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Relationship between lifting performance and skeletal muscle mass in elite powerlifters
Abstract
Aim:
Aim of the study was to examine the relationship between whole body skeletal muscle mass (SMM) and powerlifting performance in elite powerlifters.
Methods:
Twenty elite male powerlifters, including 4 world champions, volunteered. Muscle thickness (MTH) and subcutaneous fat thickness (FTH) were measured by ultrasound at 9 sites on the anterior and posterior aspects of the body. FTH was used to estimate body fat and fat-free mass and SMM was estimated from ultrasound-derived prediction equations. Best lifting performance in the squat (SQ), bench press (BP), and dead lift (DL) was recorded from competition performance.
Results:
Significant strong correlations (P<0.01) were observed between absolute and relative (divided by height) SMM and performance of the SQ (r=0.93 and r=0.94, respectively), BP (r=0.88 and r=0.87), and DL (r=0.84 and r=0.85). Relative lifting performance to SMM for squat (SQ/SMM ratio) and bench press (BP/SMM ratio) were constant throughout a wide range of weight classes (56kg-145kg) and there were no significant correlation between the SMM and those performances (r=0.21 for SQ and r=0.12 for BP). However, the DL/SMM ratio was negatively correlated to DL performance (r=-0.47, P<0.05).
Conclusion:
SMM is a good predictor of powerlifting performance throughout all weight classes.
... For example, muscle thickness at several body sites measured with ultrasonography was highly correlated with SQ, BP, and DL performance in trained powerlifters [4]. Similar results were reported in 20 trained powerlifters when using ultrasonography to estimate the fat-free mass and muscle mass [5]. A recent study employed lean body mass (LBM) measurements via dual X-ray absorptiometry (DXA) as a surrogate of muscle mass and reported very high correlations between SQ, BP, and DL performance and the total LBM, i.e., r = 0.94, r = 0.88, r = 0.86, (p < 0.001), respectively, in trained powerlifters [6]. ...
... The skeletal muscle architecture (muscle thickness, pennation angle and fascicle length), as measured by ultrasonography, has been shown to effect athletic performance [8]. As described above, muscle thickness at specific body sites was strongly correlated with muscle strength in powerlifters [4,5]. Yet, some early evidence revealed that the vastus lateralis (VL) pennation angle was not correlated with powerlifting performance, while the fascicle length was only moderately correlated with powerlifting performance [4]. ...
... Besides anthropometric factors and neural activation, the quantity of skeletal muscle is perhaps the most important biological factor contributing to muscle strength [16]. Several studies have presented the close correlation between measures of muscle mass and powerlifting performance [4,5,7,17], which was also confirmed in the present study. However, this correlation is influenced by the bodyweight category of the athletes participating in these studies. ...
Lean body mass (LBM) is correlated with powerlifting performance in athletes competing in different bodyweight classes. However, it remains unknown whether changes in LBM are correlated with performance changes in powerlifters preparing for a competition. The aim of this study was to investigate the changes in LBM and performance in powerlifters preparing for a competition. Eight male powerlifters (age 31.7 ± 9.8 years, height 1.77 ± 0.06 m, weight 99.2 ± 14.6 kg) and three female powerlifters (age 32.7 ± 16.3 years, height 1.54 ± 0.06 m, weight 66.6 ± 20.9 kg) participated in the study. The athletes followed individualized periodized training programs for 12 weeks, aiming to maximize their performance for the national championship. The maximum strength (1-RM) in the squat, bench press, and deadlift, body composition, handgrip strength, anaerobic power, quadriceps’ cross-sectional area and vastus lateralis muscle architecture were measured before and after the training period. Significant increases were found after the training period in the squat (5.8 ± 7.0%, p < 0.05), bench press (4.9 ± 9.8%, p = 0.05) and deadlift (8.3 ± 16.7%, p < 0.05). Significant correlations were found between the 1-RM and LBM before and after the training period (r > 0.75, p < 0.05). The changes in the 1-RM after the training intervention correlated with the changes in the total LBM (p < 0.05). These results suggest that individual changes in LBM due to systematic resistance training for a competition may dictate increases in the 1-RM strength in powerlifters.
... and DL performance, in trained powerlifters (3). Similar results were reported in 20 trained powerlifters using ultrasonography to estimate fat-free mass and muscle mass (18). A recent study employed lean body mass (LBM) measurements via dual x-ray absorptiometry (DXA) as a surrogate to muscle mass and reported very high correlations between SQ, BP, and DL performance with total LBM, i.e., r = 0.94, r = 0.88, r = 0.86, (P < 0.001), respectively, in trained powerlifters (9). ...
... Skeletal muscle architecture (muscle thickness, pennation angle and fascicle length) as measured by ultrasonography, has been shown to effect athletic performance (6). As described above, muscle thickness at specific body sites was strongly correlated with muscle strength in powerlifters (3,18). Yet, some early evidence revealed that vastus lateralis (VL) pennation angle was not correlated with powerlifting performance while fascicle length was only moderately correlated with powerlifting performance (3). ...
... Besides anthropometric factors and neural activation, the quantity of skeletal muscle is perhaps the most important biological factor contributing to muscle strength (1). Several studies have presented the close correlation between measures of muscle mass and powerlifting performance (3,9,7,18), which was also confirmed in the present study. However, this correlation is influenced by the bodyweight category of the athletes participated in these studies. ...
Lean body mass (LBM) is correlated with powerlifting performance in athletes competing in different bodyweight classes. However, it remains unknown whether changes in LBM are correlated with performance changes in powerlifters preparing for a competition. Aim of the study was to investigate the changes in LBM and performance in powerlifters preparing for a competition. Eight male powerlifters (age 31.7±9.8years, height 1.77±0.06m, weight 99.2±14.6kg) and three female powerlifters (age 32.7±16.3years, height 1.54±0.06m, weight 66.6±20.9kg), participated in the study. Athletes followed individualized periodized training programs for 12 weeks aiming to maximize their performance for the national championship. Maximum strength (1-RM) in squat, bench press, and deadlift, body composition, grip strength, anaerobic power, quadriceps’ cross sectional area and vastus lateralis muscle architecture were measured before and after the training period. Significant increases were found after the training period in squat (5.8±7.0%, P
... Since the force-producing ability of a muscle is proportional to the number of sarcomeres in parallel [5], a greater magnitude of muscle mass should confer a strength advantage. In line with this idea, fat-free mass (FFM) and muscle mass are strongly, positively correlated with BP performance [6][7][8], suggesting that maximum BP strength may be limited by an individual's skeletal muscle mass [6]. Although the relationship between muscle mass and strength may seem straightforward, individual differences in muscle geometry and architecture may complicate matters [5,9]. ...
... As determined by Monte Carlo analysis, this sample provides sufficient precision (±CI95%) to rule out smaller correlations (≤0.3) when the effect is large (e.g., r ≥ 0.7) and to rule out larger correlations (≥0.5) when the effect is null. An effect size equivalent to a Pearson's r of 0.7 was conservatively chosen, as previous research revealed correlation coefficients greater than 0.8 for one of the primary outcomes (relative fat-free mass) with BP performance [8]. Inclusion criteria were (1) a minimum of 1 year of resistance training experience, including regular performance of the BP (at least once per week for the past 6 months); (2) free from injury or illness potentially impacting their participation, or that may potentially be worsened by their performance in the BP; (3) self-reportedly free from the use of anabolic steroids within the past year. ...
... A multiple linear regression was used to examine the contributions from the "primary" anthropometric, psychometric, and isometric strength variables to predict 1RM loads, as per our preregistration. The primary variables were selected based on previous studies [6,8,10,12] by combining (summing) variables contained within the categories of interest (anthropometric, biomechanical, and psychological). By combining highly correlated, conceptually similar variables into a single variable, the analysis maintained the effects of the multiple regression while allowing for the quantification of the relative contributions of each entire category of interest, since we were interested in drawing inferences concerning categories rather than individual variables. ...
The purpose of this study was to improve our understanding of the relative contributions of biomechanical, anthropometric, and psychological factors in explaining maximal bench press (BP) strength in a heterogeneous, resistance-trained sample. Eighteen college-aged participants reported to the laboratory for three visits. The first visit consisted of psychometric testing. The second visit assessed participants’ anthropometrics, additional psychometric outcomes, and bench press one repetition maximum (1RM). Participants performed isometric dynamometry testing for horizontal shoulder adduction and elbow extension at a predicted sticking point joint position. Multiple linear regression was used to examine the relationships between the biomechanical, anthropometric, and psychological variables and BP 1RM. Our primary multiple linear regression accounted for 43% of the variance in BP strength (F(3,14) = 5.34, p = 0.01; R² = 0.53; adjusted R² = 0.43). The sum of peak isometric net joint moments from the shoulder and elbow had the greatest standardized effect (0.59), followed by lean body mass (0.27) and self-efficacy (0.17). The variance in BP 1RM can be similarly captured (R2 = 0.48) by a single principal component containing anthropometric, biomechanics, and psychological variables. Pearson correlations with BP strength were generally greater among anthropometric and biomechanical variables as compared to psychological variables. These data suggest that BP strength among a heterogeneous, resistance-trained population is explained by multiple factors and is more strongly associated with physical than psychological variables.
... A variety of factors could contribute to 1RM BP performance. A strong relationship between lean body mass and muscle mass and performance in 1RM BP has been shown (5,21,43). It has been postulated that the expression of maximum strength in BP is somewhat limited by the capacity of skeletal muscle mass accumulation (5). ...
... The findings from both multiple regression and bivariate associations showed that lean body mass is a high predictor of success in 1RM BP, which corroborates previous investigations (5,28,43). Although lean body mass consists of skeletal muscle mass, bone mass, and other organ tissues, it is still considered a good proxy of muscle size (1,5). ...
... Higher levels of bone mass have been purported to be desirable for powerlifters due to more effective muscle mass accumulation (31) and more successful protection against compressive and shear force stemming from lifting maximal loads (12). Taken together, these results might not be considered surprising, as muscle mass and muscle CSA have previously been shown to be associated with maximal strength (5,28,43). However, it was surprising to find that muscle mass seems to play a role in 1RM BP performance even when related to the weight lifted corrected for body mass via the Wilks coefficient. ...
Reya, M, Škarabot, J, Cvetičanin, B, and Šarabon, N. Factors underlying bench press performance in elite competitive powerlifters. J Strength Cond Res XX(X): 000-000, 2019-Previous investigations of 1 repetition maximum bench press (1RM BP) performance have been either descriptive or have explored a limited number of contributing variables. The purpose of this study was to investigate the interplay between structural, technical, and neuromuscular factors in relation to 1RM BP in competitive powerlifters. Thirteen national and international level male powerlifters (26 ± 9 years, 178 ± 6 cm, and 93.8 ± 9.9 kg) visited the laboratory twice. Anthropometric and ultrasound measures were taken on the first visit, whereas performance measures (voluntary activation level, isokinetic strength, and kinetic, kinematic, and electromyographic measurements during 1RM BP) were recorded on the second visit. Correlation and multiple regression were used to investigate the contribution of structural, technical, and neuromuscular variables to 1RM BP corrected for body mass using the Wilks coefficient. The highest degree of association was shown for structural (lean and bone mass, brachial index, arm circumference, and agonist cross-sectional area [CSA]; r = 0.58-0.74) followed by neuromuscular factors (elbow and shoulder flexion strength; r = 0.57-0.71), whereas technical factors did not correlate with 1RM BP performance (r ≤ 0.49). The multiple regression showed that lean body mass, brachial index, and isometric shoulder flexion torque predicted 59% of the common variance in 1RM BP. These data suggest that in a sample of elite competitive powerlifters, multiple factors contribute to 1RM BP with variables such as lean body mass, the agonist CSA, brachial index, and strength of the elbow and shoulder flexors being the greatest predictors of performance.
... Скелетно-мышечная масса (СММ) имеет ключевое значение в достижении максимальной спортивной работоспособности. Увеличение мышечной массы может привести к снижению риска травм и улучшению результатов тренировок и соревнований в большинстве видов спорта [1], поэтому роли увеличения СММ уделяется большое внимание в научных трудах. Так, авторы выделили стимулы синтеза мышечного белка (англ. ...
... Результаты нашего исследования противоречат данным мета-анализа 2020 года, где Huang и со- авторы изучали влияние ω-3 ПНЖК на мышечную массу пожилых людей [21]. Их анализ показал, что добавки омега-3 в дозе более 2 г/день могут увеличивать мышечную массу (0,67 кг; 95% ДИ: 0, 16,1,18). Это исследование имеет умеренное методологическое качество по AMSTAR-2. ...
The article examines the effect of omega-3 supplements on muscle growth. The effect of omega-3 supplementation on muscle mass growth is a hot topic of interest to athletes, fitness enthusiasts and researchers. Although individual studies and reviews are available, there is a lack of synthesis and analysis of the results of multiple randomized controlled trials on this topic. This creates uncertainty regarding the efficacy of omega-3 for increasing muscle mass. Purpose. To conduct an umbrella review of systematic reviews of randomized controlled trials to assess the effects of omega-3 supplementation on muscle mass growth and to identify general conclusions and recommendations. Methods. A search for systematic reviews in major databases including PubMed, Cochrane Library and Epistemonikos was conducted using relevant keywords. Suitable reviews highlighting the effects of omega-3 on muscle growth were selected. Conclusion. Systematic reviews of critically low quality provide conflicting evidence. There is currently no evidence to recommend omega-3 as a supplement to stimulate muscle growth in athletes and physically active individuals.
... Previous research has examined the attributes of successful PL athletes in relation to their training practices [2][3][4], physiological and anthropometric characteristics [5][6][7] and recently, the temporality of competition [8]. ...
... These data do not include results from single lift or equipped events. Each competition had one entrant who won, yet entrants per competition (and number of those who did not win) varied (maximum: 21 entrants, mean [SD]: 9 [7] entrants, median [inter-quartile range]: 12 [14] entrants). Some athletes (i.e. ...
Background
The ability for athletes to gain a competitive advantage over their opponents is well recognised. At times, this advantage may be considered a marginal gain. However, in the context of competition, marginal advantages may be the difference between winning and losing. This investigation explores how competition factors influence the odds of competitive success (i.e. winning) in powerlifting (PL) to assist athletes and coaches in achieving a competitive advantage.
Methods
A cross-sectional, retrospective analysis of competition data from raw/classic, Australian powerlifting competitions 2010–2019 was conducted. Data included 10,599 competition entries (males: n = 6567 [62%], females: n = 4032 [38%]). Independent t-tests were used to compare continuous data between sexes or winners and non-winners at an event. Cohen’s d and the 95% confidence interval (d [95% CI]) were calculated. Univariate odds of winning an event based on independent variables (age [irrespective of category], sex, body weight and weight of first lift attempt [regardless of success]), were assessed by separate simple logistic regression.
Results
When compared to males, the odds of winning for females were 50% greater (OR [95% CI] 1.500 [1.384, 1.625]; P < 0.001). Athletes who had larger first lift attempts (Squat: + 7.0 kg P < 0.001, Bench Press: + 3.2 kg P < 0.001, and Deadlift: + 6.1 kg P < 0.001and competed for a longer period (winners: 401 vs non-winners: 304 days, P < 0.001) had an increased likelihood winning. Age was associated with increased odds of success for males (OR [95% CI] 1.014 [1.009, 1.019], P < 0.001) per additional year of age for males, but not females (P = 0.509).
Conclusions
Multiple factors appear to contribute to the likelihood of winning a PL competition. These results may help coaches to develop competition and training strategies that optimise athletes’ likelihood of competitive success in PL.
... At the time this study was conducted, several studies had determined the influence of various physical aspects of its competitors on powerlifting performance, namely on anthropometry (15,30,32,38,61), fat-free mass (4, 15,16,61), skeletal muscle mass (65) and bone mass (16). Granted, most of these studies had not been conducted on classic powerlifters, as most of them were carried out at a time when there was little to no differentiation between classic and equipped lifting. ...
... strongly correlated with AMS in the squat (r=0.93), the bench press (r=0.88), the deadlift (r=0.84) and the total (r=0.94). As well, their results indicated that thigh length/height ratio did not correlate with any of the RMS measures (65). Overall, the results from these previous studies support the ones presented in the current by confirming the importance of age, body mass, muscle mass, body fat percentage, forearm L, torso C and body mass in AMS in the bench press and the deadlift. ...
International Journal of Exercise Science 13(4): 1512-1531, 2020. Several studies have determined the influence of physical characteristics on strength. The present quantified the relationships between anthropometry and maximal strength. Male classic powerlifters (n=59) were measured before a championship. Two-tailed Pearson correlation analysis was used. Powerlifters that presented higher relative maximal strength (RMS) in the squat and bench generally had higher body weight (BW), body mass index (BMI), torso circumference (C), waist C/height, torso C/height (r=0.26 to 0.49, p<0.05), and smaller lower leg length (L)/height and forearm L/torso C (r=-0.31 to-0.45, p<0.05) ratios. Powerlifters with a higher % of their deadlift on their total generally presented a smaller BW, BMI, body fat percentage (BF%), waist and torso C, trunk L, waist C/height, torso C/height, trunk L/height, waist C/hip C, thigh L/ lower leg L, trunk L/thigh L ratios (r=-0.26 to-0.49, p<0.05) and higher lower leg L, lower leg L/height, reach/height, and forearm L/torso C ratios (r=0.32 to 0.51, p<0.05). Stepwise regressions revealed that a bigger torso positively predicted absolute maximal strength (AMS) in the squat (β=0.41, p=0.04), the bench (β=0.77, p<0.01), the deadlift (β=0.88, p<0.01) and the total (β=0.89, p<0.01), that a higher torso C/height ratio positively predicted RMS in the squat(β=0.48, p<0.01), the bench (β=-0.87, p<0.01) and the total (β=0.66, p<0.01), and that reach/height positively predicted RMS in the deadlift (β=0.37, p<0.01) and it's % on the total (β=0.31, p<0.01), but negatively predicted RMS in the bench (β=-0.25, p=0.02) and its % on the total (β=-0.24, p=0.04) As all of the stronger correlations came from AMS, powerlifters should focus on increasing AMS (weight lifted) instead of RMS (Wilks pts).
... Specifically, the results of this study indicate that the taller, the heavier, with more bodyfat, the more muscular and the bigger built (based on anthropometric measurements) individuals were generally stronger. These results are similar to previous studies that presented multiple significant correlations between classic powerlifting and lean body tissue (9), equipped powerlifting performance and muscle thickness (3) and equipped powerlifting performance and skeletal muscle mass (40). In addition, other studies illustrated similar results, with the stronger equipped powerlifters having significantly larger proportional muscle mass and muscle to bone mass ratio (19) and significantly greater muscle mass and larger muscle girths (17). ...
... This furthers our knowledge on various associations between anthropometric dimensions and performance, adding to the body of literature regarding physical characteristics related to strength. The various associations reported herein may contribute to differentiating the weaker and the stronger powerlifters, as has been reported in previous studies that were directed on classic (9), equipped (3,17,19,40) and unsanctioned powerlifting (23). ...
International Journal of Exercise Science 13(4): 281-297, 2020. This study was designed to quantify the relationships between physical characteristics and maximal strength in the back squat, the bench press and the deadlift on powerlifters and football players. Eighteen male junior drug-tested classic powerlifters and seventeen NCAA Division II American football players' anthropometric measurements were taken to compare them with maximal strength results from either a powerlifting meet or testing from their supervised strength and conditioning program. Pearson's bivariate correlations analysis revealed (statistical significance was set at p<0.05) that individuals with a greater (Wilks points) back squat, generally presented a higher Bodyweight (BW) (r=0.37), Body Mass Index (BMI) (r=0.45), Bodyfat Percentage (BF%) (r=0.36), Hip (r=0.41), Waist (r=0.35) and Torso (r=0.41) Circumference (C), Hip C/Height (r=0.46), Waist C/Height (r=0.39) and Torso C/Height (r=0.45) ratios. The individuals with a greater bench press generally presented a higher BMI (r=0.37), Lean Body Weight (LBW) (r=0.36), Hip C (r=0.39) and Hip C/Height ratio (r=0.39). On the other hand, individuals with a greater deadlift were generally older (r=0.34), shorter (r=-0.41), had shorter thighs (r=-0.52) and trunks (r=-0.36), smaller Thigh Length (L)/Height ratio (r=-0.44), Waist C/Hip C (r=-0.41) and Thigh L/Lower Leg L (r=-0.53) ratios, but a higher Lower Leg L/Height ratio (r=-046). The results of this study should be utilized by strength and conditioning coaches to deepen their comprehension of their athletes' physical characteristics in order to help them develop strength through their advantages. Further research should focus on evaluating how physical characteristics affect performance in different squat, bench, and deadlift stances.
... Furthermore, although female athletes show a lower absolute value of height, weight, fat-free mass, and girth, their limb proportions were not different compared with men (13). Importantly, all the available studies on anthropometric and performance variables in adult powerlifters regard the equipped version of the sport (10,12,13,15,23), whereas no data are available on classic powerlifting. The available studies on equipped powerlifting were performed mostly on elite, American (north and south), and Oceania athletes, and had a small samples size, with particularly underrepresented female samples (i.e., only 3 studies included women for a total of 37 athletes tested in the whole literature on this topic). ...
... However, it is important to note that in powerlifting, a triad of lifts is required; in this context, mechanical advantages on one lift could represent a disadvantage for another one (15). Very few studies evaluated the relationship of anthropometric measures with muscular strength, with the aim to determine the possible identikit of the ideal powerlifter (3,11,16,23). The above-cited studies are dated, regard mostly equipped powerlifting, and do not include female athletes. ...
The purpose of this study is: i) provide normative performance and anthropometric data of Southern European classic powerlifters of both sexes; ii) determine the possible relationships between these variables and performance; iii) develop population-specific predictive equations for single lifts and overall powerlifting performance. During an unofficial national level competition, we recruited 74 athletes (51 men, 23 women) and recorded their individual, anthropometric and performance characteristics and divided them into sex and two performance categories based on their Wilks points. Weaker (<370 Wilks points) and stronger (>370 Wilks points) athletes of both sexes were compared by two-way ANOVA. Simple correlation and multiple linear regression between individual/anthropometric characteristics and performance were modeled. We applied a step-forward multiple linear regression model to predict single lifts and overall performance. All parameters significantly differed between sexes (p<0.05 for all comparisons). Stronger male athletes had a significantly larger neck (42±2.8 cm; E.S.= 0.59), flexed (40.6±3.3 cm; E.S.= 1.18) and relaxed upper arm (37.5±3.1 cm; E.S.= 1.34) and thigh girths (63.6±7.0 cm; E.S.= 0.77) compared to weaker male athletes. Furthermore, stronger women had significantly larger flexed (32.6±3.3 cm; E.S.= 0.88) and relaxed upper arm (33±1.5 cm; E.S.= 2.28) and chest girths (99.3±9.2 cm; E.S.= 1.10) compared to weaker female athletes. A combination of experience, fat mass, and upper and lower limbs muscle mass indexes can accurately and precisely predict overall and individual lifts performance (r2 ≥ 0.83 for all the predictions). This is the first study to provide normative performance and anthropometric data in Southern European male and female powerlifters.
... To this day, various studies have described powerlifters' physical characteristics [7][8][9][10][11][12] and tried to quantify their influence on maximal strength [13][14][15][16][17] , but none of them have been directed on sanctioned drug-tested classic powerlifters. The goal of this study was to conduct a detailed body composition analysis using Dual-Energy X-Ray Absorptiometry (DEXA scan) on classic powerlifters to reveal the various relationships that exist between body composition variables and maximal strength measures. ...
... Additionally, a relatively recent study that compared winners vs losers in Argentina's national powerlifting tournament also showed that winners had significantly more muscle mass 14 and was in line with the present observations. Another study directed on drug-tested equipped male powerlifters from the USA Powerlifting Federation (USAPL) presented similar results showing that absolute and relative skeletal muscle mass was significantly correlated with all AMS measures 15 . On the other hand, results from this study indicating that Deadlift Wilks is not significantly correlated with total lean body tissue, as well as lean body tissue in arms and the trunk could mean that lean body tissue does not affect RMS in the deadlift. ...
Background:
The purpose of this study was to conduct a detailed body composition analysis by Dual -Energy XRay Absorptiometry (DEXA scan) on classic powerlifters to understand better the relationship between various body composition variables and maximal strength.
Methods:
Fifteen drug-free classic powerlifters (9 males and 6 females) underwent a DEXA scan and absolute (kg) and relative (Wilks) maximal strength from all 3 powerlifting events (squat, bench and deadlift) was registered from the previous provincial championship. A 2 tailed Pearson correlation analysis was conducted in order to present the relationships between body composition variables and performance measures. The main outcome of the present study is that experience in resistance training (r=0.52 to 0.74), lean body tissue (r= 0.61 to 0.95), arms mass (r=0.57 to 0.86), legs mass (r=0.53 to 0.63), bone mineral content (BMC) (r=0.52 to 0.91) and bone mineral density (BMD) (r=0.53 to 91) measures were significantly correlated (p<0.05) with most absolute (kg) and relative (Wilks) maximal strength measures.
Results:
The results of the present study could guide practitioners working with athletes aged between 22 and 35 years old practicing sports with higher risks of fractures (ex., alpine skiing) to potentially utilize the squat, the bench press and the deadlift not only to build strength in order to increase sport performance, but also to increase BMC and BMD of their athletes trough heavy eccentric loading to help reduce the risks of fractures.
Conclusions:
Further studies should be directed towards interventions trying to reveal that some type of relationship does exist between BMC, BMD and powerlifting performance and in what direction.
... The desired adaptive-responses include increasing aerobic capacity, muscle strength, power, endurance, and increased skeletal muscle mass (i.e., skeletal muscle hypertrophy) (SMM) [1,3]. SMM is associated with exercise performance and injury risk reduction [4,5]. Therefore, the accurate assessment of SMM is important in the evaluation of soccer players [4,6]. ...
... Findings in these studies are similar to those reported here, where we observed that the equation published by Lee [17] was the most accurate to estimate DXAderived SMM [19,20] and that Martin's [15] and Doupe's [16] equations significantly overestimate SMM [19,20,22,23] ( Tables 3 and 4). The importance of SMM for exercise performance is well recognized [4,5,27]; however, it is difficult to find studies that report SMM, probably because it is difficult to assess it accurately, requiring expensive and complex methods such as magnetic resonance, computed axial tomography, or DXA. ...
Background
Several anthropometric equations that estimate skeletal muscle mass (SMM) have been published, but their applicability and accuracy among athletes are still uncertain.
Purpose
To assess the accuracy of different anthropometric equations that estimate SMM in professional male soccer players, as compared to dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry (DXA) as the reference method.
Methods
In this cross-sectional study, we evaluated 179 professional male soccer players aged between 18 and 37 years. Anthropometric measurements (height, body weight, skinfold thicknesses, and girths) and a DXA whole body scan were performed the same day for each participant, and SMM was estimated with nine anthropometric equations (Heymsfield, Martin, Doupe, Kerr, Drinkwater, Lee, De Rose, and two equations published by Kuriyan). To determine differences between SMM estimated with anthropometric equations and SMM evaluated with DXA, a Kruskal-Wallis test was performed using Dunn's test as post hoc. The significance level was set at p < 0.05. We calculated the mean difference and 95% limits of agreement for the analyzed equations (Equation – DXA).
Results
Only Heymsfield's and Lee's equations showed no significant differences with DXA. Heymsfield's equation had the smallest mean difference (-0.17 kg), but wider limits of agreement with DXA (-6.61 to 6.94 kg). Lee's equation had a small mean difference (1.10 kg) but narrower limits of agreement with DXA (-1.83 to 4.03 kg).
Conclusions
In this study, the prediction equation published by Lee et al. showed the best agreement with DXA and is able to estimate SMM accurately in professional male soccer players.
... It was expressed as an index of results obtained in three PL events. The achievements were registered in kilograms [11,12] and then converted into points according to the Wilks formula [13]. The data on the independent variables (x i ) were collected with the techniques and testing instruments described in detail below. ...
... Multiple regression is an appropriate analytical method, perfect for these situations. The review of the literature includes several papers concerning the explanation of the sports result in PL and in competitions with the use of the multiple regression method; these are works by Hart et al. [33], Mayhew et al. [7], Ye et al. [12] (bench press, squat, deadlift), Keogh et al. [2], Mayhew et al. [8], Mayhew et al. [34]. Athletes' constitutional features, body proportions, and weight components were analysed. ...
Sports results in powerlifting have been extensively studied, but there is no analysis of the diagnostic sources of criteria for selecting 19–20-year-old athletes. Therefore, it is important to continue the study of factors affecting performance in power-lifting, not only in individual events, but also in the entire discipline. There were two research objectives in the study: firstly, to identify a set of independent (predictor) variables contributing to sports results (outcome variable) in powerlifting using the least numbers of those variables, and secondly, to develop a biometric regression model describing the sports result.
The study group (
The optimal set of variables predicting sports results in junior powerlifting consists of nine features. The integral capacity of the selected information sources reached the value of 0.891.
It was confirmed that body composition, special physical fitness, and the technique of movement would constitute the optimum combination of explanatory variables of the model. These characteristics have the highest value as diagnostic and selection criteria and should not be overlooked.
... Body composition features were investigated by 11 (45.8%) studies involving non-disabled athlete populations [6,7,11,12,32,40,41,43,45,47]. All 11 studies used correlation analysis to investigate a total of 48 unique features (Table 3). ...
Purpose
Understanding important features for performance in non-disabled bench press and Paralympic powerlifting may inform talent identification and transfer models. The aim of this scoping review was to describe features associated with bench press performance.
Methods
We conducted a systematic search of three electronic databases (PubMed, SportDiscus and EMBASE) to identify studies involving non-disabled and Para athlete populations that investigated features related to bench press one-repetition maximum (1RM), across six domains (anthropometric, body composition, demographic, technical, disability and neuromuscular). Search terms included “resistance training”, “para powerlifting’ and “one repetition max”. No date restrictions were include in searches. Studies using adult participants, with at least six-months of bench press experience, who were able to bench press their body mass were included.
Results
Thirty-two studies met our inclusion criteria. Twenty-four studies involved non-disabled athletes (total n = 2,686; 21.9% female) and eight involved Para athletes (total n = 2,364; 39.4% female). Anthropometric (17 studies) and body composition (12 studies) features were most studied; half of the 32 studies investigated features from a single domain. Of anthropometric variables, upper arm circumference shared the strongest association with bench press 1RM in non-disabled (r = 0.87) and para-athletes (r = 0.65). Upper limb fat free mass (r = 0.91) and body mass index (r = 0.46) were the body composition variables sharing the strongest association with bench press 1RM in non-disabled and para-athletes. Few studies considering the uncertainty of their results. Practices of open and transparent science, such as pre-registration and data sharing, were absent.
Conclusion
The development of bench press talent identification and sport transfer models will require future studies to investigate both non-training and training modifiable features, across multiple domains. Large longitudinal studies using information from athlete monitoring databases and multivariable model approaches are needed to understand the interacting features associated with bench press performance, and for the development of talent identification models.
... Measurements obtained at T4 could serve as a useful alternative considering that they are also accessible on routine head and neck imaging and are not directly impacted by the tumor, lymph node invasion, or radiation and/or surgery. Further, skeletal muscles at the level of T4 such as the trapezius and rhomboids are important stabilizer muscles for full-body, compound (ie, multijoint) movements 40 and total body strength. 41,42 For these reasons, the relationship between T4 SMI and FT placement may be less confounded by measures such as BMI. ...
Purpose
In oropharyngeal squamous cell carcinoma (OPSCC), systemic loss of skeletal muscle mass (SMM), or sarcopenia, is a strong prognostic predictor of survival outcomes. However, the relationship between sarcopenia and nutrition-related outcomes is not well understood. This investigation evaluated the prognostic significance of sarcopenia for feeding tube (FT) placement in a cohort of OPSCC patients.
Methods and Materials
A retrospective cohort study was conducted with data collected from 194 OPSCC patients treated with definitive radiation therapy (RT) or chemoradiation therapy (CRT). Sarcopenia was assessed from computed tomography imaging at the level of the third cervical (C3) and fourth thoracic (T4) vertebrae. The prognostic nature of pretreatment sarcopenia and its relationship with FT placement was explored using logistic regression.
Results
The median age of patients included was 61.0 years, and the majority were male (83%). In this patient cohort, 87.6% underwent concurrent CRT, and 30.9% received a FT over the course of treatment. Sarcopenia was identified at baseline in 72.7% of patients based on C3 SMM measurements and in 41.7% based on measures at the level of T4. Based on measures at both C3 and T4, those with sarcopenia were significantly more likely to receive a FT and had significantly worse freedom from FT placement compared with patients without sarcopenia. Sarcopenia assessed at T4 was a significant predictor of FT placement.
Conclusions
SMM measured at T4 may represent a novel and practical biomarker for sarcopenia detection that is associated with the need for FT placement. These findings suggest that the detection of baseline sarcopenia could guide decision-making related to the need for nutritional support in OPSCC patients undergoing RT/CRT.
... Resistance training (RT), as completed by powerlifters, results in several adaptations favorable for maximal strength development, such as neuromuscular adaptation (e.g., increased motor unit recruitment, skill acquisition), changes in muscle architecture, and the accumulation of lean muscle mass (i.e., hypertrophy) [1,2]. Of these, skeletal muscle hypertrophy is a strong predictor of performance in powerlifting [3,4]. Accordingly, nutrition strategies are of interest longitudinally to support adaptation, and acutely, to adequately fuel for and recover from individual training sessions. ...
Purpose
Nutrient timing is a concept that emphasizes the intentional ingestion of whole or fortified foods, and dietary supplements, to adequately fuel for, and recover from, acute and chronic exercise. The nutrition strategies used by powerlifters around training sessions have not been previously investigated. This study explored the self-reported peri-workout (before, during, and after) nutrition practices of competitive powerlifters, including what, why, and information source that informed practice, with comparison to current sport nutrition guidelines.
Methods
Actively competing male (n = 240) and female (n = 65) powerlifters completed a cross-sectional online survey of self-reported peri-workout nutrition practices in the pre-, intra-, and post-exercise periods, fasted training, and supplementation. Data are presented as the number (n) and percentage (%) of all powerlifters practicing a given strategy followed by a % of responses reporting various practices or beliefs within this strategy. Categorical sub-groups (sex, age, and weight class; and competitive caliber) were analyzed with a chi-square test or Fisher's exact test and denoted where significant (p ≤ 0.05).
Results
Most powerlifters reported paying specific attention to nutrition practices in the pre-exercise period (n = 261; 85.6%) by ingesting more carbohydrate (CHO) rich foods (n = 234; 89.6%) for the purpose of assisting in training performance (n = 222; 85.1%). Most powerlifters reported intra-exercise nutrition strategies (n = 211; 69.2%), of which most included ingesting more CHO rich foods (n = 159; 74.5%) for the purpose of feeling less hungry and/or boosting energy levels during training (n = 129; 61.1%). Most powerlifters reported paying attention to post-exercise nutrition (n = 244; 80%), by ingesting more protein rich foods (n = 182; 74.6%) for the purpose of recovering better for the whole day (n = 152; 62.3%) and enhancing the benefits of training (n = 149; 61.1%). Most powerlifters did not complete training sessions in the fasted state (n = 262; 85.9%). Most powerlifters reported paying attention to supplementation before training (n = 237; 77.7%), of which pre-workout formulas (n = 137; 57.8%), energy drinks (n = 101; 42.6%), creatine (n = 88; 37.1%), and caffeine pills (n = 70; 29.5%) were most reported. Supplementation was used to assist in training performance (n = 197; 83.1%) and increase wakefulness/alertness (n = 183; 77.2%). Males reported more often than females that they informed multiple elements of their nutrition practices with the information they read or watched somewhere (p = 0.002 to 0.012).
Conclusion
The peri-workout nutrition practices used by competitive powerlifters followed current sport nutrition guidelines, by using CHO sources to fuel for training and ensuring the provision of protein post-exercise. Competitive powerlifters may wish to exert caution with supplementation, as there is a risk of harm or inadvertent doping.
... La masa magra es un indicador sobre el IFR, es decir, que si el deportista tiene mayor masa magra es probable que mejore la fuerza relativa en cualquier de las pruebas de sentadilla y prensa de pecho. En consecuencia, Ye et al. (2013), observaron correlaciones entre la masa muscular esquelética y la prueba de sentadilla y prensa de pecho, demostrando que la masa muscular esquelética es un buen predictor de levantamiento de pesas en deportistas de powerlifters. ...
The objective of this study was to compare fitness test results between playing position groups of college football players and to analyze the association of lean mass percentage with fitness tests. Eighty-seven football players were assessed for lean mass and seven fitness tests. Differences were found between linemen, big skill players and skill players (p ≤ .001) on fitness tests. Negative associations were found for quickness and agility tests (p ≤ .001), and positive associations were found for strength and jumping tests (p ≤ .001) with lean mass. Linemen were the lowest in lean mass and slowest in the physical tests; and skill players represented the highest lean mass values with the best physical test scores.
El objetivo de este estudio fue comparar los resultados de las pruebas de aptitud física entre grupos de posición de juego de jugadores de fútbol americano universitarios y analizar la asociación del porcentaje de la masa magra con las pruebas de aptitud física. Se evaluó a 87 jugadores de fútbol americano la masa magra y siete pruebas de aptitud física. Se encontraron diferencias entre los linieros, jugadores grandes de habilidad y jugadores de habilidad (p ≤ .001) en las pruebas de aptitud física. Se hallaron asociaciones negativas en las pruebas de rapidez y agilidad (p ≤ .001), y asociaciones positivas en las pruebas de fuerza y salto (p ≤ .001) con la masa magra. Los linieros fueron los de menor masa magra y más lentos en las pruebas físicas; y los jugadores de habilidad son los que representan mejores valores de masa magra con mejores resultados en las pruebas físicas.
... No entanto, os auxílios ergogênicos relacionados à suplementação devem ser monitorados por profissionais especializados, que são responsáveis por fornecer as quantidades ideais dos atletas com base na avaliação da composição corporal, sendo este um aspecto essencial na preparação esportiva do atleta de elite. Estudos em powerlifting convencional (Ye et al., 2013) mostraram que a massa corporal magra é um bom preditor de desempenho em todas as classes de peso. ...
RESUMO
O objetivo desta pesquisa é apontar os estudos que descrevem variáveis que se associam a um impacto positivo no desempenho competitivo em atletas de para powerlifting. Para desenvolver o estudo foi utilizada as diretrizes Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews e Meta-Analyses Extension for Scoping Reviews (PRISMA-ScR) e os estudos foram extraídos de bases de dados eletrônicas como Web of Science, PubMed, Scopus, ScienceDirect e EBSCO. Foi realizado um processo de seleção por título, resumo e texto completo, de acordo com os critérios de inclusão e exclusão. Inicialmente foram identificados 154 estudos que após a eliminação de duplicatas e aplicação dos critérios de inclusão, foram selecionados 8 artigos originais para análise qualitativa. Os resultados indicam que existem fatores fisiológicos e biomecânicos relacionados ao desempenho esportivo. A ingestão de placebo, uso de monohidrato de creatina, percentual de massa magra, predisposição genética e diversos métodos de recuperação de curto e médio prazo, como agulhamento seco e imersão em água fria, são fatores fisiológicos relacionados ao desempenho. Em relação aos fatores biomecânicos, foi evidenciado que a mensuração da preensão da barra se relaciona com maior produção de força e velocidade propulsora média.
... Resistance training, as completed by powerlifters, can lead to fibre type transition, neuromuscular adaptation (e.g., increased motor unit recruitment), and increases in fat free mass (FFM) [1]. Skeletal muscle hypertrophy, specifically, is a strong predictor of powerlifting performance [2]. Consequently, dietary strategies for powerlifters are of acute (e.g., before, during, and after a training session) and longitudinal (e.g., across one or more competitive phases) interest. ...
Purpose
To characterise self-reported nutrition practices and beliefs of powerlifters.
Methods
Actively competing male (n = 240) and female (n = 65) powerlifters completed a cross-sectional online survey of self-reported nutrition practices across the competitive cycle, within specific competitive phases, and hard and easy training days. Data are presented as number (n) and percentage (%) of all powerlifters practicing a given strategy followed by a % of responses reporting various practices or beliefs within this strategy. Differences in categorical sub-groups (sex, age, and weight class; and competitive calibre) were analysed with a chi-square test and denoted where significant (p ≤ 0.05).
Results
Most powerlifters reported following a specific diet long-term (n = 203, 66.6%) of which If It Fits Your Macros (IIFYM)/flexible dieting was most common (n = 159, 78.3%). Over half reported introducing a special diet for a competitive phase (n = 162, 53.1%), of which IIFYM/flexible dieting was most followed for competition preparation (n = 80, 63%) and off-season (n = 48, 71.6%). Compared to normal dietary intake, most reported eating more on harder training days (n = 219, 71.8%) and refraining from eating less on easier training days (n = 186, 61%).
Conclusions
IIFYM/flexible dieting is commonly followed by powerlifters to support performance and body composition goals. Females seemed to report more often restricting energy and dieting for body composition reasons than males. Powerlifters tailor their energy intake on harder training days to the higher training demands but refrain from reducing energy intake on rest/easier training days.
... The participant with the highest obtained total calculated from his/her To this day, several investigators have presented relationships between physical characteristics of powerlifters and maximal strength. These physical characteristics are presented here from the most to the least relevant and listed as such: Bone Mineral Content (BMC) (18,17), Bone Mineral Density (BMD), Lean Body Weight (LBW) (6,19,(15)(16)(17), skeletal muscle mass (24,51) and anthropometry (15,16,33,34,37). Moreover, previous research studies have shown that sportsmen have a greater BMC (32,47) and BMD (9,10,48) than controls and that athletes participating in impact sports (volleyball) had higher BMD than the ones participating in nonimpact sports (swimming) (12) and aged matched controls (4). ...
International Journal of Exercise Science 16(4): 828-845, 2023. The purpose of this study was to present the relationships between maximal strength and body composition and to conduct yearly follow-ups presenting the chronic effects of maximal strength training on body composition. Thirty-four (age = 28.8 ± 8.7 yrs) classic powerlifters (M = 21; F = 13) completed at least one Dual-Energy X-Ray Absorptiometry (DXA) 43.97 ± 23.93 days after a sanctioned international powerlifting federation affiliate competition (Squat + Bench Press + Deadlift = Total (kg)). In addition, thirteen subjects (n = 13) completed at least one yearly follow up. Paired sample T-Tests and simple linear regressions were performed to determine significant effects on body composition and maximal strength measures. Prediction formulas were obtained as follows: Bone Mineral Content (BMC) (g) = 3.39 * Total (kg) + 1494.78 (r = 0.84; p < 0.000; SEE = 348.05); Bone Mineral Density (BMD) (g/cm 3) = 0.000390 * Total (kg) + 1.115 (r = 0.71; p < 0.000; SEE = 0.062); Total (kg) = 10.84 * Lean Body Weight (LBW) (kg)-154.89 (r = 0.90; p < 0.000; SEE = 70.27); Total (kg) = 22.74 * Relative LBW (kg/m)-306.66 (r = 0.92; p < 0.000; SEE = 64.07). Significant differences were observed in BMD (+1.57 ± 1.55%; p = 0.018; ES = 0.22), between measures one and two (333.7 ± 36.3 days apart) as well as LBW (-2.95 ± 3.82%; p = 0.049; ES = 0.16), and Body Fat Percentage (+2.59%; p = 0.029; ES = 0.20) between measures two and three (336 ± 13.3 days apart). Thus, maximal strength can be used to predict BMC and BMD, while LBW can be used to predict maximal strength. As well, consistent powerlifting practice can increase BMD in adults.
... Previous work suggests lean body mass (LBM) accretion may affect traditional powerlifter performance as skeletal muscle mass has a strong relationship with the load lifted for each of the lifts involved in traditional powerlifting. 2,3 Performing the bench press with the feet off the floor compared to with the feet on the floor has been shown to cause greater the activation of both the prime movers (e.g. pectoralis major) and stabilizer muscles (e.g. ...
Total lean body mass (LBM) is related to the absolute load lifted in the bench press in powerlifters with physical disabilities, but the relationship between relative performance and regional LBM is unknown. Objectives: The purpose of this pilot study was to 1) examine the regional body composition characteristics of competitive powerlifters with physical disabilities and 2) to determine the relationships between relative performance and regional LBM in these powerlifters. Design: Cross-sectional, descriptive study. Methods: Dual energy x-ray absorptiometry (DXA) scans were obtained on 11 powerlifters with physical disabilities along with competition performance on 9 athletes. Total and regional LBM values were indexed relative to height (kg/m²). Results: A strong, significant, relationship was observed between AH (Haleczko) bench press score and LBM index in the arm region (rho = 0.787; p = 0.015) but not in the trunk (rho = 0.583; p = 0.108), legs (rho = 0.042; p = 0.922), or total body (rho = 0.617; p = 0.086). Conclusions: These results suggest LBM accretion in the arms may be most beneficial for powerlifting performance for those with physical disabilities.
... For instance, if anatomical mCSA increases, it is likely that the angle of pennation for that given muscle will likely change with respect to an altered sarcomere arrangement [122]. However, it has been suggested that although an increased pennation angle may be indicative of a greater packing density for sarcomeres in parallel [118,123], there is an established theoretical limit to which the pennation angle may be altered. The pennation angle is a direct measure of the angle at which the fascicles align with the muscle's line of force production [120,124]. ...
While strength is indeed a skill, most discussions have primarily considered structural adaptations rather than ultrastructural augmentation to improve performance. Altering the structural component of the muscle is often the aim of hypertrophic training, yet not all hypertrophy is equal; such alterations are dependent upon how the muscle adapts to the training stimuli and overall training stress. When comparing bodybuilders to strength and power athletes such as powerlifters, weightlifters, and throwers, while muscle size may be similar, the ability to produce force and power is often inequivalent. Thus, performance differences go beyond structural changes and may be due to the muscle's ultrastructural constituents and training induced adaptations. Relative to potentiating strength and power performances, eliciting specific ultrastructural changes should be a variable of interest during hypertrophic training phases. By focusing on task-specific hypertrophy, it may be possible to achieve an optimal amount of hypertrophy while deemphasizing metabolic and aerobic components that are often associated with high-volume training. Therefore, the purpose of this article is to briefly address different types of hypertrophy and provide directions for practitioners who are aiming to achieve optimal rather than maximal hypertrophy, as it relates to altering ultrastructural muscular components, to potentiate strength and power performance.
... Many former analysis were performed about the connection between the sport result and the bodyweight (Poletaev, Sz, & Kopisov, 1981;Starodubcev, 1970;Szabo, 2012;Szabo, Maslobojev, & Mezei, 1979;Vorobyev, 1978;Ye et al., 2013). The aim of application of the Sinclair-coeffitients or formula -mathematical method for comparison of the achieved results in weightlifting -is also rather similar, giving an opportunity to evaluate the different results in the different categories for the estimation of the performance-level (Aján, 1998) ...
... It was reported that over a 3-month period, total body mass and lean body mass significantly decreased after using the low-carbohydrate ketogenic diet which was unaccompanied by performance decrements. Although, it is important to note that weightlifting and powerlifting performances have been shown to be strongly associated with lean body mass (1,3,28,35). Thus, a significant loss in lean body mass has the potential to negatively impact overall performance. ...
Weightlifting and powerlifting are strength and power sports requiring athletes to participate in precompetition weigh-ins. Many athletes attempt to gain a competitive edge over smaller competitors by reducing body mass. Although these methods may seem advantageous, there are many negative outcomes that outweigh potential positive performance effects. Manipulating body mass can be performed effectively with minimal side effects; however, weightlifters and powerlifters participating in 2-hour weigh-ins should not cut weight at the expense of optimizing strength and power adaptations.
... Using ultrasound measures, Brechue and Abe [46] found that FFM and site-specific muscle thickness were significantly associated with powerlifting performance. In addition, both SM and SM to height ratio obtained from ultrasound estimates were positively associated with squat, bench press, deadlift, and general performance [47]. ...
Advances in body composition assessment enable a detailed body composition analyses and the respective organization at
different levels. Sports-related professionals are interested in understanding how and which body components are relevant
for improving performance, prevent injury risk, and monitor athletic health. The aim of this review is to propose an integrative model that links performance, injury risk, and athletic health with body components, and to report their cross-sectional and longitudinal associations. Cross-sectional studies reveal that endurance athletes with higher fat mass (FM) show a longer race time, whereas a higher fat-free mass benefits power and strength-related tasks. Longitudinal studies indicated that increases in intracellular water, assessed through dilution techniques, were associated with power and strength improvements, independently of weight and lean-soft-tissue changes. There is evidence that athletes involved in weight sensitive sports restrict energy intake, thus reducing energy availability (EA) and compromising bone health (Female Athlete Triad). To counteract the low EA and related negative energy balance, metabolic adaption (MA) occurs to promote energy conservation. Currently, reference values for body composition assessment using anthropometry and DXA are available for a few sports, according to sex. More research is needed to develop a functional body composition profile according to sports-specific
requirements.
... have more pronounced upper-extremity ROM restrictions that are also seen exclusively in the supportive planes of motion (i.e., GH flexion/extension and rotation). Although exercise and flexibility training frequency did not differ between low and high Wilks groups, elite powerlifters possessed significantly greater lean body mass, an indirect measure of muscle hypertrophy, which has been shown to structurally limit mobility, especially in the degree of shoulder and elbow flexion required for the Apley scratch test (3,16,41). Furthermore, elite powerlifters possessed more than a 2-fold increase in powerlifting experience, measured by years of active competition. ...
Gadomski, SJ, Ratamess, NA, and Cutrufello, PT. Range of motion adaptations in powerlifters. J Strength Cond Res XX(X): 000-000, 2018-The aim of this study was to investigate range of motion (ROM) and training patterns in powerlifters. Upper- and lower-extremity passive ROMs were assessed through goniometry in 15 male powerlifters (35.3 ± 13.7 years) and 15 age-matched controls (34.9 ± 14.6 years). The Apley scratch test and modified Thomas test were used to assess ROM across multiple joints. Training frequency, stretching frequency, and exercise selection were recorded using questionnaires. Passive glenohumeral (GH) extension, internal rotation, and external rotation ROM were significantly decreased in powerlifters (p < 0.050). Powerlifters displayed decreased ROM in the Apley scratch test in both dominant (p = 0.015) and nondominant (p = 0.025) arms. However, knee extension angle was markedly improved in powerlifters (20.3 ± 7.3°) compared with controls (29.9 ± 6.2°; p < 0.001). Bench press and bench press variations accounted for 74.8% of all upper-body exercises, whereas back squat and deadlift accounted for 79.7% of all lower-body exercises in powerlifters' training programs. To determine whether existing ROM adaptations were seen in elite powerlifters, the powerlifting cohort was split into 3 groups based on Wilks score: <400 (low), 400-500 (intermediate), and >500 (high). GH ROM limitations were more pronounced in elite powerlifters (Wilks >500), who had more powerlifting experience (p = 0.048) and greater lean body mass (p = 0.040). Overall, powerlifters displayed decreased GH ROM, but increased hamstring ROM, after training programs that were heavily focused on the bench press, back squat, and deadlift.
... This total is then made relative to body mass using the Wilks formula in order to determine the overall best lifter. Although there are eight separate weight classes within male powerlifting, the world records in the super heavyweight class typically belong to the athletes with the greatest absolute muscular strength as well as the greatest skeletal muscle mass (SM) (1). ...
Introduction: World powerlifting records within the super heavyweight class are typically held by those with not only the greatest absolute muscle strength but also the greatest amount of skeletal muscle mass (SM). Case Presentation: We examined the absolute and relative SM and muscle architecture of a 30 year old drug-free raw (i.e. without the use of powerlifting supportive equipment) powerlifter (1.84 m standing height and 183.1 kg body mass) who competes in the super heavyweight division and holds world records in the squat (477.5 kg), deadlift (392.5 kg), and total (1105 kg). Because the MRI magnet is too small for very large athletes, we used an ultrasound prediction equation to estimate SM. We also used ultrasound to determine muscle architecture (isolated muscle thickness, pennation angle and fascicle length). This powerlifter had large values of fat-free mass (138.6 kg) and total SM (58.0 kg) compared with previously published values. When calculating the powerlifting performance per unit SM, this lifter not only had high levels of absolute strength but also had high levels of relative strength per unit SM, particularly in the squat. Similarly, muscle thickness and pennation angle of the vastus lateralis were close to the highest values previously reported in the literature. Conclusions: These results suggest that this powerlifter may be close to a physiologic limit with respect to muscle size and geometry.
... 21 From these measurements, total (SMtotal) and leg (SMleg; lower leg plus thigh, including part of the gluteus muscles) skeletal muscle mass were estimated using the prediction equations by Sanada and colleagues. 22 A strong correlation was observed between magnetic resonance imaging (MRI)-measured SM and ultrasound-predicted SM (R 2 =0.94), 22 between dual-energy x-ray absorptiometry (DXA)-derived appendicular lean mass and ultrasound-predicted SM (R 2 =0.854), 23 and between ultrasound-predicted SM and lifting performance in elite powerlifters 24 . ...
Background:
The sex difference in 100-m sprint performance between the world's best athletes is approximately 10%. We hypothesized that skeletal muscle mass (SM) relative to body mass may be a major factor contributing to this difference. The aim of this study was to examine the sex difference in absolute and relative SM and sprint performance in male and female sprinters.
Methods:
We analyzed the SM of male (n=37) and female (n=26) 100-m sprinters; the sample was divided into two subgroups within each sex according to personal best 100-m time: 10.00- 10.90 s (M10; n=22) and 11.00-11.70 s (M11; n=15) for males and 11.00-11.90 s (F11, n=14) and 12.00-13.50 s (F12, n=12) for females. SM was estimated from ultrasound-measured muscle thickness (MT) using prediction equations.
Results:
There was an approximate 10% difference in 100-m sprint time between sexes, whereas absolute and relative values of SM for female sprinters were 70-71% and 79-84% of the male sprinters, respectively. No differences were observed within each male/female subgroup for fat-free mass, absolute and relative SM, excepting that leg SM index of M10 was higher than M11. The 100-m time was not different (0.27 s, p=0.051) between M11 and F11 subgroups, but absolute and relative values of SM and MT were higher and percent body fat was lower in the M11 than in the F11 subgroup.
Conclusions:
Our results suggest that differences in muscle mass may not play a large role in determining successful performance in elite male and female sprinters.
... 158;159;306 Den fettfrie kroppsmassen består i stor grad av skjelettmuskelmasse, som igjen har vist seg å korrelere godt med evnen til å løfte tungt. 307 Høy 96 skjelettmuskelmasse er igjen relatert til muskelens tverrsnitt som er en avgjørende bidragsyter til hvor stor kraft som kan utvikles i en gitt muskulatur 5 Det er også vist at kroppsvekt i seg selv henger sammen med evnen til å løfte tungt. 308 Andre studier viser for eksempel at fettprosent henger sammen med relativ aerob kapasitet, det vil si evnen til forflytte seg fort over lengre distanser uten oppakning. ...
Sammendrag
Bakgrunn for arbeidet
Forsvarets høgskole-Norges idrettshøgskole/Forsvarets institutt (FHS-NIH/F) er blitt bedt om å anbefale
en revidert generell fysiske testordning for Forsvaret, herunder å utarbeide et helhetlig og differensiert
seleksjon, - og testsystem, som sikrer økt kompetansemangfold i Forsvaret (FSJ VP 2013 og 2014).
Oppdraget er gitt av Forsvarsstaben/Personellavdelingen (FST/P). For å løse oppdraget har FHS-NIH/F
nedsatt et internt arbeidsutvalg (kalt Testutvalget).
Arbeidet har omfattet en gjennomgang av testordningen for sesjon, vernepliktige under
førstegangstjeneste, søkere til (og elever ved) grunnleggende befals/krigsskoleutdanning, stadig
tjenestegjørende befal, samt vervede. Spesielle fagtjenester (røykdykkere, spesialsoldater, redningsmenn
etc.) og sivilt personell er ikke inkludert i vårt arbeid.
Utfordringer med dagens fysiske testordning
Den gjeldende fysiske testordningen for Forsvaret har flere svakheter. Ordningen har stort sett vært
uforandret de siste 20-30 år, til tross for at Forsvaret for øvrig har endret seg mye i dette tidsrommet.
Testordningen bygger således på foreldete og mangelfulle arbeidskravsanalyser samt at enkelte tester
ikke gir valide mål på utholdenhet og styrke. Testkravene er dessuten lite differensiert i forhold til ulike
stillingers fysiske jobbkrav.
Problemstillinger
I arbeidet med denne innstillingen har utvalget først og fremst vurdert sentrale spørsmål knyttet til
1) Arbeidskrav: hvilke og hvor høye fysiske krav opplever dagens soldater?
2) Testmetodikk: hvilke tester bør benyttes for å måle sentrale fysiske egenskaper?
3) Testkrav: hvordan og hvor høyt er det hensiktsmessig at de fysiske testkravene settes?
Grundige vurderinger av ovennevnte spørsmål er avgjørende for å klare å utvikle en testordning som
fungerer hensiktsmessig.
2
Metode
Vårt hovedmål har vært å gi beslutningstaker et best mulig faglig grunnlag før beslutning om ny
testordning skal fattes. Vi har gått bredt ut og ulike metoder er benyttet i arbeidet med denne
innstillingen; litteraturstudier, spørreundersøkelser, intervjuer, arbeidsmøter med idrettsinspektører,
innhenting av scenariobeskrivelser, avdelingsbesøk, pilottesting og workshop med nordiske fagkollegaer,
samt samtaler med ledende forskere på temaet fysisk test.
Anbefaling
I spørreundersøkelsen som Testutvalget gjennomførte i 2013 svarte majoriteten av norsk befal og
vervede at Forsvaret fortsatt bør ha en fysisk testordning der alt militært personell gjennomfører
regelmessige fysiske tester. Testutvalget anbefaler også dette. En videreføring av en fysisk testordning
vil gi Forsvaret mulighet til å måle og registrere soldatenes fysiske kapasitet. Hensikten er å sikre at den
enkelte soldat innehar nødvendig fysiske kapasitet for å løse sine arbeidsoppgaver, samt at
vedkommende er i stand til å gjennomføre nødvendig opplæring og utdanning i Forsvaret. I tillegg kan
testordningen legitimeres på bakgrunn av helse, aktiv livsstil, militær identitet og tradisjon.
Hvem skal testes?
Revidert testordning bør gjelde for alt militært personell (unntatt spesielle fagtjenester). Det vil si at de
over 50 år også skal gjennomføre obligatorisk årlig fysisk test på lik linje med yngre personell. Vi
anbefaler ikke at sivilt personell omfattes av ordningen.
Testing av fysiske egenskaper
Testutvalget mener at aerob kapasitet og muskelstyrke er de to viktigste faktorene å teste på militært
personell. Disse to fysiske egenskapene bør betraktes som like viktige (dagens ordning prioriterer aerob
kapasitet). Anaerob kapasitet er også viktig, men dette er noe vanskeligere å teste. Kroppssammensetning
kunne også vært ønskelig å måle, men anses for tid- og ressurskrevende. Hurtighet,
agility og koordinasjon er også potensielt viktige fysiske egenskaper, men Testutvalget anser disse
egenskapene til å ha noe lavere prediktiv evne enn utholdenhet og styrke. Vi anbefaler at Forsvarets
testordning består av generelle tester som måler bestemte fysiologiske faktorer som har vist seg å være
relatert til prestasjonsevnen i flere former for fysisk krevende arbeid.
3
Våre vurderinger og anbefalinger av utholdenhets- og styrketester for bruk i Forsvaret (og ved ulike
anledninger) er primært fundert på testenes validitet og reliabilitet, i tillegg til praktiske hensyn slik som
ressurser, tidsbruk, behov for utstyr, enkelhet for testleder/de som testes, skaderisiko etc. De konkrete
anbefalingene er som følger:
Aerob utholdenhet:
3000 meter bør bestå som Forsvarets primære utholdenhetstest
20 m shuttle run kan benyttes som alternativ til 3000 meter løp
Pakningsløp kan benyttes som et alternativ for personell som er godt tilvendt denne
bevegelsesformen og som har relativt høye aerobe utholdenhetskrav i sin stilling
Som alternative tester for befal og vervede anbefales det at 20 km sykling, 10 km langrenn, samt
500 meter svømming (fri/bryst) består. Dette gjelder kun for personell i stillinger med lave
fysiske krav (testene ansees som mindre valide enn løpstestene)
Gangtesten, samt de militære og sivile ferdighetsmerketestene er foreslått fjernet
På sesjon opprettholdes tredemølletesten
Muskelstyrke:
Pull-ups videreføres, men med kjønnsnøytral utførelse (starter med vertikal utførelse, men går
over til horisontal utførelse dersom man ikke klarer én repetisjon av den vertikale)
Medisinballstøt og stille lengde anbefales som mål på eksplosiv styrke (og indirekte mål på
maksimal styrke)
Dagens push-ups, sit-ups og pull-ups (med kjønnsulik utførelse) anbefales fjernet da de totalt
sett ikke gir valide nok mål på muskelstyrke for militært personell (gir for ensidig bilde av
muskulær utholdenhet for overkroppen).
Kravsetting:
De fysiske arbeidskravene vil kunne variere mye fra tjenestestilling til tjenestestilling og differensiering er
derfor sentralt i den nye testordningen. Det bør være stillingens antatte fysiske arbeidskrav som skal
være bestemmende for om testkravene skal være kjønns- og aldersnøytrale eller ikke. I stillinger som
anses svært fysisk krevende anbefales like krav for alle menn og kvinner uavhengig av alder. For stillinger
med lave fysiske krav justeres kravene basert på kjønn og alder i henhold til de fysiologiske forskjellene vi
finner i normalbefolkningen.
4
Testutvalget anbefaler å benytte en 9-delt skala på bakgrunn av, og i overenstemmelse med, at øvrige
tester i Forsvaret også benytter en slik inndeling (bl.a. de medisinske og psykologiske testene). I denne
innstillingen har ikke Testutvalget fastsatt de konkrete testkravene, og kravtabellene er således foreløpig
ikke fylt ut. For de nye testene må det samles inn referansemateriale på mest mulig representative
utvalg av personell i Forsvaret. Disse tallene bør ligge til grunn for utarbeiding av minimumskravene,
sammen med hva vi vet fra sivile studier om forskjeller i fysisk form ut fra alder og kjønn.
Oppsummering og videre arbeid
Arbeidet med å revidere testordningen har vært krevende og omfangsrikt. Fysisk test og seleksjon er
et komplekst saksfelt og det har vært en relativ kort tidsfrist ut fra temaets omfang. Testutvalget
påpeker at det også er et stort arbeid som gjenstår før ny bestemmelse kan fastsettes og den
reviderte testordningen kan implementeres i Forsvaret.
... 5 Training centered on muscle growth is recommended largely based on the favorable relationships skeletal muscle has with both metabolic health 6 and muscle strength. 7,8 Despite these relationships, little direct evidence exists linking the change in muscle size observed after resistance training with either changes in health or strength. 9 Muscle growth was traditionally thought to be a slow process, and this led to the development of a model that suggested that changes in strength were first the result of neurological adaptations and in time were the result of changes in muscle size. ...
Aim:
The time-course for changes in muscle size and strength is not well understood, particularly in women. In addition, contributions of muscle size to strength are commonly assessed utilizing a pre-post change score; however, a more appropriate within-subject correlational analysis has never been used.
Methods:
To determine the time-course for thigh muscle size and strength in young (aged 18-25 years) and older (aged 50-65 years) women, and determine the relationship between size and strength after 8 weeks of training carried our three times per week.
Results:
Anterior muscle thickness at the 50% site increased after 1 week of training, and exceeded the measurement error after 2 weeks (mean difference 0.23 cm, 95% CI 0.12-0.34 cm). Anterior muscle thickness at the 70% site increased and exceeded the measurement error after 2 weeks (mean difference 0.30 cm, 95% CI 0.15-0.45 cm). Posterior muscle thickness at the 50% site increased after 1 week of training, and exceeded the measurement error after 2 weeks (mean difference 0.24 cm, 95% CI 0.03-0.44 cm). Posterior muscle thickness at the 70% site increased after 1 week, and exceeded the measurement error after 3 weeks (mean difference 0.21 cm, 95% CI 0.07-0.35 cm). Muscle strength, assessed through one-repetition maximum, increased by 2 weeks in most measurements, and the within-subject variance explained by changes in muscle size ranged between 9% and 35%.
Conclusions:
Muscle growth appeared to occur early into a training program in both young and older women. Furthermore, although a large portion remains unexplained, the variance in muscle strength explained by muscle size is greater than previous studies not utilizing within-subject correlations. Geriatr Gerontol Int 2017; ••: ••-••.
... Cross-sectional research has demonstrated that body composition differs among position groups (5,7,29,32) and has identified a clear trend of increasing body size in recent decades (2,16,33,35). American football requires a unique combination of speed, size, and power (12); as such, indices of body size and composition have been associated with strength (36), power (30), and career earnings (33) in football players, and extensive research in a variety of populations has documented relationships between various indices of fat-free mass (FFM) and strength, power, speed, and sport performance (1,3,24,27,28,41,43). However, absolute amounts of FFM are influenced by height, with greater height favoring higher FFM. ...
Fat-free mass index (FFMI) is a height-adjusted assessment of fat-free mass, with previous research suggesting a natural upper limit of 25 kg[BULLET OPERATOR]m in resistance-trained males. The current study evaluated upper limits for FFMI in collegiate American football players (n=235), and evaluated differences between positions, divisions, and age groups. The sample consisted of two NCAA Division I teams (n=78, n=69), and one Division II team (n=88). Body composition was assessed via dual-energy x-ray absorptiometry and used to calculate FFMI; linear regression was used to normalize values to a height of 180 cm. Sixty-two participants (26.4%) had height-adjusted FFMI values above 25 kg[BULLET OPERATOR]m (mean = 23.7 ± 2.1 kg[BULLET OPERATOR]m; 97.5 percentile = 28.1 kg[BULLET OPERATOR]m). Differences were observed among position groups (p < 0.001; η = 0.25), with highest values observed in offensive and defensive linemen, and lowest values observed in offensive and defensive backs. FFMI was higher in Division I teams than Division II (24.3 ± 1.8 vs. 23.4 ± 1.8 kg[BULLET OPERATOR]m; p < 0.001; d = 0.49). FFMI did not differ between age groups. Upper limit estimations for FFMI appear to vary by position; while the 97.5 percentile (28.1 kg[BULLET OPERATOR]m) may represent a more suitable upper limit for the college football population as a whole, this value was exceeded by six linemen (3 OL, 3 DL), with a maximal observed value of 31.7 kg[BULLET OPERATOR]m. Football practitioners may use FFMI to evaluate an individual's capacity for additional FFM accretion, suitability for a specific position, potential for switching positions, and overall recruiting assessment.
... Published research on powerlifting appears to cover only such aspects as biomechanics 1,5,12,14 , injuries 3,6,11 , training benefits 3-4,13 , hormonal or doping/steroidal aspects 9,15 , anthropometry 8,16 or allometric scaling 2,10 . However these aspects are not directly relevant to a study of the results of competition, and we can find no published research on aspects of powerlifting success and failure; either on an attempt by attempt basis, or on performance in elite competitions. ...
The purpose of this study was therefore to examine the published results from two recent elite classic powerlifting championship events in order to examine whether strategy, gender or location factors affect the relative frequencies of success or failure at such events; and whether, when considering each sequence of three attempts at a given lifting discipline, any sequences are more commonly occurring and/or may be considered to be “good strategies” in the sense of identifying more with placing in the top three rather than with non-placing competitors. More specifically we would like to determine the influence of attempt selection in dictating success or failure, in that attempting too big a jump between lifts may be more likely to result in failure and that correct attempt selection may be more likely to lead to success and winning.
... The relationship is not linear as there can be an increase or a decrease in muscle strength regardless of changes in muscle mass (Hughes et al., 2001;Kirk et al., 2007;Kongsgaard et al., 2004;Young et al., 1983Young et al., -1985. Nevertheless, muscle mass is the main explanatory factor for age-and sex-related differences in skeletal muscle strength (Frontera et al., 1991;Visser et al., 2002;Ye et al., 2013). In addition to exercise, body size (Forbes, 1987;Viitasalo et al., 1985), age (Frontera et al., 1991;Goodpaster et al., 2006;Hughes et al., 2001;Kongsgaard et al., 2004;Van Roie et al., 2013;Viitasalo et al., 1985;Young et al., 1983Young et al., -1985 and gonadal hormones (Ahtiainen et al., 2003) affect muscle size and strength and should be considered when observing this relationship. ...
Background: Understanding the features important for performance in non-disabled bench press and Paralympic powerlifting may help inform talent identification and transfer models. The aim of this scoping review was to describe features associated with bench press performance.
Methods: We conducted a systematic search of three electronic databases (PubMed, SportDiscus and EMBASE) to identify studies involving non-disabled and Para athlete populations that investigated features related to bench press one-repetition maximum (1RM), across six domains. The domains were: anthropometric, body composition, technical, neuromuscular, demographic and disability. Studies using adult participants, with at least six-months of bench press experience, who were able to bench press their body mass were included. Narrative synthesis was used to describe the studies and features associated with bench press 1RM.
Results: Thirty-two studies met our inclusion criteria. Twenty-four studies involved non-disabled athletes (total n = 2,686; 21.9% female) and eight involved Para athletes (total n = 2,364; 39.4% female). The included studies explored 111 unique features across the six domains. Anthropometric and body composition features were most studied, with about half of the 32 studies investigating features from only a single domain. Anthropometric features, such as arm circumference and body mass, shared the strongest associations with bench press 1RM. There was a primary reliance on bivariate correlation analysis (56% of studies), with few studies considering the uncertainty of their results. Practices of open and transparent science, such as pre-registration and data sharing, were absent.
Conclusion: The development of bench press talent identification and sport transfer models will require future studies to investigate both non-training and training modifiable features, across multiple domains. Features should be combined using multivariable model approaches, that consider confounding and the potential for modifying effects. Large, longitudinal studies that use information from athlete monitoring databases are needed to better understand the specific features associated with bench press performance, and for the development of talent identification and sport transfer models.
Objectives:
(1) To examine the muscle thickness of various muscle groups of the body to estimate the absolute and relative skeletal muscle mass (SM) in competitive physique-based athletes (Bodybuilding, 212 Bodybuilding, Bikini, and Physique divisions) and (2) to compare values across various divisions of competition and to resistance trained and non-resistance trained individuals.
Methods:
Eight competitive physique-based athletes (2 M and 6 F), two recreationally resistance trained (1 M and 1 F) and two non-resistance trained (1 M and 1 F) participants had muscle thickness measured by ultrasound at nine sites on the anterior and posterior aspects of the body. SM was estimated from an ultrasound-derived prediction equation and SM index was used to adjust for the influence of standing height (i.e., divided by height squared).
Results:
SM values ranged from 19.6 to 60.4 kg in the eight competitive physique-based athletes and 16.1 to 32.6 kg in the four recreationally resistance trained and non-resistance trained participants. SM index ranged from 7.2 to 17.9 kg/m2 in the eight competitive physique-based athletes and 5.8 to 9.3 kg/m2 in the four recreationally resistance trained and non-resistance trained participants.
Conclusion:
Overall, varying magnitudes of SM and SM index were present across competitors and their respective divisions of bodybuilding. The Men's Open Bodybuilder in the present study had greater values of total SM and SM index compared to previously published values in the literature. Our data provides insight into the extent of SM present in this population and further extends the discussion regarding SM accumulation in humans.
Objetivo: analizar si existe diferencia en la composición corporal por género y si esta influye sobre el rendimiento físico de jugadores de vóleibol adolecentes. Método: se agruparon veinticinco jugadores de vóleibol (Hombres n = 10, Mujeres n = 15). Se midió la composición corporal y potencia muscular mediante la prueba de salto en contra movimiento y remate de balón. Resultados: se observó que los hombres presentaban una mayor masa muscular junto a una menor grasa corporal relacionada a un mayor rendimiento en las pruebas de rendimiento físico. Conclusión: los hombres presentan una mayor masa muscular y menor grasa corporal junto a un mejor rendimiento en las pruebas de potencia muscular.
Objectives:
To investigate the skeletal muscle mass to fat-free mass (SM-FFM) ratio in female and male athletes, as well as to examine the relationship between ultrasound predicted SM and magnetic resonance imaging (MRI)-measured SM.
Methods:
Seven female track and field athletes (Female), 8 male collegiate swimmers (Male-G1) and 8 male collegiate Olympic weightlifters (Male-G2) volunteered. Whole-body SM volume was measured using MRI images obtained from the first cervical vertebra to the ankle joints. The volume of SM tissue was calculated and the SM volume was converted into mass units by an assumed skeletal muscle density. Muscle thickness was measured using ultrasound at nine sites and SM was estimated using an ultrasound-derived prediction equation.
Results:
Percent body fat was similar among the groups. FFM, MRI-measured SM and SM-FFM ratio were greater in Males-G2 compared to the other two groups and those variables of Male-G1 were higher than the Female group. There was an excellent correlation (r=0.976) between MRI-measured and ultrasound- predicted SM (total error = 1.52 kg). No significant difference was observed between MRI- measured and ultrasound-predicted SM in the overall sample or within each group. The SM-FFM ratio was positively correlated (r=0.708) with FFM in female and male athletes.
Conclusions:
We provide evidence for how the MRI-measured SM-FFM ratio changes with increasing levels of FFM and provide data that the ultrasound may be useful in estimating SM in athletes. Given the size limitations with MRI, both of these findings may be useful for future research investigating large sized athletes.
Previous investigations of strength have only focused on biomechanical or psychological determinants, while ignoring the potential interplay and relative contributions of these variables. The purpose of this study was to investigate the relative contributions of biomechanical, anthropometric, and psychological variables to the prediction of maximum parallel barbell back squat strength. Twenty-one college-aged participants (male = 14; female = 7; age = 23 ± 3 years) reported to the laboratory for two visits. The first visit consisted of anthropometric, psychometric, and parallel barbell back squat one-repetition maximum (1RM) testing. On the second visit, participants performed isometric dynamometry testing for the knee, hip, and spinal extensors in a sticking point position-specific manner. Multiple linear regression and correlations were used to investigate the combined and individual relationships between biomechanical, anthropometric, and psychological variables and squat 1RM. Multiple regression revealed only one statistically predictive determinant: fat free mass normalized to height (standardized estimate ± SE = 0.6 ± 0.3; t(16) = 2.28; p = 0.037). Correlation coefficients for individual variables and squat 1RM ranged from r = -0.79-0.83, with biomechanical, anthropometric, experiential, and sex predictors showing the strongest relationships, and psychological variables displaying the weakest relationships. These data suggest that back squat strength in a heterogeneous population is multifactorial and more related to physical rather than psychological variables.
The purpose of this study was to determine the effect of inter-investigator differences in anthropometric assessments on the prediction of one-repetition maximum (1RM) bench press in college football players. Division-II players (n = 34, age = 20.4 ± 1.2 y, 182.3 ± 6.6 cm, 99.1 ± 18.4 kg) were measured for selected anthropometric variables and 1RM bench press at the conclusion of a heavy resistance training program. Triceps, subscapular, and abdominal skinfolds were measured in triplicate by three investigators and used to estimate %fat. Arm circumference was measured around a flexed biceps muscle and was corrected for triceps skinfold to estimate muscle cross-sectional area (CSA). Chest circumference was measured at mid-expiration. Significant differences among the testers were evident in six of the nine anthropometric variables, with the least experienced tester being significantly different from the other testers on seven variables, although average differences among investigators ranged from 1–2% for circumferences to 4–9% for skinfolds. The two more experienced testers were significantly different on only one variable. Overall agreement among testers was high (ICC>0.895) for each variable, with low coefficients of variation (CV<10.7%). Predicted 1RMs for testers (126.9 ± 20.6, 123.4 ± 22.0, and 132.1 ± 28.4 kg, respectively) were not significantly different from actual 1RM (129.2 ± 20.6 kg). Individuals with varying levels of experience appear to have an acceptable level of ability to estimate 1RM bench press using a non-performance anthropometric equation. Minimal experience in anthropometry may not impede strength and conditioning specialists from accurately estimating 1RM bench press.
This study investigated the effects of powerlifting gear on training volume and performance, defined by the squat, bench press, and deadlift. Eighteen powerlifters (18-26 years) were randomized into either a group that trained and competed using compressive gear (CG) or without the gear (NON). Training volume, volume progression, and powerlifting performance were assessed before and after 10 weeks of training. Training volume increased in the first 4 weeks for both groups. Volume lifted for squat and the totals were greater in the CG. There was an increase in squat (19.05 ± 30.97 lb, p = 0.02), deadlift (19.05 ± 21.17 lb, p = 0.001), and the total score (44.00 ± 60.44 lb, p = 0.005) for both the groups. The improvements in squat (CG = 33.85 vs. NON = 5.74, p = 0.07) and totals (CG = 66.59 vs. NON = 23.67, p = 0.15) were greater in the CG. Both groups showed a significant and similar increase in the Wilks scores (+13.54 points, p = 0.03). There was a trend toward greater volume progression in those wearing CG during the initial stages of training. Both the groups significantly improved performance for the squat, and deadlift, and had higher totals, and Wilks scores, indicating significant strength gains. The greater magnitude of improvements in the squat and totals for the CG lifters suggests an ergogenic potential of training with powerlifting gear.
This study sought to compare the anthropometric profiles of 17 weaker and 17 stronger Australasian and Pacific powerlifters who had competed in a regional-, national-, or international-level powerlifting competition in New Zealand. Stronger lifters were defined as those having a Wilks score greater than 410, whereas those in the weaker group had a Wilks score less than 370. Each powerlifter was assessed for 37 anthropometric dimensions by International Society for the Advancement of Kinanthropometry (ISAK) level II and III accredited anthropometrists. Because all powerlifters were highly mesomorphic and possessed large girths and bone breadths, both in absolute terms and when expressed as Phantom-Z scores compared through the Phantom, relatively few significant anthropometric differences were observed. However, stronger lifters had significantly greater muscle mass and larger muscular girths in absolute terms as well as greater Brugsch Index (chest girth/height) and "Phantom"-normalized muscle mass, upper arm, chest, and forearm girths. In terms of the segment lengths and bone breadths, the only significant difference was that stronger lifters had a significantly shorter lower leg than weaker lifters. Because the majority of the significant differences were for muscle mass and muscular girths, it would appear likely that these differences contributed to the stronger lifters' superior performance. Powerlifters may therefore need to devote some of their training to the development of greater levels of muscular hypertrophy if they wish to continue to improve their performance. To better understand the anthropometric determinants of muscular strength, future research should recruit larger samples (particularly of elite lifters) and follow these subjects prospectively.
In the exercise sciences, simple allometry (y = axb) is rapidly becoming the method of choice for scaling physiological and human performance data for differences in body size. The purpose of this study is to detail the specific regression diagnostics required to validate such models. The sum (T, in kg) of the "snatch" and "clean-and-jerk" lifts of the medalists from the 1995 Men's and Women's World Weightlifting Championships was modeled as a function of body mass (M, in kg). A log-linearized allometric model (ln T = ln a + b ln M) yielded a common mass exponent (b) of 0. 47 (95% confidence interval = 0.43-0.51, P < 0.01). However, size-related patterned deviations in the residuals were evident, indicating that the allometric model was poorly specified and that the mass exponent was not size independent. Model respecification revealed that second-order polynomials provided the best fit, supporting previous modeling of weightlifting data (R. G. Sinclair. Can. J. Appl. Sport Sci. 10: 94-98, 1985). The model parameters (means +/- SE) were T = (21.48 +/- 16.55) + (6.119 +/- 0.359)M - (0. 022 +/- 0.002)M2 (R2 = 0.97) for men and T = (-20.73 +/- 24.14) + (5. 662 +/- 0.722)M - (0.031 +/- 0.005)M2 (R2 = 0.92) for women. We conclude that allometric scaling should be applied only when all underlying model assumptions have been rigorously evaluated.
The purpose of this study was to determine the distribution and architectural characteristics of skeletal muscle in elite powerlifters, and to investigate their relationship to fat-free mat (FFM) accumulation and powerlifting performance. Twenty elite male powerlifters (including four world and three US national champions) volunteered for this study. FFM, skeletal muscle distribution (muscle thickness at 13 anatomical sites), and isolated muscle thickness and fascicle pennation angle (PAN) of the triceps long-head (TL), vastus lateralis, and gastrocnemius medialis (MG) muscles were measured with B-mode ultrasound. Fascicle length (FAL) was calculated. Best lifting performance in the bench press (BP), squat lift (SQT), and dead lift (DL) was recorded from competition performance. Significant correlations (P < or = 0.01) were observed between muscle distribution (individual muscle thickness from 13 sites) and performance of the SQT (r = 0.79 to r = 0.91), BP (r = 0.63 to r = 0.85) and DL (r = 0.70 to r = 0.90). Subscapular muscle thickness was the single best predictor of powerlifting performance in each lift. Performance of the SQT, BP, and DL was strongly correlated with FFM and FFM relative to standing height (r = 0.86 to 0.95, P < or = 0.001). FAL of the triceps long head and vastus lateralis were significantly correlated with FFM (r = 0.59, P < or = 0.01; 0.63, P < or = 0.01, respectively) and performance of the SQT (r = 0.45; r = 0.50, respectively; P < or = 0.05), BP (r = 0.52; r = 0.56, respectively; P < or = 0.05), and DL (r = 0.56; r = 0.54, respectively; P < or = 0.01). A significant positive correlation was observed between isolated muscle thickness and PAN for triceps long-head (r = 0.64, P < or = 0.01) and gastrocnemius medialis (r = 0.48, P < or = 0.05) muscles, but not for vastus lateralis (r = 0.35). PAN was negatively correlated with powerlifting performance. Our results indicate that powerlifting performance is a function of FFM and, therefore, may be limited by the ability to accumulate FFM. Additionally, muscle architecture appears to play an important role in powerlifting performance in that greater fascicle lengths are associated with greater FFM accumulation and powerlifting performance.
To determine sex differences in the distribution of regional and total skeletal muscle (SM) using contiguous whole body magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) data, and to examine the relations between fat free mass (FFM) and total and regional SM masses.
A total of 20 Japanese college students (10 women and 10 men) volunteered for the study. FFM was measured by two compartment densitometry. Whole body MRI images were prepared using a 1.5 T scanner. Contiguous transverse images with 1.0 cm slice thickness were obtained from the first cervical vertebra to the ankle joints. All MRI scans were segmented into four components (SM, subcutaneous adipose tissue, bone, and residual tissues). In each slice, the SM tissue cross sectional areas (CSAs) were digitised, and the muscle tissue volume per slice was calculated by multiplying muscle CSA by slice thickness. SM volume units (litres) were converted into mass units (kg) by multiplying the volumes by the assumed constant density (1.041 mg/ml) for SM.
The SM distribution pattern (shape of curve) from the contiguous whole body slices was essentially similar for the two sexes, with two large peaks and three smaller peaks (arms excluded). However, the largest peak was observed at the upper portion of the thigh for women and at the level of the shoulder for men. Men had larger (p<0.01) total and regional SM mass than women. All regional SM masses correlated highly (r=0.90-0.99, p<0.01) with total SM mass. A strong positive correlation was observed between FFM and total and regional SM masses in both sexes (women, r=0.95; men, r=0.90; all p<0.01). As FFM increased, there was a corresponding increase in SM/FFM ratio for all subjects (r=0.86, p<0.01).
Sex differences in total SM/FFM ratio and regional SM distributions are associated with the degree of absolute FFM accumulation in men and women.
The present study was performed to develop regression-based prediction equations for skeletal muscle (SM) mass by ultrasound and to investigate the validity of these equations in Japanese adults. Seventy-two Japanese men (n=38) and women (n=34) aged 18-61 years participated in this study and were randomly separated into two groups: the model development group (n=48) and the validation group (n=24). The total and regional SM mass were measured using magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) 1.5 T-scanners with spin-echo sequence. Contiguous transverse images (about 150 slices) with a slice thickness of 1 cm were obtained from the first cervical vertebra to the ankle joints. The volume of SM was calculated from the summation of digitized cross-sectional area. The SM volume was converted into mass units (kg) by an assumed SM density of 1.04 kg l(-1). The muscle thickness (MTH) was measured by B-mode ultrasound (5 MHz scanning head) at nine sites on the anatomical SM belly. Strong correlations were observed between the site-matched SM mass (total, arm, trunk body, thigh, and lower leg) by MRI measurement and the MTH x height (in m) in the model development group (r=0.83-0.96 in men, r=0.53-0.91 in women, P<0.05). When the SM mass prediction equations were applied to the validation group, significant correlations were also observed between the MRI-measured and predicted SM mass (P<0.05). The predicted total SM mass for the validation group was 19.6 (6.5) kg and was not significantly different from the MRI-measured SM mass of 20.2 (6.5) kg. Bland-Altman analysis did not indicate a bias in prediction of the total SM mass for the validation group (r=0.00, NS). These results suggested that ultrasound-derived prediction equations are a valid method to predict SM mass and an alternative to MRI measurement in healthy Japanese adults.
A total of 117 Japanese subjects (62 men and 55 women) volunteered for the study. Subcutaneous adipose tissue (AT) and muscle thicknesses were measured by B-mode ultrasonography at nine sites of the body. Body density (BD) was determined the hydrodensitometry. Reproducibility of thickness measurements by ultrasonography was high (r = 0.96–0.99). Correlations between AT thickness and BD ranged from −0.46 (gastrocnemius) to −0.87 (abdomen) for males and −0.46 (gastrocnemius) to −0.84 (abdomen) for females. A higher negative correlation (r = −0.89) was observed for the sum of AT thicknesses (forearm, biceps, triceps, abdomen, subscapula, quadriceps, hamstrings, gastrocnemius, and tibialis anterior) both in males and in females. Slightly lower coefficients were observed between muscle thickness and LBM (r = 0.36 to r = 0.70 for males and r = 0.44 to r = 0.55 for females). Prediction equations for BD and LBM from AT and muscle thickness were obtained by multiple regression analysis. Cross-validation on a separate sample (33 men and 44 women) showed an accurate prediction for BD. The present findings suggest that B-mode ultrasonography can be applied in clinical assessment and field surveys. © 1994 Wiley-Liss, Inc.
Because maximal strength varies with body mass, the International Powerlifting Federation (IPF) has adopted a method of adjusting powerlifting events (bench press, BP; squat, SQ; deadlift, DL, and total lift (the sum of BP, DL, and SQ), TOT) by body mass. This method, the Wilks formula, multiplies one's lift by an index based on body mass so that lifters of different size can be compared on the same event. The Wilks formula is not, however, based on published data and has yet to be critically evaluated. The purpose of this investigation, then, was to validate the Wilks formula.
This was performed by 1) examining residuals bias to verify that the adjusted score does, in fact, lead to no systematic bias based on body mass and 2) by applying a more theoretically supportable allometric model to the same data and comparing the fit with the Wilks approach. Subjects were the current men's and women's world record holders as well as the top two performers for each event in the IPF's 1996 and 1997 World Championships (a total of 30 men and 27 women for each lift).
Results of data analysis regarding the Wilks formula indicate that: 1) there is no bias for men's or women's BP and TOT; 2) there is a favorable bias toward intermediate weight class lifters in the women's SQ with no bias for men's SQ; and 3) there is a linear unfavorable bias toward heavier men and women in the DL. Furthermore, the allometric approach indicated a bias against light and heavy men and women which may be considered acceptable given that half as many lifters are found in the lightest and heaviest weight classes as in the intermediate weight classes.
As used currently (BP and TOT only), the Wilks formula appears to be a valid method to adjust powerlifting scores by body mass.
Powerlifting, like many sports, uses specialized equipment to enhance performance and decrease the chance of injury. The purpose of this exploratory study was to determine whether wearing a bench press shirt would alter the natural mechanics of the bench press, causing a more efficient lift when pressing the same weight as without the bench shirt. Participants (n = 5) completed 2 series of 1-repetition maximum (1RM) bench press tests, with 1 week of rest in between 1 series without the bench shirt (no-shirt), and 1 series with a bench shirt (bench shirt). Results revealed that the vertical bar path ranges were significantly less in the bench shirt condition (35.7 +/- 4.8 cm) compared with the no-shirt condition (40.2 +/- 7.0 cm) (p < 0.05). Significant differences were found between the bar's optimal (81.4 +/- 14.2 cm) and observed (96.7 +/- 19.1 cm) total distances traveled in the no-shirt condition (p < 0.01), but no significant differences were found between the bar's optimal (71.6 +/- 12.7 cm) and observed (86.3 +/- 10.5 cm) total distances traveled in the bench shirt condition. These findings suggest that the bar path in bench shirt trials is more efficient and consistent than in the no-shirt trials. This pattern demonstrates that a bench shirt can improve load capacity. It is also possible that the bench shirt decreases the forces that act on the shoulder for a given weight and, thus, may decrease the risk of injury.
This paper examined the influence of different statistical modeling techniques on the interpretation of peak VO2 data in groups of prepubertal, circumpubertal, and adult males (group 1M, N = 29; group 2M, N = 26; group 3M, N = 8) and females (group 1F, N = 33; group 2F, N = 34; group 3F, N = 16). Conventional comparisons of the simple per-body-mass ratio (ml.kg-1.min-1) revealed no significant differences between the three male groups (P < 0.05). In females, a decline in VO2 between group 2F and 3F was observed (P < 0.05). Both linear and log-linear (allometric) models revealed significant increases across all three male groups for peak VO2 adjusted for body mass (P < 0.05). In females these scaling models identified a significantly lower peak VO2 in group 1F versus groups 2F and 3F (P < 0.05). Based upon the common mass exponent identified (b = 0.80, SE = 0.04), power function ratios (y.mass0.80) were generated and the logarithms of these compared. Again, results indicated a progressive increase in peak VO2 across groups 1M to 3M (P < 0.05) and an increase between groups 1F and 2F (P < 0.05). Incorporating stature into the allometric equation reduced the mass exponent to 0.71 (SE = 0.06) with the contribution of the stature exponent shown to be 0.44 (SE = 0.20). These results indicate that conventional ratio standards do not adequately account for body size differences when investigating functional changes in peak VO2.
The World Indoor Rowing Championship (WIRC) is based on the time (T) to row a simulated 2500 m on a rowing ergometer. In the WIRC there are separate age categories but only two weight classes: light and heavyweight, thus penalizing those just heavier and those significantly lighter than the cut-off weight. Multivariate allometric scaling (MAS) provides an expression of performance free of the confounding effect of more than one scaling variable. We used MAS to scale T by height (H) and age (A) to create a new index of rowing performance, T*H(-a)*A(-b). Subjects were 148 male competitors from the 1995 WIRC. MAS indicated that T*H*A(-0.06) expresses T free of the confounding effect of H and A. We also scaled T only by H on those subjects, A < 40, (N = 109). Results showed that T*H is an optimal and particularly feasible scaling of T. Use of either convention dramatically changed race results. In conclusion, we recommend use of either the T.H (17 < or = A < or = 39) or T*H*A(-0.06) conventions to adjust WIRC performance in adult males.
Improper lifting techniques may increase injury risks and decrease performance. The aim of this study was to compare and contrast biomechanical parameters between sumo and conventional style deadlifts and between high- and low-skilled lifters who participated in the powerlifting event during the 1999 Special Olympics World Games.
Two synchronized video cameras collected 60 Hz of data from 40 subjects. Parameters were quantified at barbell liftoff (LO), when the barbell passed the knees (KP), and at lift completion.
Compared with the conventional group, the sumo group had a 100% greater stance width, 20% smaller hand width, 10% less vertical bar distance, a more vertical trunk at LO, a more horizontal thigh at LO and KP, a less vertical shank at KP, and greater forefoot abduction. The sumo group generated ankle dorsiflexor, knee extensor, and hip extensor moments, whereas the conventional group produced ankle plantar flexor, knee flexor and extensor, and hip extensor moments. Compared with low-skilled lifters, high-skilled lifters had a 40% greater barbell load, 15% greater stance width (sumo group only), greater knee flexion at LO (conventional group only), greater knee extension at KP, a less vertical shank position at LO (sumo group only), 15% less vertical bar distance, less first peak bar velocity between LO and KP (conventional group only), smaller plantar flexor and hip extensor moment arms at LO and KP, and greater knee extensor moment arms at LO.
The sumo deadlift may be more effective in working ankle dorsiflexors and knee extensors, whereas the conventional deadlift may be more effective in working ankle plantar flexors and knee flexors. High-skilled lifters exhibited better lifting mechanics than low-skilled lifters by keeping the bar closer to the body, which may both enhance performance and minimize injury risk.
Muscle force (MF) is linearly related to physiological cross-sectional area (CSA), which is obtained from muscle volume (MV) divided by fibre length. Taking into account the fact that joint torque (TQ) is determined by MF multiplied by the moment arm, the maximal TQ would be a function of MV. This proposition was tested in the present study by investigating the relationship between MV and TQ for elbow flexor (EF) and extensor (EE) muscles of 26 males. The MVs of EF and EE were determined from a series of muscle CSA by magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), and pennation angle (theta) and FL by ultrasonography (US). Maximal isometric TQ was measured at right angle of elbow joint for EF and EE. There was a highly significant correlation between MV and TQ both for EF and EE (r=0.95 and 0.96 respectively) compared with that between muscle CSA and TQ, suggesting the dependence of TQ on MV. Furthermore, prediction equations for MV (MVULT) from muscle thickness (MT) measured by US was developed with reference to MVMRI by the MRI on 26 subjects, and the equations were applied to estimate MV of healthy university students (CON; 160 males) and sports athletes (ATH; 99 males). There were significant linear relationships between MVULT and TQ both for EF (r=0.783) and EE (r=0.695) for all subjects (n=259). The MVULT was significantly higher in ATH (by 32% for EF and 33% for EE, respectively) than in CON. Similarly, significantly greater TQ was observed in ATH (by 35% for EF, 37% for EE, respectively). The theta for EE showed no difference between both groups (17.8 degrees for CON and 17.5 degrees for ATH). On the other hand, the TQ to MV ratio were identical for CON and ATH. The results reveal that the muscle volume of the upper arm is a major determinant of joint torque (TQ), regardless of athletic training.
It has been established that, in the sports of Olympic weightlifting (OL) and powerlifting (PL), the relationship between lifting performance and body mass is not linear. This relationship has been frequently studied in OL, but the literature on PL is less extensive. In this study, PL performance and body mass, for both men and women, was examined by using data from the International Powerlifting Federation World Championships during 1995-2004. Nonlinear regression was used to apply 7 models (including allometric, polynomial, and power models) to the data. The results of this study indicate that the relationship between PL performance and body mass can be best modeled by the equation y = a - bx(-c), where y is the weight lifted (in kg) in the squat, bench press, or deadlift, x is the body mass of the lifter (in kg), and a, b, and c are constants. The constants a, b, and c are determined by the type of lift (squat, bench press, or deadlift) and the gender of the lifter and were obtained from the regression analysis. Inspection of the plots of raw residuals (actual performance minus predicted performance) vs. body mass revealed no body mass bias to this formula in contrast to research into other handicapping formulas. This study supports previous research that found a bias toward lifters in the intermediate weight categories in allometric fits to PL data.
The purpose of this study was to compare the characteristics of skeletal muscle (SM) mass and internal organ (liver and kidney) mass in resistance and/or high intensity trained collegiate athletes with nonathletes, and to examine the relationships between fat-free mass (FFM) and its major components of SM, liver mass, and kidney mass. Fifteen athletes and seventeen nonathletes volunteered for the study. FFM was measured by two-compartment densitometry. Contiguous magnetic resonance imaging was used to obtain images from the first cervical vertebrae to the ankle joint (no inter-slice gap) for each subject, and SM, liver and kidney cross-sectional areas and organ-tissue volumes were determined. Organ-tissue volumes (cm (3)) were converted to mass (kg) by multiplying the volumes by the assumed constant density of the tissues. On average, athletes had greater FFM (69.1 kg) than the nonathletes (52.6 kg). SM, liver, and kidney masses in athletes (33.0 kg, 1.84 kg and 0.39 kg, respectively) were higher compared with nonathletes (23.5 kg, 1.39 kg and 0.31 kg, respectively). When the various determinants of FFM were expressed as ratios, it was determined that the ratio of SM mass to FFM was higher in athletes (47.7 %) than nonathletes (44.7 %), and the ratios of liver and kidney to FFM were similar for the two groups (2.6 % and 0.6 %, respectively, for athletes; and 2.7 % and 0.6 %, respectively, for nonathletes). A strong correlation between FFM and SM mass was observed in athletes and nonathletes and the slopes of these regression lines were almost identical and parallel. FFM was also significantly correlated with liver and kidney mass for both athletes and nonathletes. This study suggests that SM, liver, and kidney masses are increased by FFM accumulation in resistance and/or high intensity trained athletes.