professional identities and personality differences which was tested in Study 3, a pilot study. Quantitative methods were used to understand how trainee clinical psychologists identified with these trainers. An in-group identification measure for trainee clinical psychologists was tested for reliability and validity. The study found three factors of cognitive, affective, and evaluative identification. Study 4, a preliminary study, gathered findings from across the thesis to understand lived experience researchers' needs from supervision using Q methodology. Three types of lived experience researchers were found, the first focused on developing their skills, identity, growth, and empowerment, the second focused on understanding their relational and emotional link to the research, and the third focused on support to navigate personal and professional identities in practical and emotional ways. Together these studies provide insight into the identities in mental health, education, and research and ways to forward lived experience work.
... They are generally calm and composed and would be resilient enough. According to Hills & Argyle (2001) an emotionally stable person is those expected to complain little about their worries and anxieties, expected to be calm and composed. It correlated more strongly with overall happiness, satisfaction with life and self-esteem. ...
Emotional stability is defined as the ability of an individual to keep one’s emotional balance under pressure. At the same time, coping allows an individual to grow and move forward when dealing with stress. With the academic demand of engineering courses, it is essential to understand emotional stability and general coping, as education can also be stressful. Thus, the main goal of the present study was to investigate if emotional stability predicts the general coping skills among engineering students using simple linear regression. A total of 445 students, ages 18-20, participated in the study. Out of 445 students, 217 were male, and 228 were female. Results revealed that students were emotionally stable, with a mean score of 6.66 which can be interpreted as a high average. It means that participants in the current study are at ease in handling problems, can quickly recover from an emotional upset, and are generally satisfied with life. Likewise, the score in general coping also shows a high average with a mean score of 60.40 which means that engineering students have good coping skills that help them tolerate, minimize, and deal with stressful life situations. Moreover, the simple linear regression results show that emotional stability is not a strong predictor for general coping skills. For engineering students in the present study, aside from emotional stability, other factors contribute to their coping skills. Moreover, it is still good to note that emotional stability has a direct relationship with general coping as indicated by the regression model.
... Thirdly, all the participants demonstrated a generally good energy level and unbelievable emotional stability. This is a good potential explanation of the contradiction between high anxiety and pressure and good well-being levels as emotional stability is credited as "the sole significant predictor of the happiness of younger people" [9]. ...
The purpose of this research is to address the growing attention on students mental health by examining how grades, which take up a huge portion of every student's daily life, can positively or negatively affect a student's happiness level. Many previous pieces of research on this topic adopted a very general perspective and focused on the global sample size. As a result, this study aims to concentrate exclusively on examining the correlation between grades and the daily happiness level of 39 Chinese high school students attending Shanghai Foreign Language High School. By drawing on reviews of similar studies before and distributing an online survey to participants through Wechat, the main Chinese communication platform, a curious phenomenon was identified. Despite reporting to be under great stress and suffering from occasional anxiety attacks, the participants reflected very positively on their daily mood and energy level, and I failed to identify a correlation due to the conflicting survey results. Future research should be conducted by further expanding on the sample size and investigating the special mental mechanism Chinese high school students potentially develop from their unique educational environment.
... While some authors link emotional stability with neuroticism (Sosnowska et al., 2019), some call neuroticism emotional instability (Jeronimus, 2015), others use the terms interchangeably (Arora & Rangnekar, 2015;Ali et al., 2011: Schmitt, 2007. Hills & Argyle (2001) call emotional stability neuroticism in reverse order. It is the inverse of neuroticism, and it is said that persons low in neuroticism, that is, high in emotional stability, are not easily derailed in their mission by psychological distress (Waheed et al., 2017), Schmitt et al., 2008;Soldz & Vaillant, 1999), while those high in it (and low in emotional stability) are nervous, moody, insecure and highly distracted because they cannot manage their mood and feelings effectively (Barrick & Mount, 1991;Lord et al., 1986). ...
The supervisory authority and the industry executives have expressed concerns over the low insurance uptake in Nigeria in spite of the importance of that subsector in any economy. Over the years, most studies conducted on the sales of insurance products in Nigeria and many other African countries have concentrated on the effects of customer's socioeconomic and demographic factors while the effects of salesperson's characteristics have not been given serious attention. This study investigated the ways a salesperson's personality traits could impact on his effectiveness in selling insurance products in Nigerian. Traits theories including those of Carl Jung, Duckworth, Five Factor theory and HEXACO were briefly discussed but the work is essentially on the five-factor personality traits. The survey data obtained were analyzed to disaggregate the specific effects of each factor on the productivity of insurance salespersons. Data were obtained from 125 sales managers across insurance companies via a structured questionnaire and we tested the five formulated propositions with least square method. Among the five attributes examined, the most important determinants of salesperson's productivity are his openness to experience and his emotional stability. It is recommended that insurance executives, in their recruitment exercise, should give consideration to the individuals who are dynamic in creativity, highly imaginative and high in emotional stability.
This study aimed to develop and validate an instrument to measure Christians’ perceived control. A review of the literature identified secondary perceived control, including vicarious and interpretive control, as strategies adopted by Christians to cope with life situations. A newly developed six-item Christian Secondary Control Scale (CSCS) comprised of two three-item subscales was introduced. The results of the factor analysis revealed that the CSCS is a one-factor rather than a two-factor scale. In the validation study, while unique subjective wellbeing variance was explained by the CSCS, none was accounted for by the generic secondary control scale. Thus, the predictive usefulness of this new scale is supported. The theoretical and practical significance of this new scale is also discussed.
The metacognition of one’s planning strategy constitutes a “second-level” of metacognition that goes beyond the knowledge and monitoring of one’s cognition and refers to the ability to use awareness mechanisms to regulate execution of present or future actions effectively. This study investigated the relation between metacognition of one’s planning strategy and the behavioral and electrophysiological (EEG) correlates that support strategic planning abilities during performance in a complex decision-making task. Moreover, a possible link between task execution, metacognition, and individual differences (i.e., personality profiles and decision-making styles) was explored. A modified version of the Tower of Hanoi task was proposed to a sample of healthy participants, while their behavioral and EEG neurofunctional correlates of strategic planning were collected throughout the task with decisional valence. After the task, a metacognitive scale, the 10-item Big Five Inventory, the General Decision-Making Style inventory, and the Maximization Scale were administered. Results showed that the metacognitive scale enables to differentiate between the specific dimensions and levels of metacognition that are related to strategic planning behavioral performance and decision. Higher EEG delta power over left frontal cortex (AF7) during task execution positively correlates with the metacognition of one’s planning strategy for the whole sample. While increased beta activity over the left frontal cortex (AF7) during task execution, higher metacognitive beliefs of efficacy and less willingness to change their strategy a posteriori were correlated with specific personality profiles and decision-making styles. These findings allow researchers to delve deeper into the multiple facets of metacognition of one’s planning strategy in decision-making.
Proactive career behaviors are critical for employee development, especially in today’s uncertain environment. This study explores the impact of work–family conflict on proactive career behaviors, focusing on the mediating role of career resilience and the moderating role of conscientiousness, grounded in the conservation of resources theory. Using two-wave data from 169 employees in China, the results show that work–family conflict leads to a decrease in proactive career behaviors, with career resilience serving as a mediator. Additionally, conscientiousness intensifies the negative effects of work–family conflict on proactive career behaviors. This research provides an initial investigation into the link between work–family conflict and proactive career behaviors, offering practical implications for human resource management and career counseling.
Maintenance goals have a fundamental albeit understudied role in human motivation. From health to relationships, to personal possessions and the environment, the things people value require regular care. When maintaining a friendship, for instance, one may need to catch‐up regularly, share life updates and offer support, and occasionally make time to meet and spend time together. Distinct from the more commonly studied approach and avoidance goals, maintenance goals focus on sustaining current states over time, a process that has recently begun to attract increasing scholarly attention. This paper explores the construct of maintenance goals; It provides a comprehensive review of key findings and offers a novel perspective on the potential role of maintenance in individual and collective behavior, centering on topics such as well‐being, leadership, and group perceptions across different cultural contexts. By integrating theory with empirical evidence, this review underscores the necessity of incorporating maintenance goals into a broader psychological framework and recognizes their potential to inform interventions aimed at fostering resilience and stability in an ever‐changing world.
Purpose: This study investigated “Social Disengagement and the Psychological Well-being among Ageing Persons (60 years and above) in Mezam Division, Northwest Region of Cameroon. In the past, care for the elderly was the responsibility of the family and the entire community (respect, care and affection traditionally reserved for them). Today, the elderly face social disengagement, coupled with financial insecurity. The majority of them do not benefit from any pension and for those lucky enough to have one, it is too paltry to allow them to live decently. Hence, this study investigated whether social disengagement affects the psychological well-being of ageing persons. Materials and Methods: The concurrent-nested mixed method research design was used in conducting the study whereby both quantitative and qualitative paradigms were used. A sample of 350 ageing persons was chosen for this study using purposive and snowball sampling techniques. Data were analysed following a triangulation approach in methodology, analytical process and statistical packages. Descriptive and inferential statistical techniques were used to analyse the data collected from the field. For descriptive statistics, measures of central tendencies such as the mean, measures of dispersion (standard deviation), frequency tables and percentages were used to answer research questions while the point biserial correlation test was used to compare relationships within the variables under investigation at 0.05 probability level. To verify the hypothesis, linear regression analysis was conducted at a 0.05 level of significance. Findings: From the data analysed, it was revealed that social disengagement significantly influenced the psychological wellbeing of ageing persons and accounted for 11.1% of its variance R2 =.111, F (1,328) = 40.966, p < 0.01. Implications to Theory, Practice and Policy: Based on these findings, some recommendations were made as follows; family members, the entire community, civil organisations and welfare services should get more acquainted to the aging by creating channels of interaction with them, respecting them, providing social support to them as well as caring and showing affection to them.
The outbreak of COVID-19 raised significant concerns regarding mental health and well-being. Although the research conducted after the onset of the pandemic was extensive, literature shows conflicting findings regarding the impact of the pandemic on well-being. Using two waves (2019 and 2020) of the Dutch LISS panel data (N = 3928), we test the extent to which changes in emotional stability triggered by the onset of the pandemic explain changes in mental health and well-being. Contrary to our expectations, our results indicate an increase in emotional stability that explains the changes in mental health and life satisfaction. Our findings are indicative of stress-related growth, revealing a resilient response of the Dutch population in relation to the onset of the COVID-19 pandemic.
Introduction:
Happiness is crucial to patient well-being and their acceptance of their disease. The aim of this study was to assess the sense of happiness in persons with multiple sclerosis (PwMS), compare it to the level of happiness in patients with other neurological conditions, and determine which factors affect the sense of happiness in PwMS.
Material and methods:
Five hundred and eighty-nine PwMS and 145 control subjects (post-stroke patients with chronic pain syndromes and neuropathies) were included in the study. Due to the differences between the groups in terms of demographic variables, an adjusted group of PwMS (n = 145) was selected from the entire group of PwMS. All patients were assessed using the Oxford Happiness Questionnaire (OHQ), the Satisfaction with Life Scale (SLS), and the Family APGAR Questionnaire. Based on regression analysis, the study examined which variables affected the level of happiness in the groups.
Results:
Analysis of the OHQ scores showed that PwMS had a lower sense of happiness compared to the control group in the overall score [113.21 (25-42) vs. 119.88 (25-49), respectively; p = 0.031] and the subscales (OHQ subscale 1 - 54.52 vs. 57.84, respectively; p = 0.027; subscale 2 - 35.61 vs. 37.67; respectively; p = 0.044). Based on linear regression analysis, life satisfaction (β = 0.40; p < 0.001), positive orientation (β = 0.32; p < 0.001), and primary education (β = 0.08; p = 0.009) were the most significant predictors of a higher level of happiness in PwMS. Similar results were found in the control group.
Conclusions:
The sense of happiness in PwMS was lower than in patients with other conditions. The most important factors influencing happiness included life satisfaction and positive orientation. Influencing these predictors should be the aim of psychological interventions, especially in patients with a reduced sense of happiness.
The elderly population has been steadily increasing. The discussion about aging and ways of reducing problems which were exposed in this period is one of the most common issues in modern societies. Therefore, this study aimed to investigate effectiveness of group reminiscence on happiness and life expectancy of elderly in Tehran city. This research was quasi-experimental with pretest-posttest and control group. The study population consisted all of people 60 years old in Tehran. Sample of 30 eligible elderly was selected by convenience sampling method and were assigned randomly in 2 groups of 15 individuals. Oxford Happiness Questionnaire and Miller's life expectancy were used to collect data. Then group reminiscence therapy was administered on experimental group in 8 sessions and finally posttest was taken from experimental and control groups. Kolmogorov-Smirnov, Levin and Covariance were used to analyze data. The findings suggested that group reminiscence therapy can increase happiness and life expectancy of elderly in experimental group (P>0.05). According to this study's results, it is recommended that health system officials take step towards increasing happiness and life expectancy of elderly by introducing and training reminiscence to families, counselors and social workers in elderly care centers
This research investigates the contents, antecedents, and mediators of happiness in the Indian state of Assam. The first study examines the content and meanings of happiness in Assamese culture. Posing exploratory questions, a thematic analysis of the narrations of 53 participants revealed 18 themes, grouped into intrinsic or content and extrinsic or context factors of happiness. The content and meanings of happiness embrace a blend of ancient Indian, Eastern, and Western concepts. Based on these results, a culture‐sensitive happiness scale is constructed in the second study. It further tests whether life skills mediate the relationship between character strength and happiness. Data from 503 Assamese participants showed that the one‐factor model of happiness, combining all 14 items of intrinsic and extrinsic factors, is acceptable. It has measurement invariance across male and female genders and high‐ and low‐income groups. To ensure criterion‐related validity, the happiness of people is associated with their well‐being profiles. Adjusting the confounding effects of age and sex of participants, it is observed that character strengths do not promote happiness but pass through life skills fully to promote happiness.
The study aimed to identify the level of happiness among a sample of students from the University of Misurata, as well as to know the differences in happiness according to gender, specialization and stage of study, on a sample of (375) male and female students from the University of Misurata, who were chosen randomly, including (137) males and ( 238) females, and the comparative descriptive approach was used as the appropriate approach for the objectives of the study, and the happiness scale prepared by (Abbott, et al, 2006) was used. Data, and statistical methods included the use of arithmetic means, standard deviations, Pearson correlation coefficient, and a t-test for the significance of differences between averages and analysis of variance.
Background
The complexity of today's scenario has made it necessary to investigate the need for individuals to make choices that entail increasing exposure to risk and uncertainty. Among the individual resources that could help people to cope with situations of uncertainty, the new construct of subjective risk intelligence, known as a person's ability to effectively weigh the pros and cons of a decision in situations where not all outcomes are foreseen, would seem to play a prominent role. Considering that personality and coping strategies have been shown to be significantly related in previous research, the present study investigates the relationship between subjective risk intelligence, emotional intelligence, personality traits and coping strategies in both adults and adolescents.
Methods
The cross sectional study was conducted on 1390 Italian people, divided into two subsamples: 641 adolescents and 749 adults.
Results
The results showed that subjective risk intelligence mediates the role that personality traits and emotional intelligence have on coping strategies, thus influencing the choice of effective or ineffective strategies in both adults and adolescents, highlighting several differences between the two groups.
Conclusion
Subjective risk intelligence could be activated in order to deal with uncertain and risky situations. Suggestions for future research and interventions were given.
Businesses have had financial and economic crises in the past, but none have compared to the COVID-19 pandemic, according to industry leaders. There is always a need for consistency, safety, and compassion in situations like COVID-19. Emotional intelligence has long been considered a crucial leadership skill. Now more than ever it is essential to navigate this crisis and establish a new normal. Consider emotional health as water in a glass that, in normal circumstances, might slowly evaporate and that leaders occasionally need to top off. Change, uncertainty, tension, and anxiety, however, behave like holes in the glass during a crisis, allowing water to pour out all over the place. There needs to be more top-down additions made in order to maintain emotional stability. Leadership plays an essential role in difficult situations to guide individuals or the group down the rocky path that lies ahead. Leaders must develop the traits that will enable them to efficiently manage their emotions and, in turn, assist others in managing theirs.
Despite the varied decision responses are revealed between adolescents with emotional stability and instability (ES and EI), the possible association underlying decision-making and resting-state activity remains unknown. The study explored the potential relationship between the resting-state electroencepha-logram network and decision responses when adolescents with different emotional stabilities participated in the ultimatum game (UG). A significant relationship between the resting-state activa-tion of the two frequency bands (i.e., delta and alpha) and the UG acceptance rate. Further, the ES adolescents mainly activated the frontal cortex in the delta band compared to the EI adolescents, whereas the EI adolescents exhibited stronger frontal-occipital linkages in the alpha band than the ES group. During deci-sion-making, the delta oscillation played a positive role in the cognitive process, while the alpha activity decreased. Finally, emotional stability could be predicted by a multivariable linear prediction model based on the resting-state metrics while adoles-cents made decisions in the UG task. The distinct resting-state electrophysiological evidence may deepen our knowledge of deci-sion-making in individuals with different emotional traits, which may further facilitate the prediction of individual decision be-haviors.
The convergent and discriminant validities of well-being concepts were examined using multitrait–multimethod matrix analyses (D. T. Campbell & D. W. Fiske, 1959) on 3 sets of data. In Study 1, participants completed measures of life satisfaction, positive affect, negative affect, self-esteem, and optimism on 2 occasions 4 weeks apart and also obtained 3 informant ratings. In Study 2, participants completed each of the 5 measures on 2 occasions 2 years apart and collected informant reports at Time 2. In Study 3, participants completed 2 different scales for each of the 5 constructs. Analyses showed that (a) life satisfaction is discriminable from positive and negative affect, (b) positive affect is discriminable from negative affect, (c) life satisfaction is discriminable from optimism and self-esteem, and (d) optimism is separable from trait measures of negative affect.
The Satisfaction With Life Scale (SWLS) was developed in the US as a multi-item scale for the overall assessment of life satisfaction as a cognitive-judgmental process, rather than for the measurement of specific satisfaction domains. This study was an attempt to extend the applicability of the SWLS to The Netherlands using a sample of 1,775 young adults (aged 18, 22, and 26 yrs). In addition to the SWLS, Ss completed other measures including the General Health Questionnaire-12 item version and the Depression Adjective Checklist. In line with previous US and Dutch findings, figures on the internal structure and construct validity of the SWLS were satisfactory. SWLS scores were also shown to be predictably associated with marital status, indices of general health, self-esteem, euphoria, dysphoria, and neuroticism. A high number of visits to the doctor correlated significantly negatively with SWLS in males only. As anticipated, associations of the SWLS with biological sex, impulsivity, disinhibition, and boredom susceptibility were negligibly low. The frequently reported substantial positive correlation with sociability was not confirmed. However, small but significant positive correlations were found for assertiveness in males and positive emotion in females. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Using data from 4 waves of an Australian panel study, this study offers a dynamic account of relations between personality, life events, and subjective well-being (SWB). Members of the Victorian Quality of Life panel study were interviewed in 1981, 1983, 1985, and 1987. The initial sample size was 942; 649 respondents remain. The study shows that very stable personality traits (neuroticism, extraversion, and openness to experience) predispose people to experience moderately stable levels of favorable and adverse life events and moderately stable levels of SWB. However, contrary to previous research (P. T. Costa and R. R. McCrae, 1984) life events influence SWB over and above the effects of personality. A dynamic equilibrium (DE) model is outlined, in which each person is regarded as having "normal" equilibrium levels of life events and SWB, predictable on the basis of age and personality. Only when events deviate from their equilibrium levels does SWB change. The DE model is compared with 3 alternatives: personality models, adaptation level models, and models that treat life events as being wholly exogenous. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Is positive affect (PA) the bipolar opposite of, or is it independent of, negative affect (NA)? Previous analyses of this vexing question have generally labored under the false assumption that bipolarity predicts an invariant latent correlation between PA and NA. The predicted correlation varies with time frame, response format, and items selected to define PA and NA. The observed correlation also varies with errors inherent in measurement. When the actual predictions of a bipolar model are considered and error is taken into account, there is little evidence for independence of what were traditionally thought opposites. Bipolarity provides a parsimonious fit to existing data.
This study tested the hypothesis that cooperativeness is a cause of happiness. 114 Ss were given a 36-item scale for cooperativeness, together with measures of happiness, extraversion, neuroticism, MHQ, COMQ, and other scales. This was repeated 6 months later. In a multiple regression analysis happiness at Time 2 was predicted by one factor of the cooperation scale which was interpreted as enjoying group leisure activities. This factor also discriminated Ss initially low in happiness who became happier; those who started happy and became less so were low on another dimension of cooperativeness—interpreted as enjoying joint activities at work. Happiness was also predicted by extraversion, (low) mental health (MHQ), and age (youth). Mental health correlated negatively with cooperation, but was not predicted by it; it had a two-directional relationship with happiness. The total cooperative score was predicted by extraversion and sex (female), and the cooperative over leisure factor was predicted by sex and social skills (COMQ).
The effects of reward or reinforcement on preceding behavior depend in part on whether the person perceives the reward as contingent on his own behavior or independent of it. Acquisition and performance differ in situations perceived as determined by skill versus chance. Persons may also differ in generalized expectancies for internal versus external control of reinforcement. This report summarizes several experiments which define group differences in behavior when Ss perceive reinforcement as contingent on their behavior versus chance or experimenter control. The report also describes the development of tests of individual differences in a generalized belief in internal-external control and provides reliability, discriminant validity and normative data for 1 test, along with a description of the results of several studies of construct validity.
Five studies on the relation between positive and negative affect are reported. In Studies 1 and 2 we found that positive feelings were remembered as being nearly independent of negative feelings in the past year, but the two types of affect were moderately negatively correlated for the past month. In Studies 3 and 5, subjects completed daily mood reports for 70 and 30 days, respectively. In Study 4, subjects completed three-week, daily, and moment mood reports and also filled out reports when they experienced strong emotions. The principal finding was that the relation between positive and negative affect differed greatly depending on the time frame. The strongest negative correlation between the two affects occurred during emotional times. The correlation decreased in a linear fashion as the time span covered increased logarithmically. It appears that positive and negative affect are independent in terms of how much people feel in their lives over longer time periods. Researchers need to focus on the processes that underlie both positive and negative affect and that are responsible for producing their relative independence.
Personal adjustment to aging as measured by scales from the Chicago Attitude Inventory (CAI) was examined longitudinally in
a community-dwelling sample of 557 men aged 17 to 97. Concurrent and predictive relations between this age-appropriate measure
of well-being and personality were examined by correlating the CAI variables with three factors from the Guilford-Zimmerman
Temperament Survey identified as Neuroticism, Extraversion, and “Thinking Introversion.” As hypothesized, Neuroticism was
related negatively and Extraversion was related positively to most concurrent measures of well-being in both younger and older
subsamples. “Thinking Introversion” was related only to positive attitudes toward religion. Predictive correlations between
personality and subjective well-being over two-to-ten (M = 5.3) and ten-to-seventeen (M = 12.6) year intervals confirmed earlier
research, and showed that enduring personality dispositions antedate and predict measures of personal adjustment to aging.
This article reports the development and validation of a scale to measure global life satisfaction, the Satisfaction With Life Scale (SWLS). Among the various components of subjective well-being, the SWLS is narrowly focused to assess global life satisfaction and does not tap related constructs such as positive affect or loneliness. The SWLS is shown to have favorable psychometric properties, including high internal consistency and high temporal reliability. Scores on the SWLS correlate moderately to highly with other measures of subjective well-being, and correlate predictably with specific personality characteristics. It is noted that the SWLS is Suited for use with different age groups, and other potential uses of the scale are discussed.
Examined (1) the importance of extraversion (EX) as it relates to variables associated with happiness (HP), (2) the extent to which overall HP can be accounted for by factors other than EX, and (3) the similarities and differences that may exist between the qualities of HP demonstrated by those who are high and low in EX. Ss were 269 18–83 yr olds who completed measures of HP, EX, cognitive style, and other aspects of individual personality (IP). Based on the data collected, Ss were divided into 4 groups: happy extraverts, happy introverts, unhappy introverts, and unhappy extraverts. The results show that, although EX is associated with HP, the correlations of other IP differences (life satisfaction) appear to be greater and, in some cases, substantially independent of EX. The results also identify several Ss as happy introverts. Data concerning these Ss suggest that many of the behaviours of happy introverts and happy extraverts seem virtually identical. Overall, these findings suggest that the mechanism by which introversion–extraversion affects HP may be different from that of other variables. Further, it might better be considered as an instrumental variable that mediates the ways individuals choose to achieve their own happiness. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
After an introduction and 13 chapters by leading figures in the field, what can we conclude? As is often the case when questions are posed in an apparently straightforward manner, the answer turns out to be quite complex and not straightforward at all. Whether personality can change or not depends on how it is defined and measured, on how stability and change are assessed, and even on the worldview that informs an investigator's thinking. So what can we conclude? I agree with Pervin (this volume) that the field of psychology has a way of polarizing issues that often leads to unproductive debate. I therefore softpedal the sometimes serious disagreements voiced by some of the authors of this volume. Instead, I focus on what I perceive to be a number of themes that emerge from the chapters, on which all might be able to agree. Whenever I can, I make an effort to integrate these themes with one another. Additionally, I briefly discuss psychotherapy and some change agents that may be responsible for its efficacy. Psychotherapy represents the most sustained and well-documented effort to trigger psychological change. What changes in the course of such treatment, and what accounts for that change, can afford us valuable insights into personality and the potential for personality change. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
The relationship between six facets of extraversion (activity, assertiveness, excitement-seeking, gregariousness, positive emotion, warmth) and life satisfaction was studied in a sample of 162 university students. Positive emotion and assertiveness showed the strongest relationships, followed by gregariousness and warmth. Separating the data by gender indicated that life satisfaction for women was primarily related to levels of positive emotion and warmth, while for men the most important facets were assertiveness and gregariousness. Regression analyses indicated that the only significant predictor of life satisfaction for males was assertiveness, and the only such predictor for females was positive emotion. The results underscore the importance of gender as a context for trait expression, and the consequences of this for life satisfaction.
In view of certain psychometric deficiencies of the original Psychoticism scale, an attempt was made to improve the scale by adding new items. It was attempted to increase the internal reliability of the scale, improve the shape of the distribution and increase the mean and variance score. Two different studies are discussed. Reliabilities are now somewhat improved, distributions are closer to normal and mean scores are higher than on the old scale. Four new short 12-item scales for the measurement of P, E, N and L are also given.
Some 230 adults, many of whom were members of musical groups or churches or both, completed scales devised to describe the intensity of their emotional feelings for musical and church activities. Membership of both kinds of group was associated with enhanced scale scores and there were correlations between the corresponding scales, showing that the two kinds of experience are quite similar. There were also differences: musical experiences were more intense for most items, including those that have traditionally been used to assess the mystical aspects of religious experience. Factor analyses of the two sets of items, augmented with further musical and religious items, found that while social and mystical factors appeared in both, the religious items also produced a transcendental factor, whereas the musical items produced a factor related to challenge and performance. The relationships between the intensity scores and overall happiness as measured by the Oxford happiness inventory (OHI) were weak, although there were correlations between the social factor of the OHI and the social factors of the musical and religious items. This suggests that it is the social aspect of these activities which generates well-being. The transcendental religious factor had a small but negative correlation with happiness.
A comparative study has been made of the positive moods generated by four common leisure activities: sport/exercise, music, church and watching TV soaps. Some 275 participants whose ages ranged from 18 to 82 were invited to indicate the intensity of their personal, positive feelings for the items of four measures designed to be representative of each of the activities. It was found that each activity was a significant source of positive moods. Factor analysis of the measures showed that they each contained a strong social component, as well as a factor characteristic of each activity. Using the Oxford Happiness Inventory (OHI) as a measure of happiness, only sport/exercise appeared to result in increased happiness, and the reasons for this are explained in terms of the several components of the OHI. The associations of each of the activities with the Eysenck personality traits as measured by the Eysenck Personality Questionnaire (EPQ) were also examined and the most frequent association is with extraversion. Church membership is atypical, in that church members exhibit significantly lower scores for psychoticism (tough mindedness) and higher lie-scale scores (social conformity).
Relating demographers' measures of various population characteristics (size, growth/decline, density, age/sex structures, migration, et cetera) to measures of well-being recently developed within the social indicators movement promises to provide new knowledge about the linkage of population and well-being that can enhance decision making about important population issues.
A conceptual schema is presented that suggests specific relationships to examine at various levels of aggregation, that helps to classify research already done in this area, and that helps to identify "holes" in the knowledge base.
Some special methodological features of research in this area suggest considerable time and care will be required to produce dependable new knowledge. These include: (a) the inherent multilevel nature of the relationships (involving properties of individuals and collectivities); (b) the slow rate at which population characteristics change; (c) the absence of much good well-being data from the past; and (d) the limited nature of the collectivities for which population data are available.
Is positive affect (PA) the bipolar opposite of, or is it independent of, negative affect (NA)? Previous analyses of this vexing question have generally labored under the false assumption that bipolarity predicts an invariant latent correlation between PA and NA. The predicted correlation varies with time frame, response format, and items selected to define PA and NA. The observed correlation also varies with errors inherent in measurement. When the actual predictions of a bipolar model are considered and error is taken into account, there is little evidence for independence of what were traditionally thought opposites. Bipolarity provides a parsimonious fit to existing data.
The affective explosion in psychology has led to tremendous advances in mood measurement. Mood ratings reflect a hierarchical structure consisting of two broad dimensions-Positive Affect and Negative Affect-and multiple specific states. Brief scales have been developed that reliably assess Positive and Negative Affect across different populations and time frames, in both between- and within-subject data. We examine controversies related to (a) the content of these higher order scales and (b) the independence of Positive and Negative Affect. Regarding the latter, we show that Positive and Negative Affect scales remain largely independent across a wide range of conditions, even after controlling for random and systematic error. Finally, there remains little consensus regarding the lower order structure of affect. This lack of a compelling taxonomy has substantially slowed progress in assessing mood at the specific affect level.
Happiness, introversion-extraversion and happy introverts. Personality and Individual Dierences, (in press)
- P Hills
- M Argyle
Hills, P., & Argyle, M. (2001). Happiness, introversion-extraversion and happy introverts. Personality and Individual Dierences, (in press)..
Happiness and cooperation. Personality and Individual Dierences
- L Lu
- M Argyle
Lu, L., & Argyle, M. (1991). Happiness and cooperation. Personality and Individual Dierences, 12, 1019±1030.
A revised version of the psychoticism scale. Personality and Individual Dierences Australians' priorities, satisfactions and well-being
- S Eysenck
- H Eysenck
- P Barrett
- B Headey
- A Wearing
Eysenck, S., Eysenck, H., & Barrett, P. (1985). A revised version of the psychoticism scale. Personality and Individual Dierences, 6, 21±29. Headey, B., Wearing, A. (1981), Australians' priorities, satisfactions and well-being. Monograph in Public Policy Stu-dies, No. 4, Melbourne: University of Melbourne.
The satisfaction with life scale (SWLS): Appraisal with 1700 healthy young adults in The Nederlands The structure of psychological well-being Reports on happiness: A pilot study
- W Arrindel
- J Heesink
- J Feij
Arrindel, W., Heesink, J., & Feij, J. (1999). The satisfaction with life scale (SWLS): Appraisal with 1700 healthy young adults in The Nederlands. Personality and Individual Dierences, 26, 815±826. Bradburn, N. (1969). The structure of psychological well-being. Chicago: Aldine. Bradburn, N., & Caplovitz, D. (1965). Reports on happiness: A pilot study. Chicago: Aldine.
Optimism, coping and health: Assessment and implications of generalised outcome expectancies Basic personality factors from a clinical/theoretical perspective. Doctoral Dissertation
- M Scheier
- C Carver
Scheier, M., & Carver, C. (1985). Optimism, coping and health: Assessment and implications of generalised outcome expectancies. Health Psychology, 4, 219±247. van Kampen, D. (1996). Basic personality factors from a clinical/theoretical perspective. Doctoral Dissertation, Vrije Universitet, Amsterdam.
Testing for stress and happiness: The role of social and cognitive factors
- M Argyle
- M Martin
- L Lu
Argyle, M., Martin, M., & Lu, L. (1995). Testing for stress and happiness: The role of social and cognitive factors. In C. Spielberger, & I. Sarason, Stress and Emotion, 15 (pp. 173±187). Washington, DC: Taylor & Francis.
In¯uence of extraversion and neuroticism on subjective well-being: Happy and unhappy people Revised NEO personality inventory (NEO-PI-R) and NEO Five-factor inventory (NEO-FFI) manual
- P Costa
- R Mccrae
Costa, P., & McCrae, R. (1980). In¯uence of extraversion and neuroticism on subjective well-being: Happy and unhappy people. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 38, 668±678. Costa, P., & McCrae, R. (1992). Revised NEO personality inventory (NEO-PI-R) and NEO Five-factor inventory (NEO-FFI) manual. Odessa, FL: Psychological Assessment Services.
Motivation and personality Basic behavioral science research for mental health, a national investment: Emotion and motivation
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- Harper
Maslow, A. (1970). Motivation and personality. New York: Harper & Row. National Advisory Mental Health Council (1995). Basic behavioral science research for mental health, a national investment: Emotion and motivation. American Psychologist, 50, 838±845.
The happy personality
- DeNeve
Australians' priorities, satisfactions and well-being
- B Headey
- A Wearing
Optimism, coping and health
- Scheier
Testing for stress and happiness: The role of social and cognitive factors
- Argyle
Personal adjustment to aging
- Costa
Basic personality factors from a clinical/theoretical perspective. Doctoral Dissertation, Vrije Universitet
- D Van Kampen
Measurement and mismeasurement of mood
- Watson
Influence of extraversion and neuroticism on subjective well-being
- Costa
Person×situation interactions
- Diener
Basic behavioral science research for mental health, a national investment: Emotion and motivation