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Labor-force participation of married women: a study of labor supply

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... The primary source of most labor supply models is associated to the Neo-classical economic theory. The regard to represent the theory of Neo-classical labor supply goes to the Mincer (1962). The concept of Mincer theory was based on traditional utility maximization. ...
... The trade-off relationship between work and leisure is determined by individual preferences and relative value of leisure and additional income. Non-market activities are another factor that affects labor force participation decisions of the married women (Mincer, 1962). ...
... So, this does not work well for the non-industrial societies. The problem of not incorporating the non-market work of women is recognized by Mincer (1962) andBecker (1965). Becker (1965) solved this problem by presenting the time allocation theory in which he introduced the non-market work in the labor supply theory. ...
Article
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Time allocation to the unpaid non-market work has an important impact on the development process of the country. A large number of females in our country are involved in a number of unpaid household activities. But, their valuable services in the production of household commodities are never recognized at the individual, societal and national level. Therefore, this study analyzes the determinants of time allocation to the unpaid non-market agricultural activities in Pakistan. The time allocation behavior of females is examined with respect to selected social, economic, and demographic variables by using the cross-sectional data from the Pakistan Labor Force Survey Data. Logit and Tobit techniques are applied for the sake of analysis. The important findings of the study suggested that age has a positive and age square has a negative relationship with the number of hours allocated per week to unpaid household agricultural work. Educated females allocate relatively lesser number of hours per week to household agricultural work as compared to females with lower level of education. Females having small children in the family allocate more time to the household agricultural activities. The results indicate that a negative association exits between joint family system and time allocation to the household agricultural work. Females from Sindh, KPK, and Baluchistan allocate more time per week to the household agricultural activities as compared to the Punjab. JEL Classification: J12, J43, J22
... Îáà èññëåäîâàòåëÿ îòìåòèëè ïðîáëåìû ñ ïîëíîòîé, òî÷íîñòüþ è ñîïîñòàâèìîñòüþ äàííûõ, îñîáåííî äî 1940 ã. Ìèíñåð ñ÷èòàë, ÷òî ïîâûøåíèå ðåàëüíîé çàðàáîòíîé ïëàòû aeåíùèí ïî ìåðå ýêîíîìè-÷åñêîãî ðàçâèòèÿ ñûãðàëî âàaeíóþ ðîëü â óâåëè÷åíèè ó÷àñòèÿ çàìóaeíèõ aeåíùèí â ðàáî÷åé ñèëå (Mincer, 1962). Íåóêëîííûé, èç äåñÿòèëåòèÿ â äåñÿòèëåòèå, ðîñò êîýôôèöèåíòà ó÷àñòèÿ aeåíùèí â òðóäîâîé äåÿòåëüíîñòè ôèêñèðóåò è Ð. Èñòåðëèí: ñ 18,7% â 1890 ã. äî 36,2% â 1960 ã. 22 Îáùèé âûâîä, êîòîðûé áûë ñäåëàí ýòèìè èññëåäîâàòåëÿìè: óðîâåíü ó÷àñòèÿ aeåíùèí â ðû-íî÷íîé çàíÿòîñòè íàõîäèòñÿ â ïðÿìîé çàâèñèìîñòè îò ýêîíîìè÷åñêîãî ðàçâèòèÿ. ...
...  äîïîëíåíèå íà ïðîòÿaeåíèè 30 Äae. Ìèíñåð óòâåðaeäàåò, ÷òî ýôôåêò äîõîäà â öåëîì âûøå ýôôåêòà çàìåùåíèÿ, ÷òî ïîçâîëÿåò îáúÿñíèòü íåñêîëüêî ýìïèðè÷åñêèõ íàáëþäåíèé íà àìåðèêàíñêîì ðûíêå òðóäà: èñòîðè÷åñêîå ñîêðàùåíèå êîëè÷åñòâà îòðàáîòàííûõ ÷àñîâ â íåäåëþ âñåìè ðàáîòíèêàìè; ñîêðàùåíèå óðîâíÿ ó÷àñòèÿ â çàíÿòîñòè ìîëîäûõ è ïîaeèëûõ ðàáîòíèêîâ-ìóae÷èí; îòðèöàòåëüíóþ âçàèìîñâÿçü çàðàáîòíûõ ïëàò âçðîñëûõ ìóae÷èí è ó÷àñòèÿ íà ðûíêå òðóäà aeåíùèí (Mincer, 1962). Ñíèaeåíèå óðîâíÿ ó÷àñòèÿ aeåíùèí â ðàáî-÷åé ñèëå â ðåçóëüòàòå ýôôåêòà äîõîäà ìîaeåò áûòü óñèëåíî ïàäåíèåì îòíîñèòåëüíûõ öåí íà òîâàðû îòå÷åñòâåííîãî ïðîèçâîäñòâà è ïîñëåäóþùèì ñîêðàùåíèåì ñïðîñà íà aeåíñêèé òðóä (Goldin, 2006). ...
... 31 Íà îñíîâå ýêîíîìåòðè÷åñêèõ èññëåäîâàíèé Äae. Ìèíñåð (Mincer, 1962), Äae. Ñìèò è Ì. Óîðä (Smith, Ward, 1984) ïðèøëè ê âûâîäó, ÷òî âûñîêàÿ ýëàñòè÷íîñòü ïðåäëîaeåíèÿ ìîaeåò îáúÿñíèòü çíà÷èòåëüíóþ ÷àñòü èçìåíåíèé â óðîâíå ó÷àñòèÿ çàìóaeíèõ aeåíùèí â ðàáî÷åé ñèëå â 1900-1980 ãã. ...
... In South Asia, high fertility rates and the gender of children also impact women's economic activity, with a noticeable decline if their first two children are boys (Asian Development Bank, 2012). Additionally, women's participation in the labour market is influenced by their spouses' income levels, with higher earnings leading to reduced 293 female workforce participation, particularly in male-dominated households (Mincer, 1962). FLFP dynamics within families also correlate with the number of male earners, reflecting broader socioeconomic patterns (International Labour Organization, 2022). ...
... Results of factor analysis by PCF and Varimax method are shown in the Table 2 with respect to five main categories. The significant influence of the husband's income on FLFP in Polpithigama reflects the traditional gender norms prevalent in rural Sri Lanka, where women's economic activities are often secondary to their domestic roles (Mincer, 1962). The factor analysis further highlighted the importance of social and individual influences, corroborating findings by (Salway et al., 2003) on the urban poor in Dhaka. ...
Conference Paper
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Modelling Night Occupancy of Domestic Tourist in the Kandy District of Sri Lanka. Pages 186_194
... The labour-leisure preference model is a model in which the first group of studies are included. Studies in this group are (Mincer, 1962;Becker 1985). Both studies analyzed the process of women choosing between housework and the market. ...
... Both studies analyzed the process of women choosing between housework and the market. In his famous article, Mincer (1962) estimated a labour supply function for the USA. Mincer's work contributed in two ways. ...
Article
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This study aims to examine the literature on female labor force participation rates through qualitative content analysis. Data samples include international scientific research articles from the Scopus data base for (2000-2023). Data were collected by transferring the articles to the MAXQDA 2020 software and coding the themes with the software. Expert control used to ensure the reliability of the research. Our study allowed us to see the changing dimensions of the subject in the articles examined. The focus points were based on the research method used in the publications, theoretical framework, increasing FLFP and its reasons, reasons for the decrease, the direction and size of the variables affecting FLFP changing over time, starting from the date of publication. When the reasons for the increase in women's participation in the workforce are examined, it is seen that factors such as education, increased childcare opportunities, age factor, adaptation to home technologies, women being married and wages are effective, respectively. Accordingly; the "wage factor" is not as obvious as it is thought in the increase in women's participation in the workforce. When the reasons for the decrease in women's participation in the workforce are examined, it is seen that there are fertility, alcohol consumption and transportation problems. It is seen that these obstacles are gender-related, psychological and economic. Therefore, it is a very important finding of our study that gender-related, psychological and economic factors should be improved in order to increase women's participation in the workforce. For the policy makers, it is possible to see which aspects of the issue are prominent in different countries. In this way, comparisons between countries can be made easier. It helps to create policy recommendations by taking into account the strengths and weaknesses of women's participation in the workforce at national and global levels.
... Since the seminal work of Mincer (1962), women's labor force participation has been investigated extensively in relation to fertility. In the seminal paper, Angrist and Evans (1998) first used the sex composition of the first two children as an instrument. ...
... Though numerous early studies (Mincer, 1962;Heckman, 1974) viewed fertility as an exogenous determinant of FLFP, the link running from fertility to female labor supply is usually plagued by the issue of reverse causality and omitted variables bias. Participation in the labor force may significantly influence fertility choice -females in the workforce may decide to delay childbearing and have a lower number of children. ...
Preprint
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In Bangladesh, the decline in fertility rate has been coupled with increasing female labor force participation for the last few decades. While female labor force participation in South Asia has been declining, Bangladesh has experienced a secular rise and this makes Bangladesh an interesting case study. We studied the impact of having children on the employment status of married women in Bangladesh, using six rounds of the Bangladesh Demographic and Health Surveys. We instrumented the endogenous fertility choice with the incidence of twin births. The IV results show that having an additional child under six years of age lowers the likelihood of participating in the labor market by about five percentage points. Our headline results are robust to using alternative IVs and samples. Our results suggest the need for reducing costs for combining employment with maternity to boost female labor force participation.
... Since the seminal work of Mincer (1962), women's labor force participation in both developed and developing nations has been investigated extensively (Mammen and Paxson, 2000;Bloom et al., 2009;Steiber and Haas, 2010;Besamusca et al., 2015;Tanaka and Muzones, 2016;Verick, 2018;Klasen, 2019;González and Virdis, 2022;Winkler, 2022). ...
... Though numerous early studies (Mincer, 1962;Cain, 1964;Heckman, 1974) viewed fertility as an exogenous determinant of FLFP, the link running from fertility to female labor supply is usually plagued by the issue of simultaneity or reverse causality (Mishra and Smyth, 2010;Zhang, 2017;Finlay, 2021) and omitted variables bias (Schultz, 1978;Rosenzweig and Wolpin, 1980b;Nakamura and Nakamura, 1992;Angrist and Evans, 1996). Both greatly restrict the causal interpretation of the impact of fertility on FLFP in the usual ordinary least squares (OLS) setup. ...
Thesis
Developing countries are characterized by low female labor force participation, which has a strong bearing on women's empowerment and welfare, as well as economic growth of the countries. Among others, bearing children and taking care of infants are found to deter women from participating in the labor market. In this study, we examine the impact of having children on the employment status of married women in Bangladesh. We used a pooled sample of six rounds of the Bangladesh Demographic and Health Surveys from 1993 to 2018, allowing us to examine the relationship in a long timeframe. To address the issue of endogeneity of fertility choice, we instrumented it with the incidence of twin births. The IV results show that having an additional child under six years of age lowers the likelihood of participating in the labor market by about 5.5 percentage points. The higher female labor force participation in Bangladesh can thus be attributed to declining fertility. We also found that the impact is significant only for urban women-the number of children does not hold back rural women from working in a significant way. Our results suggest the need for public and private investment in paid maternity leave, childcare facilities in workplaces, daycare centers, etc., to boost female labor force participation.
... Individuals consider the well-being and economic prospects of their entire household, not just their own, when making labor supply decisions (Mincer 1962;Blundell and Walker 1982;Becker 1991). Early in their relationship, spouses often negotiate the division of household labor, where traditionally, the husband specializes in paid work outside the home, and the wife, in unpaid household work at home (Becker 1991;Leira 1992). ...
Article
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Research on the family spillover effects of health shocks, which has focused mainly on labor market outcomes, has yielded inconclusive results, with limited insight into long-term consequences or underlying mechanisms. We analyze the short- and long-term impacts of cancer on the unaffected spouse’s labor supply and mental health as well as marital stability, considering gender and relative income status within the households. Using population-based register data from Finland (1995–2019) and a dynamic difference-in-differences design, we observe two key findings. First, a cancer diagnosis leads to very modest changes in a spouse’s labor supply but significant increases in the likelihood of psychotropic drug use and psychiatric outpatient visits. Second, the main results mask considerable heterogeneity regarding relative income within the household. Secondary earners increase their labor supply in response to fatal cancers but decrease it in non-fatal cases, while breadwinners show small negative responses in both. Bereaved women with lower income share experience more psychiatric symptoms, a trend not observed in men. Our findings reveal the importance of pre-shock breadwinner status in family responses to health shocks, suggesting the need for targeted support for caregiving and bereaved spouses.
... Economic time budget analyses began with research into households' money budgets and living conditions (Niemi, 1995, p. 2). Mincer (1962Mincer ( , p. 65, 1963 focused on activity of women in his works, and the author presented the process of decision making in which the allocation of time between housework and market work is decided. In his analysis, he referred to non-market activity of a productive nature. ...
Article
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The presented analysis uses data from time-use surveys which were conducted in India and Poland in the late 1990s and early 2000s. The calculations made use of statistical information describing individual households and their members. The applied method of multiple regressions for cross-sectional data made it possible to take into account selected socio-demographic and economic characteristics of the analysed members of the population. The results obtained served for assessing the impact of such characteristics as marital status, children presence on the production activity of women. We present the time allocation of individuals with similar characteristics, but at different stages of their life cycle. Performing analogous estimations for Poland and India made it possible to directly compare the situation of women in these countries. Despite considerable differences in terms of social and cultural norms between the analysed societies, the situation of women living in them is in some respects similar. However, marked differences were also observed such as those related to economic activity depending on the level of education. Also, the influence of marriage on the allocation of time is different, as illustrated by comparing the situation of married women to those without a partner.
... Theoretically, child care and labour force participation have been established as a tradeoff for mothers. Mincer (1962) pointed out that caring for small children was one of the most difficult forms of housework for women to substitute away from, and Becker (1985) likewise suggested that child care was one of the most effort-intensive household activities, posing significant constraints on women's labour market performance. Lowcost or free public childcare services and subsidies for child care relieve mothers (and other primary caregivers) of the pressure of housework (Fitzpatrick 2012), providing opportunities for them to enter the labour market. ...
... If women are given opportunities to participate in the labour force, the development process will accelerate; thus, it is deemed necessary to investigate factors that may increase the participation of women in the labour force. (Mincer, 1962), (Becker, 1965), (Cain & Dooley, 1976) and (Gronau, 1977) are among the pioneer who analyzed the determinants of women's participation in the labour force. Their works opened ways for other researchers to explore female labour force supply with the different explanatory variables and statistical techniques. ...
Technical Report
The paper analyzes the impact of financial constraints and living costs on women's decision to participate in the labor force. The data for the analysis of this study is gathered from adult females who have completed 14 years of education and more. The study findings reveal that both financial constraints and cost of living have a strong positive impact on the decision of females related to joining the labor force. The higher the cost of living and financial constraints within a household, the more women will enter the labor force. Results invoke the inclusion of economic incentives in labor market policies to increase female participation in the labor force.
... One of the most fascinating ones in growth and development literature, which is equally analogous to the endogenous model is the Human Capital Theory. While Shulz (1961) and Mincer (1962) did pioneer works on human capital, it was Becker (1962) that is credited to have come up with the most coherent body of theory that explains its linkage to productivity and poverty. The summary of this theory is that earnings follow investment in human capital, just as poverty follows earnings through stages in society/people's life time. ...
Article
This study examined dynamic relations among foreign direct investment (FDI), economic growth and poverty headcount ratio using a sample of 24 African Countries. To achieve this goal, historical data of the variables regarding cross section of countries were collected over 14-year period. The stratified random sampling technique was employed in selecting the sample. Following pre-regression diagnostics, we specified Vector-Auto-Regression model for computation of coefficients of the variables in dynamic relations. These were complimented with computation of relative impulse response function and forecast-error-variance decomposition of regression estimates. We found that FDI did not granger-cause economic growth among African economies, just as growth was found not sustainable and inclusive enough as to achieve substantial poverty reduction. More-so, evidence appeared to support earlier isolated findings that FDI has been largely exploitative and attracted to economies with high growth rates and low poverty ratios. The study reinforces earlier isolated findings that it is not necessarily 'growth' that results in decline in poverty prevalence but 'sustained economic growth'. Hence most developing nations that depend on annual fiscal plans for poverty reduction may consistently miss development targets. Again, contrary to widely held view that foreign direct development leads to economic growth, the study established exceptional case for Africa.
... In this pattern of wage equation, the coefficient on schooling (β1) showed that an additional years of schooling of individual increase her income. Mincer (1962) analyzed relationship between working hours and individual participation in the labor force. He concluded labor supply decision radically influenced by number of dependents. ...
Article
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The current analysis was structured to identify the impact of socioeconomic factors (age, education, employment status, head of household income and no. of dependents) on work satisfaction and earning of women in D.G. Khan, the city of southern Punjab of an underdeveloped area of Pakistan. Primary data was collected via distributing 450 questionnaires, 320 useable responses were available for analyses. Simple descriptive analysis, OLS method and logit model was used to analyze the data. Result revealed that age, education level, employment status and head of household or husband's monthly income level have significant impact on women's work satisfaction, while number of dependents negatively manipulated on work satisfaction. This study contributes to reveal the socioeconomic determinants for job satisfaction of women working in underdeveloped areas of Pakistan while identifying main constraints facing by such women to participate in labor market. There is food for thought for government and non-government organizations to define the policies for development of such working women who are working in deprived areas of Pakistan.
... We augment our data moment vector with a variable measuring the dependence of female labour supply at the extensive margin to the spousal employment status, the so called added worker effect (AWE). We focus on this statistic since it is a well defined measure considered by a large literature (see Cullen and Gruber (2000); MaCurdy (1980, 1982); Lundberg (1985); Mincer (1962); Stephens (2002) and more recent papers Bacher et al. (2023); Birinci (2020); Casella (2022); Ellieroth (2019); Guner et al. (2024); Oikonomou (2016, 2017); Pruitt and Turner (2020)). We conduct the moments matching exercise with our structural model twice, using the 1980s and 2000s subsamples. ...
Preprint
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We investigate the impact of structural changes that occurred in the US labour market since the 1980s for the labour supply/job search behavior of married couples, exploring a rich Bewley-Aiyagari model with dual earner households, on-the-job-search and endoge-nous entry into the labour force. We fit our model to a large set of moments on the labour market of married individuals, including employment/participation rates, wage distributions and estimates of the added worker effect which captures the sensitivity of married women's reservation wages to their spouse's employment status. We derive three main findings: i) Female labour supply behavior has changed considerably over time and female preferences over participation (employment and unemployment) became more aligned with male preferences. ii) Despite the shifts in labor supply behavior, most of the increase in female employment can be attributed to demand-side factors, such as changes in the gender wage gap and labor market frictions. iii) The trend in the added worker effect was not driven by 'income maximization', whereby household members alternate employment to climb the wage ladder. Instead, the structural transformation of the US labour market has resulted in a higher insurance value of female labour supply, making households more likely to focus on the extensive margin. We discuss the relevance of these findings for recent strands of the quantitative macroeconomics literature.
... El debate se profundiza con las aportaciones de Gary Becker (Becker, 1975), tanto en relación con el concepto y las características de la inversión en capital humano, como en el desarrollo de un marco de análisis para explicar la naturaleza de la inversión en las personas en las edades tempranas de los individuos y la distribución del ingreso sobre la base de la acumulación de capital humano. A este esfuerzo se suman las aportaciones de Jacob Mincer con el desarrollo de la conocida ecuación de Mincer, modelo que persigue estimar la rentabilidad de la inversión en educación, -componente del capital humano-, centrando el análisis en los beneficios esperados por año de escolaridad adicional (Mincer, 1962). ...
Book
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El libro 58 de “Gestión del Conocimiento. Perspectiva Multidisciplinaria” de la Colección Unión Global, es resultado de investigaciones. Los capítulos del libro son resultados de investigaciones desarrolladas por sus autores. El libro es una publicación internacional, seriada, continua, arbitrada de acceso abierto a todas las áreas del conocimiento, que cuenta con el esfuerzo de investigadores de varios países del mundo, orientada a contribuir con procesos de gestión del conocimiento científico, tecnológico y humanístico que consoliden la transformación del conocimiento en diferentes escenarios, tanto organizacionales como universitarios, para el desarrollo de habilidades cognitivas del quehacer diario. La gestión del conocimiento es un camino para consolidar una plataforma en las empresas públicas o privadas, entidades educativas, organizaciones no gubernamentales, ya sea generando políticas para todas las jerarquías o un modelo de gestión para la administración, donde es fundamental articular el conocimiento, los trabajadores, directivos, el espacio de trabajo, hacia la creación de ambientes propicios para el desarrollo integral de las instituciones. La estrategia más general de la gestión del conocimiento consiste en transformar los conocimientos personales y grupales en conocimiento organizacional. También se debe tener en cuenta los conocimientos altamente especializados de personas del entorno de la empresa para tratar de incorporarlos al conocimiento de la entidad, lo cual ha de incluirse en las estrategias. La gestión estratégica del conocimiento vincula la creación del conocimiento de una organización con su estrategia, prestando atención al impacto que pueda generar. En este sentido, se presenta a la comunidad internacional el libro 58 de “Gestión del Conocimiento. Perspectiva Multidisciplinaria”, de la Colección Unión Global, es resultado de investigaciones. Los capítulos del libro son resultados de investigaciones desarrollados por sus autores, con aportes teóricos y prácticos de autores, cuyos resultados de trabajos de investigación, son análisis de diversas teorías, propuestas, enfoques y experiencias sobre el tema de gestión del conocimiento, lo cual permite el posicionamiento de las organizaciones en la utilización del conocimiento, su apropiación y transformación. Los conceptos o criterios emitidos en cada capítulo del libro son responsabilidad exclusiva de sus autores.
... Kadın çalışanın işgücünde olup olmamasını belirleyen çok fazla faktör bulunmaktadır. Kadının sadece boş zaman ve ücretli iş arasında değil ücretli iş, ücretsiz ev işleri veya aile işleri olmak üzere üç yönlü bir seçim yapmak durumunda oluşu, ilk parlak çalışmasıyla Mincer (1962)'nin literatüre bir katkısıdır. çalışma hayatında ve İlk olarak, seçimin sadece iki yönlü bir seçim olmadığını belirtmektedir. ...
Chapter
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Hellen toplumları, Arkaik Çağ itibari ile belirginleşmiş ve kadın-erkek rolleri ve statüleri bağlamında sınırlar çizilmiştir. Klasik Dönem itibari ile tam şeklini alan Hellen kültürü içindeki bu sınırlarda Sparta kent devletinin farklı ilerleyişi dikkatleri çekmektedir. Özellikle kadınların toplumdaki yerleri ve sahip oldukları haklar onları Atina kadınlarından ayırmaktadır.
... Women's participation in economic life has attracted considerable attention in economic literature since Mincer's (1962) seminal study of married women's participation in the labour market. This attempt to reinterpret the static analysis of labour supply was followed by several theories, including Becker's (1965) "time allocation theory", concerning the household production model and the allocation of women's time. ...
Article
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This article examines the link between the digital divide and women's economic participation. We use a cross-sectional model based on a panel of 45 African countries. Our results show that the digital divide (cell phone, bandwidth and Internet) worsens women's economic participation. The negative influence of the digital divide on women's economic participation tends to be amplified in countries with low democracy and in the industrial sector. Our results remain stable when we add cultural variables and when we use the alternative measure of the digital divide. However, after using the quantile regression approach, we find that these influences vary at different intervals along the distribution of women's economic participation. JEL classification: I21, J21, O55
... Jacob Mincer (1962) argued that the participation of married women in the workforce is not only determined by their earning potential but also by the husband's income, the number of children they have, and other family characteristics. On the other hand, it was found that the demand for children depends on family income, the value of parental time (especially maternal time), the level of child quality to be achieved, and other family variables (Becker, 1993). ...
Article
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This study examined the factors influencing mothers' participation in the agricultural and manufacturing sectors and explored the impact of their employment on their welfare levels. The main factors included the husband's education level, employment sector, employment status, the mother's education level, the number of household dependents, the number of young children, and the mother's working hours. The present study employed a comprehensive analysis of 264,311 individual data points, derived from maternal and household data obtained through the National Socioeconomic Survey (Susenas) conducted in March 2022 (https://www.bps.go.id/). Utilising Binary Logistic Regression as a statistical method, the study aimed to elucidate relationships ad patterns within the dataset, facilitating a robust understanding of the socioeconomic factors influencing maternal outcomes. The logistic regression analysis indicated that all the factors significantly influenced mothers' decisions to work. The husband's employment sector affected the wife's choice of employment sector. Mothers who work in agriculture are significantly more likely to be employed in the same field if their husbands also work in agriculture, with the odds being 5.98 times greater than those in other industries. Likewise, mothers in manufacturing have a similar trend; if their husbands work in manufacturing, they are 7.37 times more likely to be in that industry compared to other sectors. Higher education levels of the husband and the mother, and the husband's formal sector employment, encouraged mothers to choose jobs outside agriculture and manufacturing. An increase in the number of household dependents and the mother's working hours drove mothers to work in agriculture and manufacturing. This is likely because these sectors often employ family workers (over 60 per cent in agriculture) who can accommodate flexible working hours and household management. The welfare level, measured by the Multidimensional Poverty Index (MPI), is 0.1161 for households in agriculture, compared to 0.0403 for households with mothers working in manufacturing. This indicated that households with mothers in manufacturing were more prosperous.
... Los datos anteriores sugieren que la incidencia de la familia no es neutral sino que incide más en ellas que en ellos, y que la disparidad de género es más intensa entre los casados. Esto no es una novedad, pues la desigualdad en el reparto de las cargas familiares entre cónyuges es una constante en la Historia, explorada ya en la Grecia clásica por Jenofonte en el siglo IV a. C. Pero, incluso habiendo sido muchos y muy intensos los cambios, algunos rasgos esenciales perduran y el enfoque de estos hechos difiere con la disciplina: así, la Economía de la familia pone el acento en los factores que inducen a la especialización ricardiana de los cónyuges (Mincer, 1962;Polachek, 1979Polachek, y 1981 mientras que desde la Sociología se indaga en la denominada doble jornada de las mujeres casadas que acceden al mercado (Hochschild, 1989). ...
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... In the literature, several factors have been identified as contributing to gender inequalities in education. According to human capital theorists (Becker 1962;Mincer 1962), the discrimination in investment in education against women can be explained by a model of role specialisation between domestic and professional tasks, with the specialisation or preference of some (men) linked to their higher productivity in the labour market, while the others (women) value their domestic specialisations. Empirically, sociocultural and economic factors, among others, are used to explain these inequalities (Connelly and Zheng 2003;Amutabi and Agoot 2021). ...
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... Studies on the impact of AI on women's agricultural participation are still in their infancy. Mincer (1962) created the time allocation model, which provides information on women's participation in the labour market, to set theoretical milestones on the issue of women's empowerment. Three theories of women's empowerment emerged as a result of this work. ...
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This book examines gender inequality from the perspective of feminist economics, with empirical application, across different countries such as Turkey, the United States, Mexico, Uruguay, Argentina, Colombia, Costa Rica and territories within Europe. It centers on topics such as labor participation, occupational segregation, feminization of poverty and migration, wage differentials, changes in and the quality of employment, equity index, and gender bias in fiscal policies. It encompasses both developed and developing countries and shows that the gender gap has been narrowing over time, although not completely, mainly due to the sparse implementation of programs and public policies with a feminist economic approach, which help to make gender dimensions in the economy visible and highlight the implications this has on women’s lives. The book also examines the impact of the COVID-19 crisis on inequality on the working lives of men and women. This book will be an important asset in teaching forums on the most recent advances in economic science across a number of different theories, approaches and research hypotheses that explain the study of gender inequality. It also presents different empirical studies, using multiple methodologies and databases, applied to specific problems in multiple countries to identify the advances, opportunities and changes that have occurred in gender inequality from a feminist economic perspective. The book offers relevant, novel and original scientific data and makes public policy proposals to encourage the participation of women in the labor market. Consequently, it will also be of interest to policymakers concerned with global trends in the labor market.
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The objective of this research is to analyze food security and its severity in relation to female headship in Costa Rican households. The hypothesis is based on demonstrating that female-headed households are more likely to experience severe food insecurity. In this research, we take the characteristics of households and household heads by sex. By using the ENAHO 2020 database, as well as the Food Insecurity Module. For the empirical test, a probability model is estimated and then the marginal effects are calculated. The main results indicate that there is a higher proportion of female households in food insecurity relative to male-headed households; furthermore, this same behavior is present for the highest level of insecurity. The results of the probabilistic model confirm that female-headed households are more likely to be food insecure in general, but when it comes to high insecurity, the female sex of the head is not a disadvantage.
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This study aimed to investigate gender and racial disparities in earnings in Brazil’s cultural sector. Using microdata from 2019 and 2020, earnings equations were estimated, and the Firpo, Fortin, and Lemieux decomposition method was applied by quantile, considering two definitions of the cultural sector: broad and narrow, the latter excluding manufacturing and commercial activities. The findings highlight the presence of gender and racial inequalities, with racial disparities being more significant. In the broad cultural sector, both white and black women have higher average education levels than men but tend to work in lower-paying occupations. The explained effect, largely driven by the lower education levels of black workers, plays a crucial role in determining the earnings gap from a racial perspective. When focusing on culture-related activities, women possess more favourable characteristics for higher pay compared to men, except for the unexplained effect. Without this effect, women would earn more than men across all quantiles. White women in the narrower cultural sector appear to have broken the glass ceiling, but a sticky floor effect is observed for them. However, black women have yet to overcome the glass ceiling barriers in the cultural sector.
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Based on a household survey of 4713 females in the states of Delhi, Karnataka, Jharkhand, Rajasthan and Madhya Pradesh during the period of November 2021-January 2022, conducted by IWWAGE, this study aims to contribute to the understanding of ‘discouraged worker effect’ particularly for females and defining it in a more inclusive and comprehensive way. The study proposes to broaden the conventional definition where discouragement is related only to prevailing labour market conditions. In addition to the labour market conditions, the proposed definition considers the relevant individual-specific, household-specific factors and their interaction effects. The findings confirm a significant presence of ‘marriage effect’ as a discouragement factor for females. Also, it is observed that the ‘marriage effect’ is higher among the younger age-cohort of 18–24 years, the crucial period in determining one’s carrier path. A divergence from the U-shaped relation between education and female labour force participation is found in the study. According to the U-shaped relationship, women with tertiary level of education are more likely to join the labour force, as compared to those with secondary level of education. However, it is observed in this study that women with education level of post-graduation and above are found to be discouraged to join the labour force, which might arise due to the lack of availability of high-skill job opportunities. The study confirms the presence of ‘the income effect’ as among households with higher asset index and when the education level of the principal income earner and thus the earning capacity is higher, the discouragement to women members to join the labour force, is higher. But as the number of employed members increase, women in that household are found to be more likely to join the labour force. This might be because of the households being less restrictive due to their exposure to the outer world. Also, the discouragement effect is observed to be less in nuclear families as compared to joint families and also when the women receive skill training.
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