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Intra-Industry Trade: The Theory and Measurement of International Trade in Differentiated Products
... The growth of agri-food trade was accompanied by the increasing significance of intra-industry trade (Grubel and Lloyd, 1975), defined as the simultaneous export and import of products from the same industry (Szczepaniak, 2013;Ambroziak and Szczepaniak, 2012;Ambroziak, 2014). According to theory, one of the factors supporting the increase in intra-industry trade intensity between two countries is their participation in the process of economic integration (Balassa, 1967;Falvey, 1981;Verdoorn, 1960). ...
... The first scholars to examine the topic of simultaneous exports and imports within the same industry were Verdoorn (1960), Balassa (1966), and Grubel (1967). A key moment in the evolution of the theory of intra-industry trade was the publication by Grubel and Lloyd in 1975. According to them, the fundamental difference between classical trade theory and the theory of intra-industry trade lies in the latter's focus on products that are close substitutes in terms of consumption, production, or both. ...
... According to them, the fundamental difference between classical trade theory and the theory of intra-industry trade lies in the latter's focus on products that are close substitutes in terms of consumption, production, or both. Grubel and Lloyd (1975) were the first to highlight increasing returns to scale in production and distribution under conditions of imperfect competition as a cause for the development of intraindustry trade. ...
... Therefore, the main objective of this paper is to examine intra-industry trade and import dependency in the manufacturing industry of the Baltic countries from 1995 to 2018 using input-output tables. Since the paper of Grubel and Lloyd (1975), although intra-industry trade has gained importance, it can be said that research on the topic has diminished over time. However, in recent years, intraindustry trade has attracted renewed attention and yet there are still limited studies in the literature. ...
... It shows how closely the export value aligns with the import value of the industry. Grubel & Lloyd (1975) further improved Balassa's (1975) index. Since the study by Grubel and Lloyd (1975), research on intra-industry trade has increased (Misevic, 2021). ...
... Grubel & Lloyd (1975) further improved Balassa's (1975) index. Since the study by Grubel and Lloyd (1975), research on intra-industry trade has increased (Misevic, 2021). Aggarwal (2023b) also notes that although research on intra-industry trade had slowed down, it has recently regained attention. ...
... Given the state of the debate in the literature, in this paper we chose to analyze intra-industrial trade following Grubel and Lloyd [25], who proposed two indices: B ij and B j . ...
... In addition to B ij , Grubel and Lloyd [25] proposed another index which refers to a homogeneous aggregate of goods traded by a country with a given group of other countries. This index, B j , gives a summary measure of intra-industry trade in country j, at any given level of aggregation. ...
... The RSCA results, taking into account the asymmetry reported in the same table, clearly demonstrate the non-existence of appreciable differences in the levels of specialization and in the comparative advantages of the countries considered. For each country and for every year, we calculated the Bj index [25] for the aggregate of products in Table 2. The intra-industry trade analysis allows us to clarify apparent contradictions. ...
The aim of this paper is to evaluate changes in Italy’s competitiveness in the global wood products market, with a particular focus on wooden furniture and wood panels, both final and intermediate products of the crucial wooden furniture supply chain. The analysis is conducted through a cross-country comparison using trade flow matrices and various descriptive indices: Market Share, Trade Competitiveness Index, Balassa’s Revealed Comparative Advantage Index, and the Symmetric Balassa Index. Furthermore, this study also examines intra-industry trade using the Grubel–Lloyd Index. While each index has its limitations when used individually, their combined analysis can provide a more comprehensive view. The study covers the period from 1996 to 2019, using data from FAO and COMTRADE sources. The results show that Italy maintains a significant position in the international furniture market, although this position has deteriorated over time. Conversely, Italy remains a net importer of wood panels. Trade flows have become more concentrated, with Canada and Germany still holding importance in the international market. However, Asian countries have now become the core of the commercial network. China has emerged as the leading exporting country in all product categories considered, with Vietnam and Malaysia also increasing in importance. Noteworthy progress has also been recorded by Russia and Poland in Europe. Additionally, the study discusses the implications of these findings for rural development, particularly in regions dependent on the wood-product sectors.
... The most common measures of IIT by GRUBEL and LLOYD (1975), BRÜLHART (1994), ABD-EL- RAHMAN (1991) and GREENAWAY et al. (1995) low-quality VIIT (HVIIT and LVIIT, respectively). 15 years of data in the study cover the period immediately after Greece's adoption of the Euro (2002) until 2016. ...
... The theory to examine this type of trade was developed by BALASSA (1966), who employed the differentiation of production as an explanation of IIT and who was also the first one to propose an index to measure the extend of trade overlap that defined IIT. GRUBEL and LLOYD (1975) formalized the method with the well-known Grubel-Lloyd (GL) index, after adjusting the measure presented by BALASSA (1966). Theoretical foundations were added, amongst others, by KRUGMAN (1979), LANCASTER (1980, HELPMAN (1981) and HELPMAN and KRUGMAN (1985). ...
... These are briefly summarized in the next section, as they are not employed in this research, to allow comparability of our results with articles in the literature. GRUBEL and LLOYD (1975) were the first to quantify the level of IIT based on the theory proposed by BALASSA (1966), by introducing the well-known Grubel-Lloyd index (GL) that has since found a wide range of applications in the literature. The simple GL index employs imports When the level of exports is equal to the level of imports, the GL index takes its highest value of 1 indicating exclusively IIT flows. ...
This article examines the evolution of Greek Intra-Industry Trade (IIT) in agri-food products during the period 2002-2016, concentrating on evident changes in IIT shares after the onset of the 2009 Greek debt crisis. The severity of the Greek crisis, which affected the main determinants of IIT, presents a unique opportunity to study producers’ reaction and infer on policy targets to assist trade during economic downturns. I concentrate on agricultural and food products, as they have received less attention in the IIT literature and examine IIT through the Grubel-Lloyd index and by separating IIT into Horizontal IIT (HIIT), and high and low-quality Vertical IIT (HVIIT and LVIIT). Results indicate the post-2009 growth of high-quality VIIT exports in products that require a high degree of processing. Panel VAR analysis indicates that negative shocks to GDP have a significant and persistent negative impact on VIIT and HVIIT.
... As emphasized by Cherunilam (Year), trade finance serves as a catalyst for business expansion and market penetration, offering businesses the liquidity and risk mitigation tools necessary to seize opportunities in foreign markets. Grubel and Lloyd (1975) delve into the intricacies of intra-industry trade and the role of trade finance in facilitating the exchange of differentiated products across borders. Through mechanisms such as letters of credit, trade finance empowers businesses to overcome barriers to entry and establish a presence in new markets, driving economic growth and fostering cross-cultural exchange. ...
... The regulatory environment governing international trade finance plays a crucial role in shaping the conduct of business operations and ensuring compliance with legal requirements across jurisdictions. Grubel and Lloyd (1975) provide insights into the regulatory frameworks governing intra-industry trade and the measurement of international trade in differentiated products. Hartley (1976) examines the impact of regulatory policies on marketing fundamentals and strategic management practices, highlighting the need for businesses to navigate complex legal landscapes to mitigate risks and achieve sustainable growth. ...
... As emphasized by Cherunilam (Year), trade finance serves as a catalyst for business expansion and market penetration, offering businesses the liquidity and risk mitigation tools necessary to seize opportunities in foreign markets. Grubel and Lloyd (1975) delve into the intricacies of intra-Annals of the Bhandarkar Oriental Research Institute ISSN: 0378-1143 industry trade and the role of trade finance in facilitating the exchange of differentiated products across borders. Through mechanisms such as letters of credit, trade finance empowers businesses to overcome barriers to entry and establish a presence in new markets, driving economic growth and fostering crosscultural exchange. ...
International trade finance plays a pivotal role in connecting businesses with the global market, facilitating transactions across borders and enabling economic growth. This paper explores the
intricate mechanisms and dynamics of international trade finance, shedding light on its significance in fostering international trade relations. Through an analysis of various financial instruments and
strategies, this study aims to provide insights into how businesses can leverage trade finance to navigate the complexities of the global marketplace. Key themes addressed include risk management, regulatory frameworks, and emerging trends shaping the landscape of international trade finance.
Keywords: International trade finance, Global market, Business connectivity, Financial instruments,
Risk management.
... The interaction between the real exchange rate and trade dependency allows us to understand how the types of exported versus imported goods affect the expected effect of a change in the real effective exchange rate on the trade balance. We use the Grubel and Lloyd (1975) index 1 as a proxy to capture the share of product exported by a WAEMU country, contained in the manufacture of products imported by this country. And this share valued by the real exchange rate is measured by the product between the real exchange rate and the intra-industry trade index. ...
... Source: Authors' calculations. Note 1. Grubel and Lloyd (1975) -the index of intra-industry trade is derived using the following formular: ...
This paper analyzes the role of the nature of traded goods in the effect of the real exchange rate on the trade balance in West African Economy and Monetary Union countries. Empirically, the estimation of the parameters of a distributed lag autoregressive model using the technique of dynamic common correlation estimators is carried out. The results show that, firstly, the low level of intra-industry trade comfort positive real exchange rate effect on trade balance. However, WAEMU countries export raw materials used by their foreign trading partners to manufacture products, which WAEMU countries import in turn; but the raw materials percentage used in the manufacture of those products is negligible to have a beneficial impact on trade balance. Secondly, foreign income levels are less favorable to the countries’ balance of trade, as partners have a preference for increasingly sophisticated goods that WAEMU countries do not produce. In terms of economic policy implications, a currency devaluation would have an expected positive effect if trade policy would encourage the consumption of goods and services containing, in their manufacturing process, a significant quantity of their exported products. This article contributes to the existing economic literature by taking into account the characteristics of traded goods in the analysis of the influence of the real exchange rate on the trade balance. A low content of exported goods in the manufacturing process of imported goods from a less advanced country could limit the rebalancing of its trade balance following a change in the real exchange rate.
... Eski dış ticaret teorilerinin, özellikle 1960 sonrasında ülkeler arasındaki benzer ürünlerin eş zamanlı ticaretini açıklamakta yetersiz kalmasından dolayı yeni dış ticaret teorileri önem kazanmaya başlamıştır. Endüstri içi ticaret fenomeninin hesaplanarak ortaya konulmasına ilişkin en önemli ilk çalışma Grubel-Lloyd (1971, 1975 tarafından gerçekleştirilmiştir. Böylece farklı ülke ve sektörlerdeki eş zamanlı, iki yönlü ticareti ampirik olarak incelemek mümkün olmaya başlamıştır. Grubel-Lloyd (1971)'un geliştirdiği endüstri içi ticaret endeksi sonrasında ampirik çalışmaların yanında endüstri içi ticareti teorik düzeyde açıklamaya yönelik modeller de geliştirilmeye başlanmıştır. ...
... The emergence of new theories in international trade gained prominence due to the shortcomings of traditional trade theories in explaining simultaneous trade in similar products between countries, particularly after the 1960s. Grubel-Lloyd's (1971, 1975 seminal work marked the advent of calculating and illustrating the phenomenon of intra-industry trade. Consequently, it became possible to empirically scrutinize the simultaneous, two-way trade across different countries and sectors. ...
Çalışmada, 1995-2021 döneminde Türkiye'nin imalat sanayinin seçilmiş OECD ülkeleriyle endüstri içi ticaretini analiz etmektedir. SITC rev.3 3-basamaklı verileri kullanarak imalat ve alt sektörlerindeki (SITC5, SITC6, SITC7, SITC8) endüstri içi ticareti hesaplanmış, yatay, dikey yüksek ve düşük kaliteli olarak sınıflandırılmıştır. Bulgular dönem içinde genel ve dikey düşük kalite endüstri içi ticaretin arttığını, dikey yüksek kaliteli ticaretin ise düşük kaldığını ortaya koymaktadır. Yatay endüstri içi ticaret SITC6 ve SITC7'de artmış ancak SITC5 ve SITC8'de sabit kalmıştır. Ekonometrik modeller ekonomik büyüklüğün dikey yüksek kalite endüstri içi ticareti negatif; toplam, yatay ve dikey düşük kalite endüstri içi ticareti pozitif yönde etkilediğini göstermektedir. Gelir farklılıklarındaki artışın SITC7 endüstri içi ticaretini negatif, SITC8 toplam ve yatay endüstri içi ticaretini pozitif yönde etkilediği, diğer modellerde istatistiki açıdan anlamlı etki yaratmadığı tespit edilmiştir. Ticaret açıklığı artan ülkenin dikey yüksek kalite endüstri içi ticaretinin arttığı, dikey düşük kalite endüstri içi ticaretinin azaldığı görülmektedir. Avrupa Birliği üyeliği, istatistiki açıdan anlamlı endüstri içi ticaret türlerini pozitif; OECD üyeliği imalat sanayi, SITC6 ve SITC8 sektörlerindeki toplam ve dikey düşük kalite endüstri içi ticareti negatif yönde etkilemektedir. Döviz kurundaki artışın istatistiki olarak anlamlı modellerde endüstri içi ticareti azaltmaktadır.
... The Intra-industry Trade Index (IITI), also known as the Grubel-Lloyd Index, is a metric used to quantify the degree of IIT between two countries within a specific industry. IITI was developed by Herb Grubel and Peter Lloyd in 1975 to calculate the level of IIT of a given product, which is by subtracting a coun-try's imports of a particular product from its exports of that same product, and then dividing the result by the sum of its exports and imports of that product (Grubel and Lloyd 1975). The formula for IITI can be expressed as follows: ...
... The Intra-industry Trade Index (IITI), also known as the Grubel-Lloyd Index, is a metric used to quantify the degree of IIT between two countries within a specific industry. IITI was developed by Herb Grubel and Peter Lloyd in 1975 to calculate the level of IIT of a given product, which is by subtracting a coun-try's imports of a particular product from its exports of that same product, and then dividing the result by the sum of its exports and imports of that product (Grubel and Lloyd 1975). The formula for IITI can be expressed as follows: ...
The steady growth of international trade in the post-pandemic era has brought about significant challenges for the publishing industry, particularly with the trend towards regionalization. The decentralization, regionalization and localization of global supply chains have resulted in new changes in the global trade landscape. This paper aims to deepen our understanding of the regional publishing trade between China and ASEAN countries by analyzing its spatio-temporal patterns and internal dynamical mechanisms. We use ArcGIS software to visualize the spatial distribution of the publishing trade between the two regions and employ a Geodetector model to explore the influence of various factors on this trade. Our findings indicate that a set of factors significantly impact the evolution of spatio-temporal patterns in the publishing trade between China and ASEAN, and there is a pronounced disparity in the spatial distribution of the trade across different ASEAN countries. To optimize the industrial and supply chain, China’s publishing industry must strive to achieve a better spatial arrangement of its trading activities, promote resource allocation efficiency, and meanwhile expand cultural initiatives at the policy level to promote mutual understanding and exchange with those inactive trading partners.
... Traditional metrics, including the Market Share Index (MSI), RCA, and TC, fail to account for the role of imported intermediate inputs within exported products. To bridge this gap, Grubel and Lloyd (1975) [59] introduced the Intra-industry Trade Index (IiT), designed to quantify the extent to which trading nations or regions import and export similar products within identical industries. The formula for calculating the IiT is ...
... Traditional metrics, including the Market Share Index (MSI), RCA, and TC, fail to account for the role of imported intermediate inputs within exported products. To bridge this gap, Grubel and Lloyd (1975) [59] introduced the Intra-industry Trade Index (IiT), designed to quantify the extent to which trading nations or regions import and export similar products within identical industries. The formula for calculating the IiT is ...
This study investigates the pivotal role of technological innovation in enhancing the export competitiveness of high-tech products in China, analyzing its interplay with industrial upgrading. Theoretically, it contributes to the understanding of how technological innovation affects high-tech product markets, offering a novel product-centric perspective distinct from traditional industry-focused views. Set against China’s shift toward a dual circulation development paradigm, the research utilizes a panel regression model to analyze data from 30 Chinese provinces, cities, and autonomous regions from 2011 to 2021. The findings underscore the significant positive impact of technological innovation on export competitiveness, with variances noted across Eastern, Central, and Western regions. The study reveals that technological innovation primarily influences the global competitiveness of high-tech products through industrial upgrading. Policy recommendations emphasize strengthening technological innovation, enhancing education and government support, leveraging regional strengths, and achieving a balance between internal innovation capabilities and market openness. The findings suggest these strategies are crucial for enhancing export performance in the global market for high-tech products.
... Nesse contexto, o objetivo desta seção é investigar a importância do comércio intraindústria dentro do comércio internacional do Brasil. A mensuração do comércio intraindústria foi feita com base no índice sugerido por Grubel;Lloyd, (1975) ...
... Nesse contexto, o objetivo desta seção é investigar a importância do comércio intraindústria dentro do comércio internacional do Brasil. A mensuração do comércio intraindústria foi feita com base no índice sugerido por Grubel;Lloyd, (1975) ...
Analisa a competitividade brasileira no comércio internacional de produtos extrativos vegetais, de 1990 a 2010. Utiliza os índices vantagem comparativa revelada, taxa de cobertura, comércio intraindústria, índice de abertura do comércio e de contribuição ao saldo comercial. Os resultados obtidos revelam que o Palmito, Castanha de Caju, Castanha-do-pará e Óleo Essencial de Eucalipto foram competitivos no comércio internacional; houve predomínio do comércio interindústria para o Palmito, Castanha de Caju e Castanha-do-pará e do comércio intraindústria para o Tanino e Óleo Essencial de Eucalipto; observa baixo grau de abertura de comércio para os produtos extrativos vegetais brasileiros; e que Palmito, Castanha de Caju e Castanha-do-pará destacam-se na contribuição para o saldo comercial do setor no país.
... Bu olguyu açıklamak için belirli sayıda istatistiksel endeks kullanılmıştır (Dutta & Sourish, 2022). Bu bağlamdaki üç önemli çalışma olan Verdoorn (1960), Balassa (1966) ve Grubel & Lloyd (1975) ...
In this thesis, the positive impact of Islamic international trade principles mentioned in the sources of Islamic scholars on the conventional international trade system was examined. To do this, we tried to explore new Islamic theoretical horizons while combining, analyzing and comparing the aspect of applicability and modernity, choosing fiqh rulings and New International Trade Theory models as main components. The study is divided into two main parts: theoretical and empirical. The first theoretical part reveals that in order to carry out a suitable and optimal structure for Islamic international trade, markets must be based on certain principles consisting of two categories of rules to be applied. The developing rules for the markets of the international trading system, based on monopolistic competition in the sense of Lancaster and the concept of priority inspired by the thoughts of Imam Shatibi. The second are protective rules based on three main policies: Price intervention, Selling incentive and Stockpiling policies. In the second stage of the study, we empirically assessed Al Shatibi's concept within a panel data of countries with monopolistic competitive markets according to Lancaster's model. To do this we applied Panel regression, Fixed effect and Random effect estimations. Finally, the Hausman test to detect the appropriate estimation. The findings largely confirmed the positive impact on social welfare of the implementation of the priority concept of Imam Al Shatibi's in international trade strategy within the framework of monopolistic competition and product diversification. These results make important contributions to the literature and future researches.
... For the purpose of this study the following Grubel-Lloyd index was used to measure IIT [Grubel, Lloyd, 1975]: ...
Thirty years ago, the Europe Agreement establishing an association between the European Communities and their Member States and Poland came into force. Twenty years ago, Poland, along with most of the Central and Eastern European Countries, joined the European Union. These two anniversaries have provoked the researchers from the Department of European Integration and Legal Studies (www.sgh.waw.pl/kiipe) SGH Warsaw School of Economics to prepare a monography "Poland in the European Union. Report 2024. 20 Years of Membership: Experiences and Foresights” (https://www.sgh.waw.pl/kgs/publikacje-pracownikow-katedry-integracji-i-prawa-europejskiego). This is the fifth annual report of the Department on the evolution of relations between Poland and other EU Member States. In these reports we have discussed the issues we believe to be the most relevant to Poland's integration process within the European Union. Each year we concentrate on issues we believe are of most interest, touching on both the economic and legal spheres.
In the first chapter of this year’s report, titled “Changes in Poland’s foreign trade after accession to the European Union”, Elżbieta Kawecka-Wyrzykowska found that growth in Poland’s foreign trade was impressive during the surveyed period, and this was the case with both other EU partners and extra EU countries. In the 21st century, Poland has been one of the countries with the fastest growth in exports to other EU countries, in relative terms, which has strengthened its position among EU suppliers – reaching a 6% share in intra-EU exports and imports in 2022. Immediately prior to accession, and beyond, EU suppliers covered just over 65% of Poland’s import needs. In the last two years, this figure has barely exceeded 50%, which largely reflected the differences in the scale of price increases for basic products imported from the EU and from outside the EU. EU partners’ position in Poland’s exports has been much stronger: around 70 % through the whole period. Both, exports to the EU partners and to third countries are dominated by industrial products – around 80% in recent years. Agricultural products amount to around 15% in exports in both geographical directions.
In the chapter, titled “The evolving role of the European Union in Polish trade in services and major developments of the intra-EU services trade of Poland“ Dariusz Mongiało reveals that Poland was a net exporter to the EU market of services. It is also shown that Germany stands as the key destination of the Polish services and their top supplier to Poland (occupying the same, first position as in Poland’s trade in goods). Polish most important export services delivered to the EU Internal Market are currently: transport, other business services and ICT. The existence of two-way flows confirms a high degree of similarity between the Polish economy and the economies of other EU countries as regards road transport, computer services and in travel. This two ways trade in services suggests also that Polish service companies operating in these branches could take advantage of the benefits from intra-industry specialization as well.
In the next chapter, titled “Poland and the EU economic and monetary union”, Artur Nowak-Far shows that in the pre-accession period, participation in the full EMU was seen both by the EU institutions and the Polish government(s) as a clear consequence of EU membership. Nevertheless, the agenda related to Poland’s transition to full EMU membership was undermined by the apparent lack of robustness of the EMU construct during the 2008+ global financial crisis and in 2015 by an obvious political shift in public sentiment towards a more Eurosceptic political stance. The most important tactical ramification is that during major economic stress (i. e. the 2008+ global economic crisis and the COVID-19 crisis) Poland retained much broader room for manoeuvre in economic policy than it might have had with the euro area. Moreover, over recent years, Poland has experienced a high degree of real convergence with the euro area.
In chapter four, titled “Poland’s environmental policy after accession to the European Union”, Marzenna Błaszczuk-Zawiła shows that as EU Member State, Poland has met many of its environmental commitments on time. Some of them (transposition of certain directives) were implemented behind schedule, while on some issues it is still difficult to predict the timeline for compliance. Between May 2004 and December 2022, the Commission opened 120 infringement proceedings against Poland in relation to environmental legislation (especially in waste management, air and water quality, and nature conservation). Many of the environmental issues faced by Poland remain a major challenge for most or a large group of EU Member States, due to reasons such as the high level of environmental protection prescribed by EU law.
The next chapter, titled “From emigration to immigration – how EU membership changed migration-related challenges in Poland”, by Michał Schwabe, reveals that although the first years of Poland’s EU membership only confirmed Poles’ wish to emigrate to the West for work, since the second decade of the 21st century, the character of Poland as a country of emigration has begun to gradually change. Emigration of unskilled labour to the West created a growing demand for labour, especially for seasonal workers in the agricultural sector. This demand was met primarily by an increasing scale of immigration from the former USSR countries (mainly from Ukraine). A positive migration balance was recorded in Poland for the first time in 2016, and just one year later, i.e. in 2017, Poland was the country with the largest number of temporary foreign workers in the world according to OECD data. The crisis on the Polish-Belarusian border triggered by the Belarusian regime in 2021, as well as the unprecedented influx of forced migrants from Ukraine, who had to flee their homeland due to an unprovoked Russian invasion in 2022 are reflected in the analysis.
The six chapter, titled “State aid in Poland after accession to the EU. Twenty years of financial interventions in the market economy” by Adam A. Ambroziak, presents that in the period of 2004–2021, Poland was constantly among the largest state aid donors and gradually increased its position. The nominal and relative value of aid provided in Poland was the highest in the first years after the start of successive EU multiannual budgets , indicating a considerable dependence of public interventions in Poland on EU funds. This trend was not accompanied by an equally rapid convergence in the structure of the support provided: this was especially true for R&D&I aid, but despite this, aid for environmental protection and energy efficiency was either far from sufficient or did not envisage allocations that followed European, trends.
Chapter seven, by Tomasz Grzybowski, looks at “Europeanization of Polish judicial system (perspective of administrative judiciary)”. The presence of Poland in the EU and party to the Convention for the Protection of Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms, and consequently the influence of European law on the Polish legal space, appear to be something self-evident, both in terms of law-making and especially law application. Regarding application of the law, there is, however, a widespread belief that an interpretive perspective based on the objectives of EU law, especially in harmonized areas, is something natural at the current stage of development of both national and EU legal systems. Therefore, the harmonization of legal cultures, and particularly their axiological foundations, took place not only at the level of the legal text, but also through legal discourse, expressed particularly in the dialogue of national and international court jurisdictions.
In summary, successive reports prepared by a team of researchers from the Department of European Integration and Legal Studies at the SGH have shown that Poland's accession to the European Union has made it possible to achieve various goals. They facilitated the country's further economic and social development, such as a significant expansion of the market for Polish goods, stabilization of the economic law system, an impressive inflow of foreign capital needed to modernize the economy and create new jobs (in the form of direct investments as well as some European funds), etc. At the same time, new development challenges (including climate change, pressure from foreign migrants to access wealthier European countries, ensuring security of supply of critical raw materials, including energy, etc.) make it clear that the optimal path for economically and politically secure development of Poland is to deepen and broaden European integration and strengthen Poland's position in the EU. These are areas of interest and study by the staff of the Department of European Integration and Legal Studies.
... If trading parties have both export and import trade in a certain industry, it means that the two trading parties have trade complementarity in this industry. Grubel and Lloyd first proposed the Grubel-Lloyd index, also known as the Intra-Industry Trade Index (G-L index), in 1975 [19]. The specific formula is as follows: ...
Agricultural trade is the foundation of world trade and an important link in economic and trade relations between countries or regions. Exploring the competitiveness and complementarity of the agricultural trade between China and the Association of Southeast Asian Nations, or ASEAN, could provide a theoretical basis for tapping the growth potential of the agricultural trade between China and ASEAN and expanding the trade relationship. According to the theory of comparative advantage, trade complementarity theory, and intra-industry trade theory, and based on UN Comtrade data from 2013 to 2022, this study uses the Regional Revealed Comparative Advantage Index, the Trade Complementarity Index, and the Intra-Industry Trade Index to measure the competitiveness, complementarity, and intra-industry trade level of China–ASEAN agricultural trade, including HS01-24 commodities. The results show that the agricultural trade between China and ASEAN is both competitive and complementary. The competitiveness of China’s agricultural exports to ASEAN is greater than that of ASEAN’s agricultural exports to China, and the complementarity of the former is less than that of the latter. Both sides have their own comparative advantage products, and there is also a strong competitive relationship in some agricultural product fields. The bilateral agricultural trade is mainly intra-industry trade, and the level is relatively high, while some strongly competitive agricultural products urgently need to transform from inter-industry to intra-industry trade. China and ASEAN should participate in bilateral trade based on the comparative advantages of their own agricultural products; ASEAN should improve the quality of agricultural products to enhance international competitiveness; China should tap into the market demand for ASEAN agricultural products to enhance the complementarity of its agricultural exports to ASEAN; and the two sides should formulate different policies for different types of agricultural products.
... In terms of measurement, it is essential to measure intraindustry trade as accurately as possible to test any newly developed models of intra-industry trade. As such, the Grubel-Lloyd (1975) index has been widely used as a standard measure of intra-industry trade. However, the Grubel-Lloyd index has been met with severe criticisms, leading to the development of alternative models discussed in the 'Methodology' section. ...
Background: The South African pharmaceutical sector is Africa’s largest and most advanced but heavily depends on imported products and active pharmaceutical ingredients to meet its demands. The status quo is due to low intra-industry trade, which is necessary to induce innovation and technological progress essential for accelerating local production, export growth and reducing dependence on imports. Aim: The primary objective of this article was to examine intra-industry trade in South Africa’s pharmaceutical sector and subsequently, total factor productivity (TFP) as a key driver of intra-industry trade. Setting: Intra-industry trade was measured using data obtained from the United Nations Conference on Trade and Development databases, while the TFP was measured using data from the South African Reserve Bank (SARB) covering 2001–2021. Method: The marginal intra-industry trade index (MIIT) and unmatched changes in trade (UMCIT) were used to measure intra-industry trade, while the Malmquist total factor productivity (MTFP) index was used to analyse SARB data to determine TFP. Results: The MIIT index and UMCIT revealed that trade is predominantly inter-industry with episodes of industry specialisation and significant intra-industry changes. The MTFP results showed that TFP is solely driven by technical changes. Conclusion: The study recommends that South Africa should develop a coordinated and sustainable innovation system in the pharmaceutical sector. This will help prevent sporadic technological advancements and promote intra-industry trade. Contribution: The article contributes to the empirical literature on intra-industry trade in developing countries by showing the correlation between an improvement in TFP and an increase in intra-industry trade necessary to stimulate domestic production to reduce high import demand.
... The result is an increase in the cost of imports due to the shift from foreign to member-country sources and a loss of consumers' surplus resulting from the substitution of higher-cost goods for lower-cost goods. Grubel-Lloyd (1975) show that differential technology and human capital cause intra-industry trade even if factor input requirements are identical. In the case of industries subject to increasing returns, countries can specialise in varieties so as to enter into intra-industry trade [Krugman (1981)]. ...
The idea that the collective regional economic prospects of the countries of a region exceed the sum of their individual prospects has attracted the attention of politicians and economists since the World War II. Its best known example has been the Treaty of Rome in the Euro-Mediterranean region, which has nearly half of the regional trade agreements in operation. GATT rules allowed the regional trade agreements so long as they promoted freer intraregional trade without raising trade barriers for the third countries. These agreements have indeed been seen as complementary to the multilateral free trade initiatives. With the advent of the WTO and the onset of globalisation, the countries categorised as fast integrators are considered to have better prospects than those categorised as slow integrators.
... All underlying Chinese series are available in monthly frequency and can be aggregated to lower resolution observation-frequency to obtain corresponding deviation cycle components and allowing for band-specific averages also in the mixed frequency case. For intra-industry trade linkages (T L) our baseline bilateral measure is the observation period average of the also frequently used indicator by Grubel and Lloyd (1975): ...
We introduce the technique of band spectral panel regression to analyze global linkages across sectors and frequency bands. It relies on decomposing time series --allowably measured in mixed observation frequency-- into "deviation cycle" dynamics by frequency band. We use it to compute measures of real co-movement, trade linkage, financial market integration, and policy coordination band by band. Considering intra-industry as well as inter-industry linkage indicators, we apply it to data of contemporary China and its 20 major trading partners in the pre-trade war and pre-pandemic era. Band-specific fixed effects and band-industry-specific interaction terms are included. For labor intensive industries co-movement through intra-industry trade linkages is found to be band-specific. Moreover, our results clarify the puzzle of financial globalization implying real regionalization or contagious synchronization of cyclical dynamics. We find the latter to hold in the 4-6 years band and the former in the 6-10 years range.
JEL classification: C32, C49, E32, F40
... El comercio de bienes intermedios es un indicador tradicional del fenómeno de fragmentación productiva internacional. Grubel y Lloyd (1975) enfatizaron el crecimiento del comercio intraindustrial, que hacía referencia a los intercambios de bienes de la misma industria, configurando unas industrias exportadoras e importadoras con los mismos sectores protagonistas. Diversos autores han estudiado el comercio intraindustrial como reflejo de estos procesos de integración vertical (Koopman et al., 2014;Yoshida, Manuel mundiales. ...
El proceso de creciente fragmentación productiva internacional que se ha venido desarrollando durante las últimas décadas ha cristalizado en una red productiva y comercial global fuertemente interconectada que, no obstante, se encuentra plagada de crecientes tensiones e incertidumbres. La coyuntura convulsa de los últimos años ha desencadenado pulsiones por parte de distintos estados hacia el repliegue interno, con objeto de incrementar y renovar sus capacidades productivas nacionales y de mejorar su inserción exterior, desde la óptica de ganar en autonomía y soberanía nacional. Nos encontramos, por tanto, en un momento de transformación de los patrones que ordenan las relaciones productivas y comerciales globales.Este trabajo tiene por objeto analizar el desarrollo y los límites del proceso de globalización que se ha desplegado durante las últimas décadas. Asimismo, también se examinan distintos elementos de tensión que están emergiendo durante los últimos años en el contexto de la coyuntura actual que atraviesa el proceso de globalización y las respuestas políticas que se están desplegando. Por último, se reflexiona sobre el papel que pueden jugar los Estados en la orientación de los nuevos cursos que está adoptando la globalización.
... The term 'intra-industry trade' is defined as the value of an industry's exports equalling its imports (Grubel & Lloyd, 1975). It is a frequently used indicator in the literature to enable comparison between different countries in measuring intra-industry trade (Shahbaz & Leitão, 2010). ...
It is irrefutable that the mining sector, which has played an essential role in the development of civilizations throughout history and has been one of the vital elements of the Industrial Revolution, made outstanding contributions to shaping humanity in the last two centuries. The demand for mining assets, which have particular importance due to the inputs they provide to the manufacturing industry, is increasing day by day, and this increases their value even more. In addition to its high added value and employment creation capacity, the mining sector significantly contributes to the national economy as a unique sector that accelerates regional development. Due to the importance of the mining sector in the Turkish economy, its employment creation, and its export share, the competitive dynamics and performance persistence have received considerable scholarly attention. The study's main aim is to investigate the competitiveness of the Turkish and BRICS countries' mining industries in international markets. Accordingly, using the import and export values between 2017 and 2022, indices of the Disclosed Comparative Advantage Index (RCA), Relative Export Advantage Index (RXA), Relative Import Advantage Index (RMA), Relative Trade Advantage Index (RTA), Export Specialization Index (ES), Export Similarity Index (XS), and Relative Competitive Advantage Index (RC) were calculated and the sector competitiveness was evaluated. The results reveal a consistent low competitive advantage globally and specifically compared to BRICS countries. While there have been occasional improvements, Turkey's mining sector faces disadvantages in exports, imports, and overall trade compared to both the world and BRICS countries.
... And this explains the huge increase in trade within industries (Akram, 2013). Even in products with comparable factor input requirements, differences in the level of technology and human capital result in intra-industry competition (Grubel & Lloyd, 1975). According to (Yeats, 1998) intra-industry trade accounts for about 30 percent of all manufactured commodities traded globally. ...
In the foreseeable future, the potential for deeper integration into the global value chain (GVC) between India and the UK lies within the establishment of a prospective free trade agreement (FTA). Such an agreement holds promise in facilitating market access, thereby fostering increased participation in the GVC for both countries. This study delves into nine specific sectors, carefully examining the factors that shape India's export flows to the UK within the framework of GVC. This research raises an important question: how will the trade dynamics evolve beyond tariff easing and trade liberalisation, emphasizing the development of robust value-added linkages between these sectors? The findings reveal the pivotal role of GVC participation in sectors like textiles, clothing, and base metals, increasing India's exports to the UK. Conversely, sectors like chemicals and pharmaceuticals thrive on factors such as intensive margin and research and development expenditure, augmenting export performance. These insights underscore the necessity for nuanced, sector-specific approaches in crafting trade policies and conducting FTA negotiations, unravelling the intricacies of trade dynamics between India and the UK, and laying the groundwork for mutually beneficial economic cooperation in the future.
... Regardless of approach, whether top-down integration (as the case of Europe 6 or incremental approach driven by the various utilities within a region (as the case of Association of Southeast Asian Nations 7 ), physical infrastructure is at the center of both the process and sustainability of electricity market integration. 8,9 Massive infrastructure investment is needed for generating, transmitting, and coordinating power exchange across various countries in a regional market. 10 Because establishing a regional electricity market involves multiple jurisdiction re-arrangements, it necessitates regional planning and agreements on sharing investment cost. ...
A well-designed and managed electricity supply infrastructure system is essential for integrated energy market. This paper tracks progress on infrastructure for electricity trading in East Africa integrated electricity market. Using data on electricity infrastructure targets in Master Plan 2013–2023 and actual infrastructure delivered by 2022, we conducted earned value analysis (EVA) to establish whether the completed generation and transmission infrastructure can adequately facilitate electricity trading across EAC countries. Findings show that by 2022 the region had realized 54% of the 12,567MW planned generation capacity and 211% of transmission network targets. Investment inflows for infrastructure have been faster than anticipated with actual variance of 325%. This triggered 47% earned value in surplus load worth US$357million of trade, despite actual electricity trading not happening at the same pace. We construed some merit-order conditions for iterative planning to synchronize generation infrastructure with transmission infrastructure for trade efficiency.
... Ayrıca monopolcü rekabetin daha yoğun hissedildiği, çokulusluların daha yoğun faaliyet gösterdiği ve dünya ticaretine daha fazla eklemlenen ülkelerde EİT seviyelerinin daha yüksek olduğu ifade edilmiştir (Yılmaz, 2016 EİT, ürün grupları veya alt sektörler için toplulaştırılmış şekilde de hesaplama yapılabilmektedir. Bu doğrultuda, n sayıda sektörün toplam uluslararası ticaret değeri içinde yer alan ürün gruplarının ihracat ve ithalat oranları ile ağırlıklandırılması ile oluşturulan ortalama EİT, aşağıdaki gibi formüle edilebilmektedir (Grubel & Lloyd, 1971;Grubel & Lloyd, 1975): Research Article çok düşük olduğu görülmüştür. Türkiye'nin su ürünleri dış ticaretinde EİT'in düşük seviyede olması ve dış ticaret fazlasının olması nedeniyle dış ticaret yapısının daha çok ihracat yönlü EAT şeklinde olduğu anlaşılmıştır. ...
Su ürünleri sektörü; tüketim açısından nüfusun artışının devam etmesi, ülkelerin gelir düzeylerinde görülen artışlar, sağlıklı beslenmeye yönelik artan eğilim, üretim bakımından ise su ürünlerinde depolama ve ulaşım olanaklarının gelişmesi ile ülke ekonomileri açısından önemli bir sektör haline gelmiştir. Türkiye’nin su ürünleri ihracatı başta olmak üzere dış ticaretinde son yıllarda önemli bir büyüme yaşanmıştır. Bu çalışmanın amacı, Türkiye’nin dış ticaret yaptığı ülkeler ile su ürünleri sektörü endüstri-içi ticaretinin analiz edilmesidir. Bu kapsamda TÜİK’ten 2010-2022 dönemi için su ürünleri 4 ve 6 haneli HS (Harmonize Sistem) kodlu ürün grupları dış ticaret verileri, Grubel-Lloyd endeksi ile analiz edilmiştir. Çalışmanın bulgularına göre, Türkiye’nin su ürünleri dış ticaretinde EİT düzeyinin düşük olduğu saptanmıştır. Dolayısıyla su ürünleri dış ticaretinde, ihracatın ithalattan fazla olduğu dikkate alındığında, ihracat yönlü endüstriler-arası şekli öne çıkmaktadır. Aynı zamanda ham su ürünleri ve işlenmiş su ürünlerinde de EİT’in düşük olduğu gözlenmiştir. Bu bakımdan ham su ürünlerinde ihracat yönlü, işlenmiş su ürünlerinde ise ithalat yönlü endüstriler-arası ticaret şeklinde dış ticaret yapısının olduğu ortaya çıkmıştır. Sadece ham su ürünleri içinde yer alan kabuklu hayvanlar ve yumuşakçalar ürün gruplarında EİT düzeyinin yüksek olduğu görülmüştür.
... We used the Grubel-Lloyd (GL) index (1975) [36] and Brulhart marginal intra-industry trade index (1994) [37] to identify the moderating effects. The GL index is by far the most authoritative intra-industry trade index. ...
Economic policy uncertainty has had an important impact on trade and sustainable economic development. Especially in some specific industries, uncertainty has increased dramatically. The extant related literature mainly analyzes the nexus between uncertainty and trade across different industries and focuses less on a specific industry. Using Chinese customs data on HS 8-digit products over the period of 2000–2013, this paper first investigates the impact of both foreign economic policy uncertainty (EPU) and domestic intra-industry trade on China’s mechanical and electrical product exports to 23 trading partners and applies pooled OLS regressions to conduct an empirical study. This paper finds that EPU has a significant inhibition effect on mechanical and electrical product exports; conversely, intra-industry trade can both significantly promote exports and alleviate the inhibition effect of EPU. In addition, the export impact of EPU varied with different trade patterns. It can significantly inhibit processing exports, while it has no effect on ordinary exports. The results of this paper indicate that in the context of increasing uncertainty, our findings could have far-reaching policy implications for China to build a new development pattern of domestic and international dual circulation.
... Sejak tahun 1960-an, para peneliti mulai tertarik menganalisis perdagangan intra industri. Temuan Balassa (1966), dan Grubel & Lloyd (1975) ...
Intra-industry trade (IIT) is trade in the same product between one country and another. Cocoa is an Indonesian agricultural commodity that tends to carry out intra-industry trade. This research aims to analyze intra-industry trade relations between Indonesian Cocoa and trading partner countries and the factors that influence intra-industry trade in Indonesian Cocoa. This research uses panel data from a period from 2016-2021. The best model chosen was the Random Effect Model (REM). The analysis method used is the Intra Industry Trade Index and Gravity Model. The results of the analysis show that the country that has strong integration in intra-industry trade in cocoa is Indonesia and Malaysia. IIT in Indonesian cocoa with partner countries is still predominantly weakly integrated. The factors that influence intra-Indonesian cocoa industry trade are the average of Gross Domestic Product (GDP) per capita between countries, differences in GDP between countries, differences in GDP per capita between countries, and foreign direct investment (FDI). The government needs to maintain IIT with Malaysia, which has strong integration and has the potential to increase FDI. Meanwhile, increasing intra-industry trade can be done by considering increased exports and transfer of technology and knowledge.
... The first step is to construct an index describing the interdependence between the two countries around critical metals, based on the intraindustry trade index (Grubel and Lloyd, 1975) and drawing on existing studies that have explored external dependence (Xia et al., 2023). In formula (1), TE fi→fj indicates the exports of country f i to f j , TE fi→fj indicates the imports of country f i to f j . ...
Evaluating the trade interdependence among countries is the key to understanding critical metal minerals security. By constructing a novel interdependence network, this paper reveals a more comprehensive world hierarchy and risk system of critical metals, and focuses on the interdependencies between China and the US-led MSP countries before and after the Sino-US trade disputes. The results indicate that the global interdependence network of critical metals has declined, with antimony interdependence being the loosest. China and the U.S. are gradually separating into different communities and driving the camp-based world pattern. In addition, the world is increasingly less dependent on China, but China is increasingly dependent on the world. China only remains the world's most indispensable in both lithium and tungsten alone, but it is the most world-dependent country in all four critical metal interdependence networks except tungsten. Meanwhile, China and Western countries such as the U.S. are at high risk of dependence on critical metal chains, while most of the others are gradually getting better. Interestingly, MSP countries and China maintain strong interdependencies. MSP countries' dependencies on China have significantly decreased, While China's dependence on MSP has gradually deepened.
... During its journey, the theory of comparative advantage experienced ups and downs. The main challenge arose when Lloyd & Grubel (1975) made documentation of intra-industrial trade (IIT) in 10 industrialized countries. In IIT, countries trade (relatively) similar goods. ...
We developed hypothetical basic laws of trade that could reconstruct the theory of international trade. These laws could make global trade coherent and optimize the gains of trade for all nations. In general, the laws rearrange the foundation of trade theory, so that they naturally form a coherent interdependent economy, locally and internationally. The basic laws are more comprehensive than the comparative advantage theory as the theory is part of the laws. At the international level, the basic laws require a hypothetical true exchange rate (TER) that makes fundamentals and monetary aligned. If the TER requirement is fulfilled, then all countries should have equal comparative advantages, international trade should be relatively balanced, they all could benefit from trading regardless of competitiveness and cost, and gains from trade could be optimal for all nations. To demonstrate the workability of this hypothesis, we make trade simulations 2x2 and 5x20.
... In addition to income, size, and distance, we also include independent variables to reflect economic and (Grubel and Lloyd, 1975) is included to reflect whether supply chain integration with China matters. We also tried including a host of other variables, including distance from China, regional trade agreement with the US, regional trade agreement with China, and historical estimates of value-added trade with China, but they were never significant. ...
... In order to measure IIT, the Grubel-Lloyd index (GL-index) is used, proposed by Grubel and Lloyd (1975). The formula is defined as follows: ...
"Post the wave of industrialisation, a new order of world trade emerged, which could not be explained by the classical and neoclassical models of trade. Such a trade pattern came to be denoted as ‘Intra- Industry-Trade’(IIT), implying exchange of similar or identical goods and services within an industry or sector between countries. The ASEAN is India’s fourth largest trading partner, and their economic partnership has been growing exponentially. A high degree of IIT exists in India-ASEAN trade. The present study undertakes a comprehensive examination of IIT in manufactures between India and top five trade partners among ASEAN, i.e., Indonesia, Malaysia, Singapore, Thailand, and Vietnam during the period 1992-2020. As manufactures comprise of the most traded category between India-ASEAN, Intra-Industry trade is examined at technology level, wherein manufactures are classified into resource based, low, medium, and high technology manufactures, and at commodity category level, wherein IIT is examined based on major manufactured categories. The analysis reveals exponential increase in India’s IIT among manufactured goods with the select ASEAN countries from 1992 to 2020. Albeit the degree of IIT varies by country, which has been examined in detail. The study suggests the promotion of IIT between the partner countries such that the several benefits of IIT can be harnessed, such as, efficiency gains, improved competitiveness, increased productivity, and greater economic growth, which would be mutually advantageous to India and ASEAN countries."
... O indicador de comércio intrassetorial (IS) utilizado para estimar a intensidade das trocas de produtos do mesmo setor é o coeficiente Grubel--Lloyd (1975) que é apresentado como se segue: O valor das vendas externas cearenses, relativamente ao Brasil, registrou patamar abaixo de 1% ao longo de toda a série analisada, à exceção do ano de 2003 quando chegou a 1%. Portanto, é baixa a representatividade estadual nas vendas externas nacionais. ...
Este trabalho propõe identificar as restrições e potencialidades e do comércio exterior cearenses entre o período de 1989 e 2016. O comércio exterior cearense foi analisado por meio de indicadores como, grau de abertura da economia, coeficiente de importação, Market-share, taxa de cobertura relativa das importações, coeficientes de especialização relativa e índices de concentração e de comércio intrasetorial. Os resultados mostraram que o comércio exterior cearense, ao longo de quase trinta anos, deteve baixa participação nas vendas e compras nacionais, contudo, apresentou mudanças expressivas a partir da década de 1990. Novos produtos entraram na pauta e novos mercados foram conquistados. Alguns fatores foram responsáveis pelo desempenho externo estadual no período considerado. Destacam-se a política de atração de investimentos do Governo do Estado, a entrada em operação do porto do Pecém e a implantação da Companhia Siderúrgica do Pecém (CSP) na Zona de Processamento de Exportação do Pecém (ZPE). As restrições a serem transpostas referem-se, dentre outras, à concentração da pauta exportadora em produtos de baixo valor agregado e à concentração espacial dos principais municípios exportadores.
Este artigo investiga a influência do comércio internacional nas estratégias logísticas da Fiat Automóveis, uma das principais montadoras do setor automotivo global. Com uma presença significativa em diversos mercados, a Fiat enfrenta desafios e oportunidades que moldam suas operações de venda de veículos e peças. A pesquisa, fundamentada em um estudo de caso, analisa a intersecção entre logística e comércio internacional, explorando como a Fiat adapta suas práticas logísticas para atender à demanda global. O referencial teórico aborda conceitos fundamentais de logística internacional, incluindo planejamento e execução de cadeias de suprimento globais, e discute teorias de comércio, como as vantagens comparativas de Ricardo e o comércio intraindústria de Grubel e Lloyd. A pesquisa destaca tendências emergentes, como a digitalização dos processos logísticos e a crescente importância da sustentabilidade, além de desafios como barreiras tarifárias, flutuações cambiais e a necessidade de conformidade com regulamentações internacionais. Os resultados da análise demonstram que a Fiat adota uma abordagem logística integrada, combinando tecnologias avançadas e parcerias estratégicas para otimizar o transporte e a distribuição de veículos e peças. A empresa utiliza sistemas de rastreamento e gestão de fornecedores, o que contribui para a redução de custos e a melhoria da eficiência operacional. A pesquisa conclui que a capacidade de adaptação e inovação nas estratégias logísticas é crucial para a competitividade da Fiat no mercado global. Recomendações são apresentadas para práticas futuras, enfatizando a importância de investimentos em tecnologia e na formação de alianças estratégicas, além da adoção de práticas sustentáveis, para enfrentar os desafios do comércio internacional de forma eficaz.
One of the responses of countries to deal with the phenomenon of globalization is economic and regional integration. Today, along with globalization, the debate on the economic and regional integration has also been flourished in various parts of the world. Islamic countries by relying on their advantages and different economic capabilities can increase flows of foreign investment, followed by, higher level of economic growth, to cope with globalization trend. Establishment of common economic union by reducing trade restrictions and barriers can, in one hand, increase openness, level of trade, production and growth. On the other hand, increasing the volume of trade between member countries can increase transfer of possible fluctuations between them. The purpose of this study was to investigate the relationship between trade intensity and business cycle synchronization between the Islamic Republic of Iran and other members of the OIC. To estimate the model, panel data approach for the period 1994–2011 were applied.
This study used a panel of bilateral trade and business cycle data spanning 9 selected member countries over 18 years. The results showed although, there is a correlation between the business cycle in selected countries of OIC, but due to lack of homogeneity degree of development and economic structure of members, intensity of correlation between business cycles are not the same. Therefore, it is suggested that the anti–Cycle economic policies should be made with caution.
Keywords
OIC Business Cycle Synchronization Trade Intensity Regional Integration
In this paper, we analyze the determinants of Intra-Industry trade (IIT) in the agriculture, industry and service sectors between Iran and its trading partners, i.e. D8, ECO, GCC and OIC countries by using dynamic panel data and GMM during 1980-2009. This study uses country-specific characteristics such as economic size, per capita income, foreign direct investment, geographical distance, and trade imbalance as explanatory variables.
The results indicate that economic size, per capita income, and geographical distance explain most of IIT between Iran and its trading partners. According to econometric findings, the economic size has high and positive correlation with IIT, however per capita income affects IIT, negatively. Thus, differences in aggregate demand and supply should be considered in selecting trade partners. The similarity in income structure leads to same demand structure and expansion of trade volume. In addition, geographical distance and trade imbalance has negative effect on IIT flow in Iran.
Keywords
Intra-industry Trade Regional blocs Dynamic panel data Economic scale GMM
Kara ve deniz bağlantı yollarıyla Asya’dan Avrupa’ya uzanan geniş çaplı ekonomik ve ticari bağlantı projesi olan Bir Kuşak Bir Yol Girişimi (OBOR) aslında, tarihi İpek Yolu ile aynı fikirden ortaya çıkmıştır. OBOR, tıpkı tarihi İpek Yolu gibi, Çin ürünlerini özellikle Batılı ülkelere ihraç etmeyi amaçlamaktadır. OBOR girişimi, bu amacın dışında Çin’in güvenli bir ticaret alanı oluşturmasına, enerji ve gıda arz güvenliğini artırmasına da hizmet edecektir. Ayrıca girişimin dünya ekonomik ve siyasi dengelerini de değiştirme potansiyeli bulunmaktadır. OBOR bağlantı güzergahlarında bulunan diğer ülkeler gibi üç kıtanın birleştiği eşsiz bir stratejik konuma sahip olan Türkiye’nin de bu girişimin ekonomik ve siyasi etkilerini doğrudan hissetmesi kaçınılmazdır. Bu nedenle Türkiye’nin OBOR’a yönelik bir strateji belirlemesi zorunluluktur. Bu eserin hazırlanmasındaki temel amaç, Türkiye’nin bu ihtiyacını giderebilmek adına bir eylem planı sunmak ve Türkiye’nin OBOR stratejisinin belirlenmesine katkı sağlamaktır. Çalışmanın hipotezi, altyapı yatırımları ile ticaret maliyetlerini azaltmayı amaçlayan OBOR girişiminin, Türkiye’nin dış ticaret hacmini artırıcı etki yapacağı yönündedir. Bu hipotezin belirlenmesinde, Türkiye’nin dil, din ve kültürel bağları olan ülkelerle ve daha önce düşük düzeyde ticaret yaptığı ülkelerle arasındaki ticaret maliyetlerinin OBOR girişimi sayesinde azalacağı, bunun da ticaret hacmini artıracağı düşüncesi etkili olmuştur. Çalışmada ekonomik model olarak Yeni Ekonomik Coğrafya seçilmiştir. Çalışmada bu modelin seçilmesinin nedeni, yeni ekonomik coğrafya (NEG) yaklaşımının varsayımlarından birisinin ulaşım maliyetleri ile ilgili olmasıdır. NEG yaklaşımında buzdağı (iceberg) ulaşım maliyetleri kullanılmıştır. Ulaşım maliyetleri ile ilgili varsayıma göre, ürün eğer tüketildiği yerden uzak bir yerde üretilip farklı bir yere naklediliyorsa ürü nün belli bir miktarı taşıma sırasında erimektedir. OBOR girişimi, çeşitli alt ve üst yapı yatırımları ile ticaret maliyetlerini azaltmayı amaçladığı için çalışmada NEG yaklaşımının kullanılması uygun görülmüştür. Çalışmanın iki ampirik analiz yöntemi bulunmaktadır. Bunların birincisi, uluslararası iktisat literatüründe yaygın olarak kullanılmakta olan yapısal çekim modelidir. Çekim modelinde karşılaşılan birçok soruna dirençli olan Poisson Pseudo Maksimum Olabilirlik (PPML) tahmincisi kullanılarak analiz sonuçlarının sapmasız olması sağlanmaya çalışılmıştır. İkinci olarak ise çeşitli ticaret endeksleri (Dış Ticaretin Yıllık Bütünleşik Büyüme Hızı, Bilateral Yoğunlaşma, Sektörel Bilateral Ticaret Yoğunlaşması ve Grubel-Lloyd Endeksleri) ile ürün bazlı analiz gerçekleştirilmiştir. Çalışmada özellikle endüstri içi ticaretin seviyesini gösteren Grubel-Lloyd endeksi üzerinde durulmuştur. Bunun nedeni, NEG yaklaşımında endüstri içi ticaretin firma kümelenmesi vasıtasıyla ülkeler arasındaki ticaret hacimlerinin artmasına neden olmasıdır.
Professional burnout syndrome (PBS) is an issue affecting individuals and organizations alike, characterized by emotional exhaustion and reduced effectiveness resulting from overwhelming work demands. Root causes include excessive workload, unrealistic expectations, and blurred work-life boundaries, which are often intensified by organizational culture and inadequate support systems. The consequences range from decreased productivity and creativity to high turnover rates and financial strain on organizations. Mitigating PBS requires a comprehensive approach that addresses both individual and organizational levels. Individually, stress management techniques and self-care practices are crucial for building resilience and coping with work-related stressors. Organizations play a vital role in promoting employee well-being by fostering a supportive work environment, promoting work-life balance and providing access to support systems such as counseling and mentorship programs. Leadership is key in creating a culture that values employee health and prioritizes open communication and empathy. Policy interventions can further support efforts to combat PBS by enforcing labor laws that protect employee rights, such as setting limits on working hours and ensuring access to mental health services. Additionally, incentivise organizations to prioritize employee well-being through tax incentives or certification programs can encourage proactive measures against burnout. The aim of this review is to provide a comprehensive exploration of PBS, examining its causes, consequences, and potential mitigation strategies in individuals and organizations, with a focus on anaesthesiology.
Endüstri-içi ticaret (EİT), ülkeler arasında gerçekleşen dış ticaretin aynı veya benzer ürün gruplarında iki yönlü gerçekleşip gerçekleşmediği hakkında bilgi vermektedir. EİT analizinde en çok kullanılan Grubel-Lloyd endeksine göre 0.50 üzeri değerler EİT’in yüksek olduğuna, 0.50’nin altindaki değerler ise EİT’in düşük olduğuna işaret etmektedir. Bu çalışmanın amacı, Türkiye’nin orman ürünleri dış ticaretinde endüstri-içi ticaretinin ölçülmesidir. Bu kapsamda TÜİK özel ticaret sistemine göre elde edilen 2010-2022 orman ürünleri SITC (Mal Grupları Uluslararası Kod Sistemi) (Rev.3) 3 basamaklı dış verileri, Grubel-Lloyd endeksi ile analiz edilmiştir. Çalışmaya göre 2010-2017 döneminde dış ticareti açığı veren orman ürünleri sektörü, 2018 yılından itibaren dış ticaret fazlası veren bir sektöre dönüştüğü görülmüştür. Çalışma neticesinde, Türkiye orman ürünleri dış ticaretinde 2010-2022 dönemini kapsayan tüm yıllarda düşük seviyede EİT değerleri (0.33-0.47) ile karşılaşılırken, 2017-2022 dönemindeki EİT oranlarının (0.33-0.44) daha düşük olduğu görülmüştür. Orman ürünleri alt sektörü olarak ağaç ürünlerinde 2018 yılına kadar yüksek düzeyde EİT (0.50 üzeri), 2018 yılından itibaren düşük düzeyde EİT (0.50’nin altında) olduğu bulgusuna ulaşılmıştır. Kağıt ürünlerinde ele alınan bütün yıllarda düşük düzeyde EİT oranları (0.50’nin altında) ile karşılaşılmıştır. Son yıllarda kağıt ürünleri sektörünün EİT oranı (0.39), ağaç ürünlerine (0.30) kıyasla daha yüksek olduğu anlaşılmıştır. 2022 yılında işlenmişlik seviyelerine göre ham orman ürünlerinde yüksek seviyede EİT oranı (0.53) tespit edilirken, yarı-işlenmiş (0.43) ve işlenmiş orman ürünlerinde (0.27) ise düşük seviyede EİT oranları bulgusuna ulaşılmıştır. 14 alt ürün grubu içinde 5 alt ürün grubunda EİT oranları (0.50 üzeri) yüksek iken, diğerlerinde ise düşük düzeyde EİT oranları (0.50’nin altında) görülmüştür. 2010-2022 yıllarının tümünde basılmış yayınlar ürün grubunda çok yüksek düzeyde EİT oranı (0.75 ve üzeri) olduğu tespit edilmiştir. Genel olarak bakıldığında, Türkiye orman ürünleri dış ticaretinde endüstriler-arası ticaretin ağırlıkta olduğu ve dış ticaret fazlasının etkisiyle, endüstriler-arası ticaretin ihracat yönlü olduğu anlaşılmıştır.
Yeni dış ticaret teorileri arasında yer alan Endüstri İçi Ticaret (EİT) kavramı, bir ülkenin belirli bir sektör veya ürün kategorisinde hem ithalat hem ihracat yapması anlamına gelmektedir. Bu çalışmanın amacı, EİT’yi kullanarak Türkiye’nin en fazla ihracat değerine sahip olduğu ilk beş sektörünün dış ticaretini incelemektir. Analizde, HS87, HS84, HS27, HS72 ve HS85 harmonize kodlu endüstriler kullanılmıştır. Türkiye’nin bu ürünlere yönelik ikili ticareti Grubel-Lloyd endeksi ile analiz edilmiş olup analizde 2018-2022 dönemine ait yıllık veri seti kullanılmıştır. Yapılan analiz sonucunda, ürün gruplarında EİT’in yoğun olarak Almanya, Hollanda, İspanya, Meksika, Singapur, ABD ve Birleşik Krallık ile gerçekleştiği belirlenmiştir. Ayrıca analizde, endüstri içi ticarette en fazla konu olan sektörlerin de HS87 ve HS84 olduğu tespit edilmiştir.
Este trabajo analiza el comercio de China con México, país con el que no tiene acuerdos de libre comercio, así como con otros países de América Latina (Chile, Costa Rica y Perú), con los que sí los tiene. Se pretende comprobar en qué medida la existencia de este tipo de acuerdos resulta relevante para el modo de inserción de China en el mercado latinoamericano. Los resultados revelan un patrón de inserción comercial de China de tipo inter-industrial, el cual responde a un modelo
centro-periferia, donde China se constituye como centro, exportador de manufacturas e importador de productos primarios.
Uno de los fenómenos más destacables del comercio mundial es el creciente predominio del comercio intraindustrial, entendido como el intercambio de diferentes variedades del mismo bien. Si bien dicho fenómeno se puso de manifiesto sobre todo en el marco de los procesos de integración regional, entre los que destaca el caso europeo, puede presentar sin embargo diferencias en base al tipo de países participantes. Este trabajo tiene como objetivo analizar las características y evolución de este fenómeno en el contexto de los países participantes en un proceso de integración relativamente reciente como es el caso del TLCAN (Tratado de Libre Comercio de América del Norte), a la luz de los cambios acontecidos en la escena mundial.
Seven years have passed since Czech Republic joined the European Union. It is not a particularly long period, nevertheless, the first summaries of the accession results can be made. The presented paper carried out analysis of the intra-industry trade of the Czech Republic in the agriculture and food products trade. The calculations were made using Grubel-Lloyd indicator. The research shows that the share of intra-industry trade increased from 0.62 in 2003 to 0.65 in 2010
This study aimed to evaluate the specialization pattern and competitiveness in international trade in the Northeast region, as well as the states belonging to the region, in the period between 2000 and 2019. Were calculated the indicators of revealed comparative advantage (IRCA), revealed symmetric comparative advantage (IRSCA), export coverage rate (EC), strengths of international trade, Grubel-Lloyd index (GL) for intra-industry trade and the index of comparative advantages of contribution to the trade balance (ICTB). The results for the IRSCA show that the list of exports Northeastern tends to become more concentrated. The analysis of the strengths in the region's international trade, in turn, showed that Bahia, the state with the highest GDP in the region, has the greatest number and variety of strengths. The GL and ICTB calculations indicate that the Northeast maintains a predominantly inter-industrial profile trade and few sector groups showed comparative advantages in terms of contribution to the trade surplus.
The meaning of intra-industry trade should be examined in the light of the theoretical and empirical research of H. Grubel and P. Lloyd. They distinguished two types of trade: intra-industry trade and inter-industry trade. The relative importance of intra-industry exchange and inter-industry exchange depends on the degree of similarity between countries. If countries are similar with regard both to resources possessed and used technology, their exchange generally will be of intra-industry nature. In the case of intra-industry trade, economies of scale arc linked to differentiation of production in conditions of imperfect competition. The method of measurement of this type of trade is employing an intra-industry trade index (IIT). In the paper, this index was calculated for agri-food products exported from Poland during the period of 1994-1999. The results of the conducted research are as follows: the high level of IIT was obtained for such products as: carrots, sugar confectionery, coffee extracts, non-alcoholic beverages, bear, poultry meat and its preparations, wheat flour; - the products with medium level of IIT were: fresh milk, alcoholic beverages, potatoes, apples, rapeseed oil, hops, pulses, pig meat.
Indonesia has had several bilateral trade and investment agreements named the Comprehensive Economic Partnership Agreement (CEPA) since 2008 with Japan, Chile, Australia, Republic of Korea, and EFTA (European Free Trade Association). This book, this chapter attempts to assess the effects of CEPA on the Indonesian economy. It adopts intra-trade as a proxy for CEPA and unemployment as a proxy for economic benefit. This chapter applies four econometric models of the Generalized Method of Moments, Logistic Regression, Difference and Difference, and Panel Data Regression with country effect. The first model finds the endogenous relationship between CEPA and open unemployment. The second model proved the effectiveness of CEPA in reducing open unemployment. The third model showed the impact of the country and time, and the fourth identified the effect of each selected country. This chapter finds that CEPAs benefit Indonesia's economy, following the economic partner's income level, and CEPA is a sufficient condition instead of a necessary condition. This chapter assesses the effects of the CEPA's trade and long-run investment agreement on Indonesia's economic development. The latter uses the open-unemployment rate as a proxy, and this is a novelty for both ideas and methods, particularly on Indonesia's bilateral economic strategies.
The main purpose of this article was to measure the effectiveness of industrial trade with an emphasis on the technology gap and the intensity of learning in Iran and high-middle-income countries. To meet these ends, the industrial trade using Grubel-Lioyed criteria for 97 countries over 2002-2021 at four-digit HS codes was calculated. Moreover, this study sought to investigate the specific effects of industry and country on industrial trade in the framework of Tobit Heckman's two-stage model, the databases, and statistical information extracted from the World Bank and International Trade and Development Organization. The results of the study, while confirming the predominance of inter-industry trade compared to intra-industry trade of Iran with partners, indicate the effect of most variables with the expected sign on industrial trade. Among the indicators of technological achievements, only the human skill gap index has a negative effect on industrial trade while the rest of technology indicators, such as technology diffusion and creation showed a positive and significant effect. The results of the learning intensity also provide evidence of Iran's growing experience in
For a long time, geographically close countries were economically isolated from each other due to political factors, neglecting the obvious advantages of mutual cooperation. However, over the past two decades, the economic component has become the cornerstone of bilateral relations. Cooperation between Cambodia and Vietnam is developing dynamically and has a positive impact on the development of the economies of both countries. An increase in bilateral trade helps not only to meet the needs of the population and expand the sales market for products, but also to strengthen the export potential of Cambodia and Vietnam on the world market, what is more the latter at the expense of the former. There has also been an increase in intra-industry trade in recent years, indicating the beginning of vertical integration, taking into account identified comparative advantages. An important role is also played by Vietnam’s implementation of investment projects that fill empty niches, create the necessary infrastructure, make a significant contribution to socio-economic development, social security, stimulate the growth of budget revenues, and also create jobs in Cambodia. Vietnam has emerged as one of Cambodia’s most important trade and investment partners, increasing its presence in the neighboring market and playing an important role in the country’s development. Cambodia’s economy is booming, thanks in large part to developments in Vietnam’s (and, of course, China’s) sphere of influence. This confirms the theory of the benefits of flying “with a flock of geese.” Vietnam is historically and mentally inclined to help Cambodia through this influence, and apparently does not represent another model of relations. At the same time, there are also negative aspects of cooperation, such as inequality of trade and investment flows, Cambodia’s growing economic dependence on its neighbor, and weak integration. The study of the main aspects of Vietnam’s economic influence on Cambodia has become increasingly relevant in recent years. At the same time, the issue of Cambodian-Vietnamese trade and investment interaction has been poorly studied.
I
ndia’s overseas commerce, economy,
technology, corporate world, and social
growth have all been greatly impacted by
globalization. The market was opened up by
reducing import barriers and export subsidies,
and the industrial sector was upgraded by
foreign capital investments. Global exports
are fueled by technological advancements,
raising GDP and country income. Globalization
can increase productivity, lower costs, and
improve the quality of services, but it can also
destabilize markets and lead to job losses.
India, a low-wage country, has developed
software and IT service industries with an
export focus that command 70% to 90% of
the global outsourcing market.
India receives help from the IMF and World
Bank for trade liberalization, reduced import
taxes, and equity with a focus on eradicating
poverty through globalization, education, and
low-cost online business. India’s educational
system has been profoundly impacted by
globalization, resulting in higher literacy rates
and partnerships with foreign universities.
India’s software and service export industries
employ 40,000 people yearly despite rising
crime, lifestyle problems, drug use, and
production expenses. Globalization benefits
non-industrialized countries with agriculture�based economies by providing markets, skilled
labor, and a global diaspora, addressing issues
like high unemployment, child abandonment,
and disease. Despite the above, the main
objectives of this research article is to examine
the Impact of Globalization on the Indian
Economy Industry, Environment, International
Trade, and Service Sectors as well as other
issues in a macroeconomic theoretical analysis
using secondary sources of information andstatistical data relevant to the article’s topic.
According to this point of view, the current
situation is both critically important and
relevant in terms of both the economy and
society.
After the Great Financial Crisis, economic theory was fiercely criticized from both outside and inside the discipline for being incapable of explaining a crisis of such magnitude. Slowly but persistently, new strands of economic thought are developing, to replace the old-fashioned neoclassical economic theory, which have a common characteristic: they are better suited to help understand the real-world economy. This book explores the key tenets and applications of these. This book opens with an explanation of the “real world” approach to economics in which theoretical models resemble real-world situations, realistic assumptions are made, and factors such as uncertainty, coordination problems, and bounded rationality are incorporated. Additionally, this book explores the ramifications of considering the economy as both a dynamic system - with a past, present, and future - and a complex one. These theoretical precepts of the real-world economy are then applied to some of the most pressing economic issues facing the world today including ecological sustainability, the rise of corporate power, the growing dominance of the financial world, and rising unemployment, poverty, and inequality. In each case, this book reveals the insights of the shortcomings of the neoclassical approach which fails to illuminate the complexities behind each issue. It is demonstrated that, by contrast, adopting an approach grounded in the real world has the power to produce policy proposals to help tackle these problems. This book is essential reading for anyone seeking a deeper understanding of the economy, including readers from economics and across the social sciences.
This article examines trade and production figures for the Common Market countries before and after 1958. The Common Market can be said to have come into effect on 1 January 1959, when the first reductions were made in the internal tariff. But there was not in fact a great deal of discrimination against outsiders before the second set of reductions, on 1 July 1960. So far, these tariff changes do not seem to have had any great effect; other factors must have overborne them.
"Errata" sheet tipped in. Thesis--Harvard University. Graduate School of Business Administration. Bibliographical footnotes.
Location of new products, 191. — The maturing product, 196. — The standardized product, 202.
In recent years some economists have suggested that under a wide range of circumstances free international trade will result in a situation where each country simultaneously produces, exports, and imports products which are very close substitutes for each other in consumption, production, or both. Because of the similarity of these products they are commonly accounted for in the same statistical “industry” classification, and the resultant international pattern of production and trade can conveniently be described as “intra-industry specialization” as contrasted with “inter-industry specialization” which results when countries produce and export but do not import the output of some industries while they import but do not produce or export the output of some other industries. It was considered that in the European Common Market intra-industry specialization dominated over inter-industry specialization and that similar developments were important in the development of Benelux trade. At the same time, but independently from these two suggestions in the literature, two pieces of research produced models capable of explaining which country would tend to specialize in which of the different qualities or styles of commodities making up the international trade in products of the same industries.
1.1 From the economic point of view the ultimate aim of a customs union is not to foster trade for its own sake, but to increase economic welfare by removing trade restrictions. No increase can, however, be anticipated without a change in the pattern of trade. An investigation of these changes in pattern is therefore necessary as a preliminary step before proceeding to estimate the welfare effects upon the countries considered or the world as a whole. Only the changes in trade pattern fall within the scope of this paper.
The work of Mr. Rostas2 and others on the productivity of British and American industries makes it possible to test some aspects of the theory of comparative costs. According to that theory, when based on a labour theory of value and assuming two countries, each will export those goods for which the ratio of its ouput per worker to that of the other exceeds the ratio of its money wage-rate to that of the other. Before the war, American weekly wages in manufacturing were roughly double the British,3 and we find that, where American output per worker was more than twice the British, the United States had in general the bulk of the export market, while for products where it was less than twice as high the bulk of the market was held by Britain. This is shown clearly in Table I, and more detailed figures are given in Table II. Out of twenty-five products taken, twenty (covering 97% of the sample by value) obey the general rule, and two of the remaining five would cease to be exceptions if a different measure of output per worker were chosen.4
The Problem to be ExaminedThe Reciprocal Nature of the ProblemThe Pricing System with Liability for DamageThe Pricing System with No Liability for DamageThe Problem Illustrated AnewThe Cost of Market Transactions Taken into AccountThe Legal Delimitation of Rights and the Economic Problem
Incluye bibliografía e índice
The research agendas of psychologists and economists now have several overlaps, with behavioural economics providing theoretical and experimental study of the relationship between behaviour and choice, and hedonic psychology discussing appropriate measures of outcomes of choice in terms of overall utility or life satisfaction. Here we model the relationship between values (understood as principles guiding behaviour), choices and their final outcomes in terms of life satisfaction, and use data from the BHPS to assess whether our ideas on what is important in life (individual values) are broadly connected to what we experience as important in our lives (life satisfaction).
According to the advocates of a "Generalized Darwinism" (GD), the three core Darwinian principles of variation, selection and retention (or inheritance) can be used as a general framework for the development of theories explaining evolutionary processes in the socioeconomic domain. Even though these are originally biological terms, GD argues that they can be re-defined in such a way as to abstract from biological particulars. We argue that this approach does not only risk to misguide positive theory development, but that it may also impede the construction of a coherent evolutionary approach to "policy implications". This is shown with respect to the positive, instrumental and normative theories such an approach is supposed to be based upon.