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Urban Runoff Mitigation by a Permeable Pavement System over Impermeable Soils
Abstract
The respective runoff from a 200-m2 permeable pavement test site and an adjacent 850-m2 conventional asphalt road catchment in Auckland, New Zealand, was monitored concurrently between 2006 and 2008. Despite installation over relatively impermeable subgrade soils, and on an atypically high slope (6.0-7.4%) and active roadway, the overall hydrologic performance of the permeable pavement was exceptional. Measured discharge from the permeable pavement underdrain demonstrated peak flow (81 storms) comparable to or below modeled predevelopment conditions for most storms, regardless of antecedent conditions, including a 10-year, 24-h annual recurrence interval event. For large events (5% exceedance), underdrain discharge volume was comparable to predevelopment conditions, but it was substantially less than asphalt runoff for all events up to approximately 70% exceedance. The distributions of peak flow and volume were statistically different between the asphalt catchment runoff and the permeable pavement underdrain discharge (0.05 level of significance). Runoff coefficients ranged from 0.29-0.67 for underdrain discharge (10th-90th percentile events), and from 0.41-0.74 when permeable pavement comprises about one-half of an otherwise impervious catchment. Underdrain lag time and hydrograph duration were reminiscent of a vegetated area. Spearman correlation indicated influences of rainfall depth, intensity, and duration on runoff parameters from both catchments, while antecedent moisture condition was correlated to underdrain discharge lag time. Surface infiltration measurement at four permeable pavement sites revealed that surrounding land uses likely have more influence on pavement clogging than does traffic load. Permeable pavements should be given strong consideration as an low impact development source control, and can also mitigate conventional large design storm flows, but care must be taken during installation to ensure proper function.
... Nevertheless, previous research questioned the performance of permeable pavements when installed over soils with low infiltration rates (Fassman and Blackbourn 2010;Dreelin et al. 2006). Therefore, many researchers have conducted field-tested studies to test permeable pavements implemented on impermeable soils. ...
... Therefore, many researchers have conducted field-tested studies to test permeable pavements implemented on impermeable soils. Permeable pavements on poor-permeability soils could achieve runoff peak flow reductions ranging from 60% to 90% (Collins et al. 2008;Fassman and Blackbourn 2010;Drake et al. 2012;Braswell et al. 2018;Winston et al. 2018;Tirpak et al. 2021) to as low as 50% (Drake et al. 2014). Runoff volume control of permeable pavements installed on low-permeability soils seems less promising than peak flow mitigation. ...
... For instance, runoff volume reduction achieved by permeable interlocking concrete pavers (PICP) ranged from 37% to 66% (Collins et al. 2008;Jaber 2015;Alyaseri and Zhou 2016). In underdrain-equipped PICPs, exfiltration volumes produced 57%-72% of surface runoff volumes (Fassman and Blackbourn 2010;Drake et al. 2012), but overall runoff volume could be as low as 22% (Braswell et al. 2018). ...
... Permeable pavements (PPs) have emerged as sustainable stormwater measures that could mitigate the impact of climate change and restore the pre-development hydrology of urban catchments (Fassman & Blackbourn 2010). PP increases the permeability of urban catchments which enhances infiltration (Kuruppu et al. 2019). ...
... Ball & Rankin (2010) found surface runoff to only occur over type A pavement for rainfall events with intensity exceeding 20 mm/h. For type B, reported values range between 15 and 70% (Fassman & Blackbourn 2010;Braswell et al. 2018;Winston et al. 2018) depending on rainfall intensity and antecedent conditions. Furthermore, type B pavement was found to detain drainage flow effectively with an average peak reduction of around 80% (Braswell et al. 2018;Winston et al. 2018) and average peak delay values range between 20 min and 2 h (Brattebo & Booth 2003;Fassman & Blackbourn 2010;Braswell et al. 2018). ...
... For type B, reported values range between 15 and 70% (Fassman & Blackbourn 2010;Braswell et al. 2018;Winston et al. 2018) depending on rainfall intensity and antecedent conditions. Furthermore, type B pavement was found to detain drainage flow effectively with an average peak reduction of around 80% (Braswell et al. 2018;Winston et al. 2018) and average peak delay values range between 20 min and 2 h (Brattebo & Booth 2003;Fassman & Blackbourn 2010;Braswell et al. 2018). For type C pavement, reported peak reduction values reach up to 98% and peak delay values up to 4 h (Pratt et al. 1995;Abbott & Comino-Mateos 2003;Støvring et al. 2018). ...
The common approach of the hydrologic design of permeable pavements (PPs) uses synthetic rainfall events. This study assessed the validity of the design approach using synthetic rainfall events for undrained PP. Synthetic rainfall events (25-year return period) were used to design undrained pavements for five Norwegian cities. The effectiveness of these pavements was tested using long-term simulation (12–30 years) with high temporal resolution (1 min). The Storm Water Management Model (SWMM) was used to generate time series of surface runoff for PPs and flow duration curves were applied to analyse the hydrological performances. Designing PP using synthetic rainfall events was found to underestimate the storage layer depth of the permeable pavements leading to the frequent occurrence of surface runoff, which is considered a failure of the hydrologic design of undrained pavements. Long-term simulation of surface runoff was found to provide valuable information for the hydrologic design of PP and can be used as a basis for the PP hydrologic design. In the future, it is recommended to use long-term precipitation data generated from climate change models to incorporate the effect of climate change in the design of PP.
... However, from 2016 until 2021, there have been continuous publications, with a peak of five publications in 2021 on different aspects of stormwater quantity and quality. It is evident from Table 2 that Canada has the highest number of CPP, which is due to the article published in 2010 that investigated the hydrologic performance over clayey soils and included long-term quality monitoring and practical investigations [68]. However, Canada is ranked seventh in total publications, with only six in the country. ...
... Furthermore, copper, zinc, and motor oil had very low concentration levels compared to traditional asphalt pavements [44]. Fassman and Blackbourn evaluated permeable pavements over impermeable soils with an underdrain and compared them with traditional asphalt pavements [68]. A large reduction in the surface runoff volume and peak rate was reported alongside a delay in the peak flow rate [68]. ...
... Fassman and Blackbourn evaluated permeable pavements over impermeable soils with an underdrain and compared them with traditional asphalt pavements [68]. A large reduction in the surface runoff volume and peak rate was reported alongside a delay in the peak flow rate [68]. A similar investigation was carried out by Collins et al., who assessed four different types of permeable pavements over poorly drained soils. ...
In recent years, there has been growing interest in the field of permeable pavement systems (PPS), especially in the scope of stormwater management as a sustainable urban drainage system (SUDS). In this study, a comprehensive bibliometric analysis followed by a systematic review were conducted to capture the nature and evolution of literature, intellectual structure networks, emerging themes, and knowledge gaps in the field of PPS. Relevant publications over 22 years (2000–2021) were retrieved from the Web of Science database for analysis. Results revealed that slight modifications within the PPS layers or incorporation of innovative filters could result in improved contaminant removal efficiency. Impermeable soils and PPS pore size were the main limiting factors affecting the permeability and infiltration rates. A combination of maintenance procedures was presented and proven effective in mitigating clogging effects, mostly occurring at the upper 1.5–2.5 cm of the PPS. Although partial replacement of the PPS mix design with recycled aggregates improved the overall permeability, the compressive strength was slightly compromised. The present study also discusses several evolving aspects for water quality improvements, innovative investigations that include recycled aggregates, and other lessons learned and future research directions in the area of PPS. Findings from the conducted analysis provide researchers, designers, urban planners, and even municipalities with research gaps and technical deficiencies in implementing and investigating PPS.
... Using permeable pavement contributes in controlling or reducing the quantity of runoff from the neighboring impermeable zones, removing the pollutants from the water, preventing or reducing the effects of downstream flooding, and replenishing and preserving natural groundwater and aquifers [10]. In addition, to the previous advantages, permeable pavement contributes in the reduction of noise, improves safety measures for drivers, reduces surface temperature, and minimizes spray during rain [10]. ...
... Using permeable pavement contributes in controlling or reducing the quantity of runoff from the neighboring impermeable zones, removing the pollutants from the water, preventing or reducing the effects of downstream flooding, and replenishing and preserving natural groundwater and aquifers [10]. In addition, to the previous advantages, permeable pavement contributes in the reduction of noise, improves safety measures for drivers, reduces surface temperature, and minimizes spray during rain [10]. Lacking technical experience, potential clogging, and the risk of groundwater pollution, are the main disadvantages of such paving systems [10]. ...
... In addition, to the previous advantages, permeable pavement contributes in the reduction of noise, improves safety measures for drivers, reduces surface temperature, and minimizes spray during rain [10]. Lacking technical experience, potential clogging, and the risk of groundwater pollution, are the main disadvantages of such paving systems [10]. A general comparison of the mechanical and permeable properties of the three types of permeable pavements is presented in Figs. ...
In dense-graded pavements, which are used for composing and recomposing roads in the paving industry around the world, failures occur due to increasing traffic loads and the rising runoff of water caused by storms or floods, or any other reason. Therefore, this kind of issue can be treated by adopting a permeable pavement system such as the permeable interlocking concrete pavement (PICP) to manage the runoff of water and tolerate the increasing loads of traffic efficiently. In this study, a laboratory apparatus has been designed and fabricated as an artificial rainfall simulator to investigate the behavior of different surface concrete block patterns under different rainfall intensities. Measuring the levels of runoff and the volume of infiltrated water are the fundamental factors in creating an essential comparison between the elected surface patterns. In this study, stretcher bond, 90º herringbone, and 45° herringbone patterns are chosen with (5 mm and 10 mm) joint spacing between the concrete blocks. All three surface block patterns are tested in terms of four longitudinal slopes (0%, 2.5%, 5%, and 7.5%) and three side slopes (0%, 2.5%, and 5%) under three rainfall intensities (25 l/min, 50 l/min, and 75 l/min). Based on the results, the stretcher bond pattern showed superior results to other bonds because it reduces surface runoff and spreads the water evenly under the permeable concrete block roadway. The 90° herringbone and 45° herringbone patterns, on the other hand, are the best for increasing the durability of roads.
... Permeable Pavement Systems (PPS) are engineered to perform dual functions as structural pavements and source control for stormwater [1]. They are pavements with structural requirements typically designed to satisfy lightly trafficked surfaces such as parking lots and pedestrian access whilst promoting infiltration and stormwater runoff mitigation [2][3][4]. ...
... This is significant in reducing peak flows and runoff volumes, improving stormwater runoff quality, and encouraging groundwater recharge where permitted. PPS supersede conventional paving with an at-source control to prevent or significantly delay stormwater runoff generation [1]. The typical structure consists of a permeable paving surface and layers of coarse aggregate materials that function as a storage reservoir during rainfall events [5]. ...
The need to encourage sustainable construction practices to conserve the rapidly diminishing natural resources increases. Moreover, increases in impermeable areas in urban regions increase flood risk and impose significant stresses on stakeholders. The research presented here was conducted on using recycled low-carbon materials in permeable pavement systems (PPS) to address this issue. Despite the worldwide usage of PPS, uncertainty and a knowledge gap remain regarding the impact of recycled materials on their structural and long-term clogging performance. To this end, the load-bearing capacity and long-term clogging behaviour of four 0.2 m 2 permeable pavement rigs made up of varying natural and recycled sub-base materials were evaluated in the laboratory. The recycled materials selected were crushed concrete aggregates (CCA) and cement-bounded expanded polystyrene beads (C-EPS), and the natural materials were basalt and quartzite aggregates. Accelerated 10-year clogging simulation with yearly hydraulic conductivity measurements was used to evaluate the long-term clogging behaviour of the rigs, whilst portable falling weight deflectometer (PFWD) testing was used to evaluate the load-bearing capacity. The results of the clogging simulation found that the hydraulic conductivity of all rigs declined exponentially and were of a similar pattern. This confirmed that the sub-base materials had little influence on the clogging behaviour of permeable pavements. The PFWD test, however, demonstrated that the sub-base materials impacted the load-bearing capacity of the rigs, but both CCA and C-EPS were suitable to be used in permeable pavements under different loading restrictions.
... Los PP se han utilizado en numerosos programas experimentales como en áreas peatonales y vías de bajo tráfico [26]- [31], siendo reconocidas su ayuda hidrológica en torno a la atenuación de escorrentía (la que se ha documentado entre el 50-90 %), la capacidad de infiltración y la reducción de picos [32], [33]. Inclusive, se apunta a que con estos se pueden obtener las condiciones de pre-urbanización [34] y que estos son más eficaces en las tormentas pequeñas y frecuentes, y en retener el primer flujo en las lluvias más intensas [35], [36]. Varios autores indican que la distribución de diámetros es uno de los rasgos más determinantes de la conductividad hidráulica ya que define la capacidad de infiltración y de tratamiento de contaminantes [26], [32], [34], [37]. ...
... Inclusive, se apunta a que con estos se pueden obtener las condiciones de pre-urbanización [34] y que estos son más eficaces en las tormentas pequeñas y frecuentes, y en retener el primer flujo en las lluvias más intensas [35], [36]. Varios autores indican que la distribución de diámetros es uno de los rasgos más determinantes de la conductividad hidráulica ya que define la capacidad de infiltración y de tratamiento de contaminantes [26], [32], [34], [37]. Algunos autores establecen que el resto de las variables de los PP pueden ser determinadas a través de la simulación hidrológica e hidráulica [38]. ...
Las inundaciones pluviales causan emergencias y desastres en las ciudades a nivel mundial. Dichas inundaciones se producen principalmente por la impermeabilización de las cuencas. El problema se agrava en ciudades como Manizales, con altas y medias pendientes, ya que se presentan altas velocidades de flujo y por tanto incrementos de los volúmenes de escorrentía, lo que a su vez está asociado con altos caudales punta. Para mitigar dichos efectos negativos han surgido los pavimentos permeables (PP) como infraestructura alternativa. Teniendo en cuenta lo anterior, el objetivo de esta investigación fue evaluar la capacidad de los PP para mitigar las intensidades de escorrentía superficial en cuencas con medias y altas pendientes. La metodología empleada consistió en realizar una modelación hidrodinámica con SWMM en la cuenca experimental Palogrande San Luis, cuenca que presenta las características mencionadas y está ubicada en la ciudad de Manizales, Colombia. Se utilizaron PP para vías vehiculares de tráfico liviano en asfalto permeable, parqueaderos en concreto permeable y áreas comunes en adoquines de concreto permeable. Los PP propuestos para parqueaderos y áreas comunes presentaron reducciones de escorrentía solo entre el 0 % y el 20 %. Se concluye que los PP propuestos en vías vehiculares reducen más la escorrentía superficial que aquellos propuestos en áreas comunes y en parqueaderos debido al área impermeable aportante que le corresponde a cada uno.
... Percent road cover (%/site) refers to the percentage of the total area within the buffer that is covered by roads. It is essential to differentiate this from road stream crossing density, with our measure focusing on the overall road density potentially contributing to runoff rather than specific crossing points (Fassman and Blackbourn 2010). ...
... Modules that show a high influence of human impact as part of community formation (e.g., fragmented or urbanized submodules within module 3) should be prioritized for urban impact mitigation strategies, such as enhancing riparian buffers (Wang et al. 2003), reducing impervious surfaces (Wenger et al. 2008), and accounting for road density impacts that contribute to stormwater runoff (Perera et al. 2010). Implementing green infrastructure (e.g., bioswales, permeable pavements) or prioritizing urban runoff control measures in these zones can reduce runoff and restore hydrological function, thus enhancing overall habitat quality (Fassman and Blackbourn 2010). Runoff-related indicators could be easily incorporated into the model if available. ...
Understanding the spatial structure and diversity of fish communities in urban environments is crucial for effective conservation and management. Our study investigates the complexity and spatial structuring of fish communities across urbanized watersheds and waterfronts in the Toronto region. We evaluated the influence of environmental factors, including habitat, human impact, and species traits, on fish community composition. Specifically, we identify distinct groups based on sampling locations using modularity analysis and partial least square path modeling (PLS-PM). Our results reveal three distinct fish community groups. The first group, primarily located in major watersheds such as Humber and Rouge, is characterized by lower human impact and larger tracts of less developed land, where habitat variables like water quality play a significant role. These areas support species with intermediate tolerance levels to disturbances. The second group includes diverse waterfront and nearshore habitats, where high species richness and variability are influenced by varied environmental conditions and riparian zones, with limited urban impact. The third group, encompassing some of the more urbanized areas, faces the constraints of urbanization and a high density of instream barriers, resulting in lower species diversity and a dominance of disturbance-tolerant species. Our findings highlight how different urban environments shape fish communities based on available habitat in interaction with species traits. This underscores the importance of tailored urban watershed management strategies based on urbanization levels and habitat constraints.
... The four general fates of stormwater runoff received by a permeable pavement include surface runoff (due to surface clogging or when the aggregate reservoir becomes full), evaporation, drainage (treated runoff which discharges via an underdrain), and exfiltration (treated runoff which infiltrates into the underlying soil). When designed, constructed, and maintained properly, permeable pavements have been shown to effectively reduce surface runoff, peak flow, and runoff volumes on all hydrologic soil groups (Booth and Leavitt, 1999, Brattebo and Booth, 2003, Bean et al., 2007a, Collins et al., 2008, Dreelin et al., 2006, Fassman and Blackbourn, 2010, Roseen et al., 2012, Wardynski et al., 2012, Winston et al., 2018, Braswell et al., 2018b, Winston et al., 2020. However, the extent of hydrologic mitigation is largely dependent on design and maintenance considerations, including aggregate depth, native soil type, size of contributing watershed area, drainage design and configuration, and surface infiltration rate. ...
... Permeable pavements constructed over permeable Hydrologic Soil Group (HSG) A and B soils (e.g., infiltration rates exceeding 13 mm/hr; NRCS, 1986) have reduced runoff volumes by over 50 % (Bean et al., 2007b, Dreelin et al., 2006, Wardynski et al., 2012; permeable pavements constructed over clayey HSG C and D soils generally exhibit lower volume reductions, ranging from 3-43 % for conventionally-drained practices (Collins et al., 2008, Drake et al., 2014, Roseen et al., 2012, Fassman and Blackbourn, 2010, Braswell et al., 2018a. The drainage configuration [presence/lack of an underdrain, or inclusion of internal water storage (IWS)] also affects the hydrologic performance of a permeable pavement (Collins et al., 2008, Wardynski et al., 2012, Winston, 2016, Braswell et al., 2018a. ...
... The emergence of big data and advanced analytics has propelled data-driven approaches in pavement engineering. Statistical and probabilistic models, in conjunction with machine learning techniques, facilitate insights from vast datasets, leading to enhanced performance prediction, condition assessment, and decision-making [11]. The fusion of data-driven approaches with traditional models enhances the accuracy and efficiency of pavement analysis, fostering proactive and evidence-based pavement management practices [12]. ...
... One of the commonly used time series analysis models is the autoregressive integrated moving average (ARIMA) model. The ARIMA model is represented by the Equation 11: Y(t) = μ + ϕ₁Y(t-1) + ϕ₂Y(t-2) + ... + ϕₚY(t-p) + ε(t) + θ₁ε(t-1) + θ₂ε(t-2) + ... + θₑε(t-q) ...
Accurate performance prediction is crucial for safe and efficient travel on highway pavements. Within pavement engineering, statistical models play a pivotal role in understanding pavement behavior and durability. This comprehensive study critically evaluates a spectrum of statistical models utilized in pavement engineering, encompassing mechanistic-empirical, Weibull distribution, Markov chain, regression, Bayesian networks, Monte Carlo simulation, artificial neural networks, support vector machines, random forest, decision tree, fuzzy logic, time series analysis, stochastic differential equations, copula, hidden semi-Markov, generalized linear, survival analysis, response surface methodology and extreme value theory models. The assessment meticulously examines equations, parameters, data prerequisites, advantages, limitations, and applicability of each model. Detailed discussions delve into the significance of equations and parameters, evaluating model performance in predicting pavement distress, performance assessment, design optimization, and life-cycle cost analysis. Key findings emphasize the critical aspects of accurate input parameters, calibration, validation, data availability, and model complexity. Strengths, limitations, and applicability across various pavement types, materials, and climate conditions are meticulously highlighted for each model. Recommendations are outlined to enhance the effectiveness of statistical models in pavement engineering. These suggestions encompass further research and development, standardized data collection, calibration and validation protocols, model integration, decision-making frameworks, collaborative efforts, and ongoing model evaluation. Implementing these recommendations is anticipated to enhance prediction accuracy and enable informed decision-making throughout highway pavement design, construction, maintenance, and management. This study is anticipated to serve as a valuable resource, providing guidance and insights for researchers, practitioners, and stakeholders engaged in asphalt engineering, facilitating the effective utilization of statistical models in real-world pavement projects.
... Approximately 25% of impervious surfaces in urban catchments comprise of impervious pavement, making them a major producer of runoff [6,7]. Retrofitting these areas by permeable pavements is one potential solution to reduce the risk of flooding by increasing the time of concentration (the time at which peak flow is reached) and decreasing the hydraulic efficiency of the catchment (disconnecting impervious surfaces) [7]. ...
... Approximately 25% of impervious surfaces in urban catchments comprise of impervious pavement, making them a major producer of runoff [6,7]. Retrofitting these areas by permeable pavements is one potential solution to reduce the risk of flooding by increasing the time of concentration (the time at which peak flow is reached) and decreasing the hydraulic efficiency of the catchment (disconnecting impervious surfaces) [7]. Permeable pavements have been shown to reduce peak flows for frequent storms of lower intensity by allowing on-site storage of water for reuse or to provide baseflows [8][9][10][11]. ...
Permeable pavement (PP) systems have been shown to provide onsite stormwater management as well as contaminant removal benefits. Therefore, significant research has taken place in recent years to analyse the performance of these structures in terms of the volume of stormwater harvested and the water quality improvements at small scales. However, there is limited understanding of their performance for reducing stormwater runoff volume to prevent natural disasters, such as catchment-scale flooding. With larger flooding events projected to occur more frequently as a result of urbanisation and climate change, PP systems have the potential to mitigate loss by reducing peak flows and runoff volumes. Therefore, this research investigates the performance of PP at the catchment scale under a range of design rainfall and land-use scenarios. Results indicate that the integration of permeable pavements in urban settings is effective in mitigating surface flooding in an urbanised catchment in Melbourne, Australia by reducing the peak flows by 7–16%. However, in practice, flood reduction ability can markedly decrease with time due to the clogging of pavements. Our results provide preliminary data to show that the integration of permeable pavements into the existing urban landscape can reduce the risk of flooding by providing areas for water to infiltrate if maintained properly. These results are envisioned to assist councils and stormwater managers with the option evaluation of the water-sensitive urban design systems and selecting the appropriate stormwater management measures.
... PPS are engineered to perform as hybrid pavements with structural requirements typically designed to satisfy lightly trafficked surfaces such as parking lots and pedestrian access whilst promoting infiltration and stormwater runoff mitigation [5]. Permeable pavements supersede conventional paving with an at-source control to prevent or significantly delay stormwater runoff generation [6]. ...
... The majority of laboratory studies on the infiltration performance of permeable pavements on slopes have suggested grades of 5% [19,20] up to 10% [21,22]. Few field studies have assessed the performance of permeable pavements on slopes exceeding 5% [6,23]. Nevertheless, should sloping grounds be inevitable, internal check dams or berms can be incorporated into the subgrade to encourage infiltration. ...
Increasing imperviousness caused largely from urban development coupled with global warming, sea-level rise and change in weather patterns contribute immensely to frequent flooding events across numerous urban municipalities across Caribbean Small Island Developing States (SIDS). Existing conventional drainage systems fail to meet stormwater runoff peak flow and volume demands generated by today's changing environment. Land or service constraints often restrict expansion of these drainage systems. Despite those challenges, Caribbean SIDS authorities and drainage engineers continue to recommend and use conventional drainage systems as the dominant infrastructure for the collection and conveyance of stormwater away from urban areas. Sustainable Urban Drainage Systems (SUDS) or Low Impact Development (LID) practices such as porous or Permeable Pavement Systems (PPS) are designed to effectively manage stormwater runoff at the source as opposed to conventional drainage systems. PPS reduce urban runoff and peak flows via development of on-site temporary storage measures for potential water reuse and minimisation of impervious areas. Water quality benefits of PPS include thermal mitigation and reduced pollutant loadings of suspended solids, heavy metals, hydrocarbons, and some nutrients to receiving natural waters. It is recommended that SUDS such as PPS be incorporated within urban drainage systems across Caribbean SIDS to help mitigate the frequent flooding events being experienced annually. PPS installations must be fit for purpose and this paper discusses key considerations for use of PPS within urban settings across Caribbean SIDS.
... Compared to other studies UNHSC, 2019;Winston et al., 2016c), the MCV and regenerative air street sweeper underperformed with respect to improvements in SIRs at the Clintonville PICP systems. Because of this, it was surmised that clogging in the Clintonville PICP systems had occurred at greater depths than typically reported in the literature due to the lack of refilling joint aggregate following systematic maintenance (or after substantial loss following wheel suction applied by car tires [Fassman and Blackbourn, 2010]). It was speculated that this would reduce the effectiveness of the two maintenance techniques since it might be more difficult to remove clogging from deeper in the joint section. ...
... Clogging at the Dominion PICP likely occurred at greater depths relative to the other Clintonville PICP systems because it was more heavily traveled than Dixon or Cooke (Table 28, Figure 21). Additionally, vehicular traffic contributes to deep clogging by removing joint aggregate due to wheel suction (Fassman and Blackbourn, 2010) and breaks down coarse debris into finer particles which become dispersed and embedded more permanently into the joints (Kresin, 1997;van Duin et al., 2008). ...
While urban development provides many services to humanity, it also substantially impacts the environment and ecology of natural areas. Urbanization involves the conversion of forested and agricultural lands to impervious surfaces such as buildings, houses, roads, parking lots, and sidewalks. Stormwater runoff occurs when rainfall is not captured in depressional storage or is unable to infiltrate the soil surface. Land use changes may increase the generation and transport of pollutants and rate and volume of stormwater runoff, leading to increased pollutant load, flooding, in-stream erosion, and elevated stream temperatures. In urban areas developed prior to the Clean Water Act, stormwater is, in many cases, discharged without treatment. In recent decades, low impact development techniques, such as stormwater control measures (SCMs), have been increasingly adopted by municipalities to mitigate urban non-point source pollution. Efficacy of SCM retrofits run the gamut from success to failure. Thus, there is a need to fully understand the factors that affect stormwater quality and quantity to guide management. Urban land use and land cover (LULC) has been recognized as a strong influencer of stormwater quality and hydrology. Herein, I performed a meta-analysis utilizing stormwater quality data from the published literature spanning 360 unique urban watersheds. Furthermore, I monitored stormwater quality and hydrology from (urban and forested) watersheds in Ohio. Results indicate water quality can be further improved with a regionalization scheme. More specifically, regional climate substantially affected the quality of runoff. From the meta-analysis, it was observed that there is an absence of stormwater quality in certain regions of the world, one of which was the midwestern United States. Thus, stormwater models cannot be accurately calibrated or validated for this region. Analysis of local stormwater data (i.e., Dayton, Ohio metropolitan area) revealed LULC and rainfall patterns influenced the quality of runoff. Recent data also suggest stormwater quality is not temporally static (i.e., over years or decades), which opens various avenues for future research. Though design of SCMs is typically based on predicted runoff volume or peak flow rate, findings from water quality monitoring suggest placement of SCMs should also be considered in design (e.g., locate SCMs in hot spots for the generation of a pollutant of interest). Due to simplified hydrologic models, subjective parameter selection, and changing climatic patterns, the prediction of hydrologic responses contains large uncertainty. To bolster widely accepted models, I compared monitored hydrologic responses to predicted responses utilizing a variety of methodologies. Model performance varied with rainfall depth and watershed characteristics such and LULC and imperviousness. Thus, there was no one best model for every scenario, but the provided discussion will aide managers in selecting which model would provide the most accurate results under given circumstances. SCMs are often retrofitted with pollutants of concern in mind; however, these systems may provide treatment for other non-target pollutants. For example, stream temperature has been identified as the most important environmental cue to aquatic species behavior. Thermal impairments to receiving streams are commonly associated with impervious surfaces, yet ponds, wetlands, detention basins, and other noninfiltrating SCMs that are commonly retrofitted (or installed in new developments) further exacerbate stormwater temperature as they are subjected to solar radiation, often with little shading. Infiltrating SCMs such as bioretention and permeable pavements have shown promising reductions in stormwater temperature at the site-scale, but it is still unknown how a network of SCMs retrofitted at the watershed scale can ameliorate thermal impacts. My goal was to address this gap in knowledge to better inform other management strategies (e.g., riparian buffers, clustered imperviousness, underground storage/conveyance) that may need to be considered to protect cold-water ecosystems. Results indicate the best method of reducing thermal mass exported to receiving streams is through runoff volume mitigation, as runoff temperatures (monitored at watershed outlets) from watersheds with SCM retrofits were not different from watersheds without SCMs. It is commonly accepted in the literature that hydrologic mitigation is most critical for reducing the export of priority pollutants. In the final chapter of this dissertation, I addressed the effectiveness of five different maintenance techniques (two of which are new to the literature) to restore hydraulic function across five different permeable pavements by quantifying surface infiltration rates (SIRs) before and after maintenance activities. Three of the maintenance activities significantly improved SIRs, but results varied in effectiveness based on in-situ pavement conditions and operational factors. Thus, many maintenance take-aways were addressed such as performing maintenance during dry periods, topping up of joint aggregate after maintenance, and avoiding permeable pavement in high traffic/high speed areas.
... As one type of sponge facility, permeable pavement systems (PPSs) can achieve hydrological benefits without occupying extra space, so it has evolved into the most widely used stormwater management measure (Elizondo-Martínez et al. 2020;Kuruppu et al. 2019;Castro-Fresno et al. 2013). In this context, there is a large body of literature with a focus on the hydrological performance of PPSs that has revealed the efficacy of PPSs in urban stormwater control, like mitigating stormwater volume, attenuating and delaying peak flow, and extending flow duration Drake et al. 2014;Fassman and Blackbourn 2010). Meanwhile, the hydrological performance of PPSs is easily affected by several factors, including local climate, pavement type, structure configuration, pavement age, installation design, and site environment (Cheng et al. 2019;Yong et al. 2013). ...
... A critical and inevitable problem with PPSs is clogging, which seriously degrades PPS runoff reduction performance (Kuruppu et al. 2019;Mullaney and Lucke 2014). Fassman and Blackbourn (2010) found that PPSs with severe clogging had no obvious effectiveness in mitigating severe urban floods caused by extreme rainstorm events but could still effectively capture stormwater during normal rainfall events. This implies that the effect of clogging on PPS hydrological performance varies with rainfall magnitude. ...
... Consistent maintenance is crucial for the effective operation of permeable pavements as drainage and treatment infrastructure, but no standard procedures currently exist [186]. Newly-installed pavements manage surface infiltration well during design rainfall events, but they can become clogged due to factors such as runoff sediment particle size, pore size distribution, surrounding land use, and winter maintenance [187,188]. Clogging can drastically reduce infiltration rates, with decreases in up to 100 times [189]. Regular maintenance, typically annual, is necessary to prevent clogging and maintain performance [190]. ...
Microplastic pollution in aquatic environments has emerged as a significant environmental concern, posing risks to ecosystems and human health. Urban stormwater runoff has been identified as a major source of microplastics, with microplastic concentrations reaching up to six times higher than those in wastewater treatment plant effluents. Given the increasing urbanization and inadequate waste management, effective mitigation strategies are urgently needed to prevent the discharge of microplastics into natural water systems. Green infrastructure, designed for sustainable stormwater management, has gained attention as a promising approach to reducing microplastic pollution while providing additional environmental benefits. Here, we review various green infrastructure technologies, including bioretention systems, permeable pavements, stormwater ponds, and constructed wetlands, focusing on their effectiveness in microplastic mitigation. Bioretention systems exhibit removal efficiencies ranging from 80% to over 99%, and are particularly effective for particles sized 20 μm or above. Constructed wetlands achieve removal rates between 28 and 75%, effectively treating microplastics in the 100–500 μm range. Permeable pavements demonstrate removal efficiencies of 89–96.6%, especially for particles less than 100 μm. Retention ponds retain 55–98% of microplastics, with sediment retention reaching up to 85%. We found that the performance of these systems is influenced by soil amendments, vegetation, and adsorption-based mechanisms such as biochar applications, which can enhance removal to over 99% under optimized conditions. Phytoremediation with aquatic plants such as Lemna minor achieves a 76% removal rate, while biofilm-based strategies offer slower but potentially sustainable solutions. This review highlights the necessity of integrating multiple green infrastructure approaches to optimize microplastic removal.
... Su capacidad para retener metales como el plomo ha sido demostrada en estudios previos, posicionándola como una opción prometedora para el tratamiento de aguas residuales (Aguilar-Carrillo et al., 2017;Serralde et al., 2023). Por otro lado, el concreto permeable es un material que ha sido utilizado desde el siglo XIX, conocido por su capacidad para permitir el paso del agua, reduciendo así la escorrentía y promoviendo la filtración natural (Bosso y Enzweiler, 2002;Fassman y Blackbourn, 2010). Este material es especialmente útil en áreas urbanas, donde la impermeabilización del suelo es un problema común que contribuye a la contaminación de las aguas de embalses (Fan et al., 2022). ...
Esta investigación evaluó la jarosita de potasio como filtro de metales pesados en la presa “El Potrero” en Hidalgo, mediante su incorporación en concreto permeable. Por ello, se diseñaron cilindros de concreto permeable con jarosita para analizar su capacidad de filtrar metales pesados y elementos tóxicos para futuras aplicaciones en aguas de embalses, peligrosas para plantas y humanos. Asimismo, se midió la resistencia a la compresión a los 28 días y la calidad del agua antes y después de la filtración. Los resultados mostraron una reducción en la concentración de metales, principalmente el Fe, de acuerdo con la normativa NOM-127-SSA1-2021. También, la jarosita no afectó la resistencia del concreto siendo viable para estructuras y tratamiento de aguas contaminadas, manteniéndose inerte y sin impacto ambiental.
... Contamination of stormwater by various natural and anthropogenic activities is also well-reported and BGIs like permeable pavements (PP) comprised plants help to remove the contamination and overall run-off volume to drainage systems. Furthermore, PP also reduces individual pollutants like total nitrogen, phosphorus, suspended solids, and various heavy metals like zinc, copper, iron, lead, cadmium, etc. by at least 50% (Fassman & Blackbourn, 2010;Zachary Bean et al., 2007). Another BGI named bioretention cells which are landscape depressions that capture and infiltrate stormwater runoff also help to reduce water pollutants and run-off volumes (Costello et al., 2020;Wardynski & Hunt, 2012). ...
... Regular 7 sweeping and clearance of litter and debris from drainage areas contributing to permeable pavements were also highlighted (Woods-Ballard et al., 2007). Paver or grid systems with grass should be regularly mowed, and clippings removed, while seal coats should never be applied to permeable pavements to maintain their functionality (Fassman and Blackbourn, 2010). Hein and Eng (2015) noted that if stormwater drainage becomes compromised, the surface may need replacement. ...
Rapid urbanisation and city expansion worldwide have significantly increased impervious surfaces such as roads, buildings, and pavements. These impervious surfaces impede water infiltration into the ground, resulting in escalated surface runoff during rainfall. This has been exacerbated by climate change and heightened precipitation levels, resulting in recurrent annual flooding. Conventional drainage systems are now insufficient to cope with the amplified surface runoff, contributing to the escalating flood occurrences. Sustainable urban drainage systems such as green roofs, swales, and permeable pavements were developed as modern flood control techniques to replace the traditional drainage system approach by optimising resource utilisation and developing novel and more productive technologies. While most SUD techniques are sustainable in design, construction, and operation, permeable pavements are considered one of the least sustainable SUD techniques. This has garnered considerable attention from researchers who have been studying the design of a more sustainable permeable pavement system by utilising sustainable and recycled materials. This paper reviews the performance of permeable pavements systems using findings from extensive reviews and analyses of scientific publications on permeable pavements. It introduces a future solution and design of permeable pavements using recycled materials. The study will consist of two permeable pavement systems, one incorporating recycled materials in its layers and the other using traditional construction materials. The data collected from both systems will be compared to determine their performance.
... Contamination of stormwater by various natural and anthropogenic activities is also well-reported and BGIs like permeable pavements (PP) comprised plants help to remove the contamination and overall run-off volume to drainage systems. Furthermore, PP also reduces individual pollutants like total nitrogen, phosphorus, suspended solids, and various heavy metals like zinc, copper, iron, lead, cadmium, etc. by at least 50% (Fassman & Blackbourn, 2010;Zachary Bean et al., 2007). Another BGI named bioretention cells which are landscape depressions that capture and infiltrate stormwater runoff also help to reduce water pollutants and run-off volumes (Costello et al., 2020;Wardynski & Hunt, 2012). ...
The central idea for establishing the 2030 agenda for sustainable development is achieving well-being for all while protecting the environment and welfare for future generations with 17 interlinked Sustainable development goals (SDGs). These goals are no poverty, zero hunger, good health and well-being, quality education, gender equality, clean water and sanitation, affordable and clean energy, decent work and economic growth, industry, innovation and infrastructure, reduced inequalities, sustainable cities and communities, responsible consumption and production, climate action, life below water, life on land, peace, justice, and strong institutions, and partnerships for the goals. To achieve these goals blue-green infrastructure (BGI) can play a vital role as it promotes sustainable and resource-efficient living. Utilizing urban planning, ecological restoration, and infrastructure to foster a sense of community with the natural world, the BGI network offers the “ingredients” for resolving urban and climatic concerns. Under BGI the water bodies like rivers and tanks are indicated by the color “blue.” and for trees, parks, and gardens, use “green.”. BGI has numerous advantages and produces effects that cut across the economic, social, and environmental sectors. It contributes to the control of regional ecosystems as well as the reduction of pollutants and urban temperature. These in turn have a significant economic impact, for instance, terrace gardens encourage lower building surface temperatures, which reduces the need for cooling and, consequently, the demand for energy and power. Reduced consumption of vital raw materials and resources, the prevention of pollution, and a decrease in carbon emissions are further financial and economic advantages. This chapter reviews the applicability of BGIs in achieving SDGs at the ground level and further highlights the implications, benefits, and challenges of their implementation. It is known that an effective and efficient infrastructure like BGI allows multipurpose uses and several advantages that directly or indirectly help to meet the targets in order to achieve the SDGs.
... Entre los ejemplos más comunes para mitigar este problema puede mencionarse el pavimento permeable. Además de ser una superficie para la movilidad vial, este material puede facilitar el ingreso del agua de escorrentía urbana y mitigar los encharcamientos (Fassman y Blackbourn, 2010); además, tienen la capacidad para depurar algunos contaminantes y promover fuentes de recarga al subsuelo (Ortega-Villar et al., 2019). Para mejorar las propiedades del concreto permeable, se han utilizado distintos enfoques con buenos resultados: a) cenizas de fondo para optimizar su rendimiento (Tan et al., 2022), b) polvo de desecho de mármol como sustituto del cemento (Oggu y Sai-Madupu, 2022), c) adsorbentes minerales para depurar aguas residuales infiltradas (Teymouri et al., 2020), entre otros. ...
En Pachuca de Soto, Hidalgo, se ha registrado la acumulación de millones de metros cúbicos de desechos provenientes de la actividad minera de más de 500 años. Estos desechos, conocidos como “jales” no tienen uso ni beneficio social. Si bien, su composición química no muestra la presencia de elementos potencialmente tóxicos en cantidades representativas, sí afecta la salud de la población debido a que las partículas pueden ser fácilmente transportadas por agua y aire. La propuesta de reutilización de jales en la construcción de concreto permeable es una alternativa eficiente para reducir el impacto ambiental, siendo eficiente como sustituto de cementante en baja proporción. Asimismo, su uso no requiere ningún proceso adicional. En este estudio se elaboró un concreto permeable con adición de residuo minero como sustituto de aglutinante hidráulico en dosificaciones de 0, 5, 10 y 15%. Los resultados mostraron que hasta la dosificación del 10% los especímenes tuvieron un comportamiento similar al concreto permeable convencional.
... However, the results have generally been inconsistent, and have shown a large variation in the range of infiltration rates measured. Currently, there is no single standard agreed method for measuring the surface infiltration through permeable pavements even though numerous studies have tried to measure the surface infiltration rate of permeable pavement systems (e.g., Bean et al., 2007;Fassman & Blackbourn, 2010). This has generally been done by measuring the infiltration rate of water through a particular section of the pavement surface. ...
Asset management issues are and will always be key concerns for many stakeholders in the water sector. Despite this, there is still a lack of awareness and clear guidance on the topic. There has been some focus on the management of drainage pipes, but more effort needs to be dedicated to examining the various regulations, practices, and research within this discipline. It's paramount to consider the long-term management of urban drainage assets, given the role they play in ensuring the wellbeing of our communities.
Asset Management of Urban Drainage Systems is the first comprehensive handbook that deals with the asset management of infrastructure dedicated to both sewage and stormwater, including blue-green infrastructure. It gives an insight into the theoretical background of asset management itself and showcases regulations and legislation influencing it. The methods used to investigate the condition of assets, and how they can be modelled and represented while accounting for the associated limitations, are also presented. The book describes how the discipline can move from a purely condition-based approach to a service-based one using risk-management strategies, seen in the broader context of decision-making. Data management and techniques for the rehabilitation of urban drainage assets are also explored.
From technicians who want to know more about the tools and methods, to researchers and students who want a broad overview, to professionals who are tasked with developing short, medium, and long-term asset management strategies, this book provides important content for a wide audience.
ISBN: 9781789063042 (paperback)
ISBN: 9781789063059 (eBook)
ISBN: 9781789063066 (ePub)
... Therefore, it is important to assess the temporal aspect of infiltration from LID to the soil layers while studying the delay in peak surface runoff in urbanized catchments. In fact, delay in peak runoff reported in the literature pertaining to LID ranges from a few minutes to a few hours (Chui and Trinh 2016;Fassman and Blackbourn 2010;Kwak, Kim, and Han 2016;Palla et al. 2010). Studying the infiltration through the bottom of the LIDs to the underlying soil layers, would help increase the delay of the peak. ...
The study assessed the effectiveness of infiltration-based Low Impact Development (LID) techniques and augmented infiltration LIDs (such as recharge shaft) in a coastal urban catchment in India using a semi-coupled approach between numerical models VS2DI and Storm Water Management Model (SWMM). Site specific VS2DI modelling indicated that the infiltration LIDs resulted in more saturation excess runoff due to the soil’s insufficient hydraulic conductivity and increased lateral flow. Catchment-scale modeling indicated that LIDs significantly improved water retention (p ≪ 0.05), with a 35% reduction in total runoff volume. The recharge shafts were shown to be more efficient in reducing runoff volume and peak runoff, particularly for high runoff rates (more than 22 mm/hr). The study suggests that direct recharge to the aquifer through recharge shafts could be a suitable solution to manage runoff and meet the demand for domestic water supply during times of water scarcity in coastal urban catchments.
... Zhao et al. [38] and Guan [37] determined VR and PR during the use of green roof systems, together with a reduction in the rejected MW volumes. Babí Almenar et al. [1] and Fassman et al. [39] showed the effectiveness of permeable traffic areas in terms of VR and SR. Jia et al. [40] investigated the hydrological effectiveness (VR and PR) of storage basins and bio-retention zones. ...
Urban trees and forests show a better ecosystem with many benefits, including pure air quality. The development of urban green infrastructure (UGI) creates a better management system that greatly impacts social values in an urban system. The UGI and construction activities are receiving much attention for their effectiveness in addressing various urban ecological, social and economic issues. Using green infrastructure in stormwater management can reduce the influence on urban sewerage systems and, eventually, on building water resources. The main goal of the research is to optimize the green infrastructure to provide a less-pollution, well-organized, and pleasurable environment for the inhabitants. Various models are used to study the present rainfall-runoff scenario, but the stormwater management model (SWMM) is the most preferable and suggested model. Once the parameters are accessed, optimizing the green infrastructure (GI) will be easy. A complete SWMM model is evaluated over the complete surface, and a hydrological measurement is presented. The evaluation study presents various component percentages: asphalt (37%), green (27%), ceiling (21%), grit (12%), and cemented area (2%), which provides rainproof coverage of approximately 60%. A design is developed about the diverse events of GI in urban exploiting the SWMM and demonstrates its stimulus on the rainfall-runoff behaviour. In recent years, very little attention has been given to green spaces in urban areas, which not only increases pollution but also decreases the urbanization. Therefore, urban green spaces are more important to improve air quality and resident living standards. Over the given scenario and the rainfall event, a decline of the quantitative discharge parameters is evident, such as discharge volume (i.e., from 3.6 to 61.8) and the peak discharge rate (i.e., from 5.4 to 62.7%). The simulation results show that green areas give high satisfaction with low construction costs, which shows the superlative performance ratio of the examined measures. From the investigation, it is also recommended to have green areas and public spaces in impervious urban areas, which greatly reduced the runoff in the project area.
... On the advances in quality improvement of runoff water by trapping and treatment of storm water runoff, [16][17][18][19][20][21][22][23] have been involved in several works and found out that various solid pollutants, heavy metal lings, vehicular tra c-pavement surface interface wear-outs, oils and fuel combustion and suspended organic waste sediments causes blockage to in ltration path in the pavement full depth matrix. Also, lot of researchers is also working on the water harvesting possibilities of the storm water, which relies on the ltration regime of porous media [24]. ...
This study examines a laboratory-scaled infiltration model for the mitigation of stormwater runoff quantity on permeable pavements in a built-up town, Warri in the Niger Delta region. Fast urbanization and further development in traditional impervious asphaltic pavement systems have posed grave stormwater runoff challenges in recent times. The land space has become more impermeable; exposing pavement surfaces to undue hydraulic pressure, flood risks, and other attendant health and environmental impacts. There is a paucity of suitable permeable pavement systems (PPS) models that can promote effective infiltration and detention of stormwater runoffs at peak flash floods around pavement infrastructures and corridors. For this study a laboratory-scaled interlocking permeable pavement full depth of 600mm length x 600mm breadth x 1200mm depth rigs of three permeable interlocking concrete pavement full depth matrix; PICP Rig types 1, 3, and 4 and a fourth (control) made of assembled hot rolled segmented asphalt pavement (HRSA) Rig type 2 were exposed to simulated rainfall head and vertical infiltration process monitored for 30 minutes in stepwise time of 3minutes with several runs of the experiment. The highest infiltration performance of 46.20% from PICP type 3 (which had the most porous aggregates) was observed following the absence of fines used in the volumetric mix ratio in pavement pavers. The experimental results and the regression predicted model have great correlation coefficients of (R2) between 0.9771 and 0.9918 respectively. Infiltration rates of between 3.67mm/min and 4.67mm/min were obtained. Pavement rigs PICP types 3 and 1 had more fines and lesser porous aggregates, which showed infiltration performance of 23.15% and 20.04% respectively, and lower than PICP type 4. Pavement Rig 2 HRSA pavements which served as control in the study showed the lowest infiltration performance and earlier ponding suggesting that a more porous mix supports the best infiltration performance. The model is applicable in the design of PPSs including the estimation and management of stormwater flash floods peaks and flow schemes for developing countries, especially in the wet Niger Delta region.
... 322 Management practices such as stormwater detention and use of permeable pavement can help minimize rapid urban runoff and its associated nutrients and sediment. 437 Increases in water temperature driven by runoff from hot pavement are another impact of impermeable surfaces-one that can have deleterious effects on fish and aquatic insects. 438 Ongoing and projected future increases in air temperature and the frequency of large storms will pose continuing challenges for the management of urban water resources and aquatic ecosystems in the 21st century. ...
Assessments of current and futures impacts of changing climate on NY State's major ecosystems. Includes natural and modified ecosystems across 12 climate regions. Topics include anticipated risks and opportunities for response, climate justice and equity, and compounded impacts, such as interactions with invasive species.
... Lapisan drainase harus mampu menampung dan menyimpan limpahan air hujan tersebut sampai meresap ke tanah atau dialirkan ke saluran drainase sehingga harus memiliki permeabilitas yang tinggi. Penelitian oleh Fassman & Blackbourn (2010) menunjukkan bahwa jenis perkerasan permeabel efektif digunakan bahkan pada jalan di atas tanah yang mempunyai permeabilitas sangat rendah. Selain manfaat mengurangi limpasan permukaan dan memperpanjang umur perkerasan jalan, sistem perkerasan permeabel juga mempunyai manfaat mempertahankan air tanah dan daur ulang air hujan serta, dengan menambahkan lapisan geomembran, sistem ini juga bermanfaat untuk pencegahan polusi (Scholz & Grabowiecki, 2007). ...
Permeable pavement is a type of road pavement that allows stormwater to infiltrate through the pavement surface and the underlying base layer to reduce surface runoff. Open-graded aggregates are often used as the base layers to temporarily store water and allow the water to infiltrate slowly into the soil below the pavement or through sub-drainage. The strength of open graded material is usually less than the dense-graded materials. Therefore; the mixture of the aggregate for both base and drainage layer need to be designed carefully. In Indonesia, the criteria for aggregate as both base and drainage layer is stipulated in Bina Marga Specification. This study aims at designing an optimum mixture of local aggregate to be used as the base of permeable pavement. The mixture should fulfil the mechanical properties based on laboratory CBR value, and hydraulic properties based on storage capacity and the coefficient of permeability. Five aggregate samples of Andesite origin from South Lampung area were selected for this study. Careful laboratory test procedures were adopted to select configurations of aggregate sizes (design mix formula) that satisfies the requirements both as Aggregate A and as drainage layer. A dense graded aggregate based on the grain size distribution was prepared for design mix formula to meet the requirement as Aggregate A. Then, the fine particles passing No 40 sieve was removed to form open aggregate sample suitable as drainage layer. Both samples were tested for grain size distribution, CBR, permeability and storage capacity. Results show that the local aggregate fulfils the requirements both as base and as drainage layer with average CBR of 92%, average storage capacity of 18.32% and average permeability of 0.05 m/sec. The thickness of the permeable pavement layer could be estimated based on storage capacity and the permeability of the drainage layer.
... The permeable pavement helped to reduce runoff by retaining much of the water. Bean et al. [49] and Fassman et al. [50] research provides additional support for these findings, indicating that LID strategies can be used to reduce the magnitude and frequency of surface runoff. Except for the two CS2.04 examples, the data presented in the graph indicates that LID was generally successful in lowering the peak outflow below the current 100-year peak outflow. ...
Short but extreme flooding events have been frequent and severe globally due to climate change and urbanization in recent years. Similarly, researchers, scientists, and water managers are suggesting the application of sustainable flood management strategies such as Low Impact Development (LID) to mitigate the impacts of such extreme flooding events. However, most of these strategies have primarily been evaluated using historical precipitation events, which may not accurately represent the impact of climate-induced flooding events, which are projected to become more extreme. In this context, this study assesses the effectiveness of LIDs in combating climate change-induced flooding events. The North American Regional Climate Change Assessment Program (NARCCAP) climate model was applied in this study to quantify the magnitude of future projected storm depths, which are expected to increase due to climate change. Similarly, Personal Computer Storm Water Management Model (PCSWMM) was used to develop a rainfall-runoff simulation model and to assess the effectiveness of three LID techniques (Permeable Pavement, Green Roof, and Bio-Retention Cell) in reducing surface runoff under various climate scenarios. The results revealed that under the climate change scenarios the future projected design depths are expected to increase by up to 104%. Similarly, peak discharge, and total flooding volume were found to increase by 37.72% and 88.73%, respectively under the most extreme climate change scenario. Furthermore, the study demonstrated that applying LID strategies decreases peak discharge, offering a viable solution to tackle flooding events induced by climate change. The results illustrated the performance of permeable pavement was superior in reducing the peak discharge by up to 28.57%. Similarly, applying green roofs and bioretention cells reduced the peak discharge by up to 19.93% and 14.25%, respectively.
... Les revêtements perméables comprennent les pavés en blocs, les systèmes de grillage en plastique, les asphaltes poreux et les bétons poreux (Dietz, 2007). Il a été montré que les chaussées perméables réduisent les eaux de ruissellement et les charges polluantes associées dans plusieurs endroits (Dietz, 2007 ;Collins et al., 2008;Pezzaniti et al., 2009;Collins et al., 2010;Fassman et Blackbourn 2010;Tota-Maharaj et Scholz 2010;Beecham et al., 2012). ...
L’urgence de protéger l’environnement urbain des inondations incite le développement de nouvelles techniques pour dépolluer les eaux de ruissellement, qui se doivent d’être efficaces et peu coûteuses. La biosorption est l’une des techniques les plus attractives et prometteuses pour éliminer les micropolluants dissous, en raison de son recours à des produits biologiques et écologiques, ainsi que sa grande efficacité. Ce projet de recherche consiste à évaluer la capacité d’adsorption des coproduits de lin produites en Normandie, dans l’objectif d’examiner les meilleures conditions pour tester en vraie grandeur un dispositif de filtration des eaux de ruissellement urbaines. Le choix de ce matériau revient à sa grande disponibilité dans la région de la Normandie et vise la valorisation des produits locaux. L’étude réalisée consiste dans un premier temps à investiguer le phénomène de compétition entre les trois ions de zinc, cuivre et plomb en menant des essais d’adsorption sur les fibres de lin dans deux types de solutions, trimétallique et monométalliques. Ensuite, lephénomène de désorption de ces ions par les fibres de lin est étudié dans divers conditions en utilisant différents agents de désorption. L’étude est également orientée vers l’emploi d’un charbon actif d’anas de lin en vue d’améliorer la performance épuratoire du lin. Enfin, l’adsorption à faibles concentrations, équivalentes à celles des eaux de ruissellement, est analysée et les comportements à faibles et fortes concentrations sont comparés.
... However, the single-ring permeameter always creates a transverse flow below the surface of the pervious pavement, which makes the measured data far larger than the real permeability coefficient. When the outer ring water level is matched that of the inner ring, double-ring permeameters can ensure vertical flow through the inner ring (Fassman and Blackbourn 2010). While Chopra et al. (2010) thought that even double-ring method was likely to create preferred lateral flow in a highly porous material such as pervious concrete and that only when a single ring was embedded inside the subsoil could the road permeability be accurately measured. ...
The permeability coefficient is the foundation of evaluating the clogging and maintenance. In this study, 384 field tests were carried out on 9 positions using single-ring and double-ring permeameters with different diameters. Both falling head and constant head methods were evaluated. At the same time, core samples were drilled from the 9 test positions, and their permeability coefficients were measured in the laboratory. The results show that there is a good correlation between falling head method and constant head method, both of them can be used to measure in-situ permeability coefficient of pervious pavement. Although the double-ring method can reduce the transverse seepage inside the pavement, the effect of double-ring permeameters with different cylinder diameters is different, and permeameters with larger cylinder diameters are better. For sites with permeability greater than 2 mm/s, it is not recommended to use permeameters with small cylinder diameters..
... This facilitates rapid rainwater drainage from the pavement surface and reduces runoff volumes and peak runoff rates [60]. It has been widely reported that permeable pavements with underdrain/edge drain can significantly delay, reduce and retain surface runoff compared to conventional impermeable pavements [61][62][63][64][65][66]. Thus, downward water infiltration increases. ...
Drainage has been commonly employed in pavement structures to intercept water from entering pavement or to lower the water table to control the moisture content on distinct road layers. A comprehensive understanding of drainage methods and their effectiveness can facilitate pavement drainage design. Thus, a selective literature review was conducted to demonstrate subgrade moisture variation and pavement drainage methods. The sub-grade moisture variation was evaluated based on previous studies from three aspects: field investigation, drainage simulation and laboratory studies. Subsurface drainage methods were summarized and some examples were demonstrated. Drainage effectiveness and its influencing factors were analysed to clarify their hydraulic and mechanical effectiveness. Research implications were proposed to provide a reference for further studies. This study aims to improve the knowledge of pavement drainage and provide a reference for sustainable drainage design. Thus, this will facilitate the development of sustainable pavement drainage systems.
... The former allows recycling rainwater to be reused in buildings as a substitute for surface water with simple onsite filtering and disinfecting devices (Vialle et al., 2015). In the latter case, it possesses the function of natural infiltration through the porous pavements, substituting for the existing impervious surfaces and resulting in a reduction in rainwater runoff (Fassman and Blackbourn, 2010). In addition, bioretention systems can remove pollutants from urban runoff by installing a low-cost filter media and aquatic plants (Bratieres et al., 2008). ...
Urban water problems due to stormwater have been aggravated by the higher frequency of high-intensity precipitation events and the increase of paved surfaces. However, with appropriate stormwater management practices, such as low-impact development (LID), stormwater can provide an additional urban water resources rather than cause damage. This study aims to apply a water footprint to location determination of LID practices in the urban area. The LID planning procedure was demonstrated with the highest population density region in Taipei, Taiwan. In order to improve the spatial resolution of LID allocation, the “first-level dissemination area” with 450 residents was used as a spatial unit. The performance of LID practices was then evaluated with the simulation using the Storm Water Management Model (SWMM). Three LID practices, rainwater harvesting systems, permeable pavements, and bioretention systems, were selected. After the water footprint accounting, ten sites were suggested for LID implementation. The runoff reduction rate reached up to 65 % by rainwater harvesting systems or at least 3 % by permeable pavements. This study provides a simpler and more effective approach to ways of integrating an urban water footprint into LID planning and stormwater management in urban areas.
... Losses of stormwater in permeable pavements are most likely attributed to three mechanisms: storage in the subbase, evaporation of base-course, and exfiltration into subgrade soils (Fassman & Blackbourn, 2010). In some circumstances, it may also include the capacity of underground storage tanks (Kayhanian et al., 2019). ...
Land-use changes and the development of urbanization intensify the urban environment including stormwater runoff. An excess runoff overflow impervious surfaces, provokes local air and water pollution, soil erosion, and especially create floods. Despite the gray infrastructure which relies on the big size of drainage pipes, many cities around the globe are adapted to be resilient by integrating green infrastructure (GI) in either pre-development or as a retrofit to deal with these problems. Recently, the development of GI’s concept is potentially coping with a highly urbanized area to resolve the disappearance of open spaces and green spaces on source control by using a variety of elements. Phnom Penh, a typical rapid urban development with a huge proportion of impervious urban surfaces, has been vulnerable to urban flood during the rainy season for almost two decades. The purposes of this research were to: 1) to investigate the performance of GI elements for reducing peak runoff rate in the urban area of Phnom Penh which has the tropical climate and 2) to examine the types of GI elements that are prominent for reducing runoff in different land uses. Three typical urban land uses in a center of Phnom Penh were investigated: residential housing, commercial, and mixed residential and commercial land-use. Two scenarios were designed: scenario 1 referred to non-GI and scenario 2 referred to the integration of GI elements. Due to the characteristic of these three typical urban land-uses, four GI elements include trees, bioswales, permeable pavements, and green roofs were implemented. The classification of land-use/land cover and the implementation of GI elements have proceeded on QGIS version 3.4.10 with support of the Google Satellite overlay-image. The Rational Method was used to estimate the peak runoff rate (Q) in both scneanrio2 and their overall outcomes were computed and analyzed in Ms. Excel. The result demonstrates that the implementation of GI elements in these three urban land-uses is varied due to the different characteristics of land-use and the share of the existing land cover. Accordingly, the application of the various types of GI element and their potential of the runoff reduction is also different. Trees and permeable pavements are the best performance while bioswales show the least effective in these three land-uses. Green roofs have high performance in residential land-use and mixed-land-use, and at medium performance in a commercial land-use. The effectiveness of combined GI elements between the three areas is also obtained. The combined GI elements in mixed land-use had the most effective to reduce runoff, compared to the other two land-uses. In commercial and mixed land-use, the combined GI element is at high performance while it is low in residential land-use. The runoff reduction in entire central Phnom Penh consisted of three typical land-use, which approximately reduced by forth-ten (39.40%) of the total area when a half (49.39%) of GI is applied in the entire central Phnom Penh. The study reveals that green infrastructure (GI) significantly reduces flood problems by alleviating the peak runoff rates in the typical urban land-use in a tropical city. It is efficiently used in Phnom Penh to cope with urban floods at high performance.
... While some previous studies have suggested that the largest contributor to clogging is the capture of sediment and organic fines in the upper layers of joint fillings or pores of permeable pavement blocks (Borgwardt, 2006), others have reported the clogging to be influenced by dry periods and other factors such as installation of geofabric layers during construction (Fassman & Blackbourn, 2010).The processes governing clogging are still not fully understood, and a range of variables may affect the clogging process including: the mass of the trapped sediments and the sediment particle size distributions (PSD) (Boogaard, 2013). To try to increase the level of understanding of these processes, this study investigated whether the infiltration rates of permeable pavements are directly affected by the PSD of the sediment trapped in the paving joints and bedding layers of the pavement. ...
The projected growth in Australia's population will result in increased urbanization leading to more impervious surfaces, and subsequent increased stormwater runoff and pollution. Water sensitive urban design (WSUD) has arisen in response to the need to address stormwater issues related to urban developments. Permeable pavements are one type of WSUD designed to allow stormwater runoff to infiltrate through the pavement structure and eventually discharge, reducing peak stormwater runoff and also reducing pollution known to be attached to and transported by suspended sediments. The trapping of sediments is a critical part of the stormwater treatment process of permeable pavements however, ironically it is also this process which causes clogging, reducing infiltration performance over time. The processes governing clogging are still not well understood, but are known to be affected by the mass of the trapped sediments and the sediment particle size distributions (PSD). This study investigated whether the infiltration rates of permeable pavements are directly affected by the PSD of the sediments trapped. Testing was carried out using the double-ring infiltrometer test (DRIT). Results showed clogging was correlated with sediment containing generally smaller sized sediments. Variation found between infiltration rates and PSDs of sites showed that the smaller particle sizes had the most impact on infiltration, reducing rates by up to 34%. A number of other factors also substantially affected permeable pavement infiltration rates including construction techniques, maintenance history, and underlying soil type.
Climate change and rapid urbanization significantly increase urban flooding, overwhelming traditional drainage systems. Traditional stormwater infrastructure requires innovative solutions like Low Impact Development (LID). LID practices mimic natural hydrology, reducing runoff and mitigating flood risk. This study evaluates the effectiveness of various LID practices in urban drainage systems, and proposed a novel modified metric approach to quantify LID effectiveness, aiming to inform sustainable urban planning and flood risk management. Storm Water Management Model (SWMM) was used to simulate pre-development, post-development, and post-development with LID scenarios, incorporating bio-retention cells (BRC), permeable pavement (PP), and rain barrels (RB). A novel modified performance matrix, alongside traditional metrics, evaluated LID performance in restoring pre-development hydrological conditions. Results showed significant reductions in total outfall volume, peak runoff, and flood volume across all LID scenarios. The combined LID approach (BRC, PP, and RB) achieved the highest performance, with 85 % reduction in total outfall volume, 80 % in peak runoff, and 92 % in flood volume, closely approximating pre-development conditions. BRC consistently demonstrated high individual performance. The modified performance matrix highlighted the contribution of LIDs in restoring pre-development hydrology, emphasizing the importance of integrated LID approaches for sustainable urban design and flood risk management in rapidly urbanizing environments. This study highlights the value of modified metric for evaluating LID effectiveness and its role in building more resilient urban environments.
The people of New York have long benefited from the state's diversity of ecosystems, which range from coastal shorelines and wetlands to extensive forests and mountaintop alpine habitat, and from lakes and rivers to greenspaces in heavily populated urban areas. These ecosystems provide key services such as food, water, forest products, flood prevention, carbon storage, climate moderation, recreational opportunities, and other cultural services. This chapter examines how changes in climatic conditions across the state are affecting different types of ecosystems and the services they provide, and considers likely future impacts of projected climate change. The chapter emphasizes how climate change is increasing the vulnerability of ecosystems to existing stressors, such as habitat fragmentation and invasive species, and highlights opportunities for New Yorkers to adapt and build resilience.
In recent years, rapid and unprecedented changes in the urban structure and unsustainable development have created serious challenges for the environment and the quality of life of city residents. One of the most important challenges is the increase of impervious surfaces in urban areas, which leads to problems such as heat islands, increased pollution, and lack of absorption of surface runoff. In this regard, identifying and classifying permeable and impervious surfaces in different urban areas, especially in metropolises such as Tehran, is of great importance. This research was conducted with the aim of investigating and analyzing permeable and impervious surfaces in district 7 of Tehran. Using descriptive analytical method and Landsat satellite images, these levels have been accurately identified. At first, satellite images related to the area were downloaded, and after the necessary processing, four types of surfaces were sampled, including built parcels, barren lands, green spaces, and water. The data was then transferred to ENVI and ArcMap environment to perform the necessary analysis. The results of this research show that the ratio of impervious surfaces (built spaces) to permeable surfaces (green spaces and barren lands) in District 7 and in general in Tehran is inappropriate. These changes not only have a negative impact on the quality of the environment, but also lead to problems such as heat islands and lack of absorption of surface runoff. Therefore, this research emphasizes the necessity of optimal management of permeable surfaces to improve environmental conditions and reduce the negative effects of climate change.
The study examines Permeable Interlocking Concrete Pavers (PICP) systems in urban and suburban areas facing intensified stormwater challenges due to climate change and evolving land use patterns. It investigates various factors affecting PICP performance, including soil, topography, vegetation, and rainfall intensity, using advanced modeling techniques. The study’s methodology integrates Personal Computer Storm Water Management Model (PCSWMM) model and Python scripting, utilizing historical and projected data to guide resilient PICP designs. Climate projections from 2030 to 2080 show a significant increase in stormwater runoff due to urbanization, emphasizing flood risk concerns. The findings indicated a substantial 43 % increase in runoff for the City of Renton-Cedar watershed in Washington from 2030 to 2069. Without PICP implementation, a notable 20.3 %
surge in total runoff volume is anticipated. This highlights the crucial role of PICP and sustainable urban planning in mitigating urbanization’s impact on hydrology. With PICP implementation, the results show that the total runoff may reduce to a range within 24 %–75 % for the three land use scenarios (15 %, 25 % and 35 %). The results also exhibited a significant (P < 0.05) and strong (R2 > 0.8) direct relationship between clogging and PICP systems. Overall, the research underscores PICP systems’ effectiveness in managing stormwater, emphasizing their importance in diverse urban settings, and advocating for green infrastructure adoption to enhance urban resilience amidst changing environmental dynamics.
The massive development of the construction industry demands sustainability, and the studies on No Fines Concrete (NFC) will support sustainable development in the field of transportation and highway industry. It is the key requirement of all developing countries like India in order to satisfy three main criteria namely sustainability, serviceability and feasibility in addition to its performance. Application of NFC pavement is itself a sustainable method to manage and discharge the retaining stormwater during heavy floods. Fibre Reinforced No Fine Concrete (FRNFC) was considered, with findings suggesting that the inclusion of fibres has minimal impact on strength characteristics and only marginally reduces the permeability of NFC. However, NFC pavements require regular maintenance to prevent clogging of pores with dust, sediments, and debris, which impairs water flow. A 2 m x 2 m span real-time FRNFC pavement was cast and subsequently subjected to assessment of its serviceability performance. The study examines the performance of FRNFC under clogging and suggests rehabilitation methods to reinstate infiltration capacity. Pressure wash combined with vacuum sweep shows the highest Drainage Efficiency Restoration (DER), maintaining drain ability from 99% to 90% after 12 cycles. Routine pressure wash monthly and vacuum sweep yearly are recommended for proper pavement serviceability and effective stormwater runoff mitigation.
https://ascelibrary.org/doi/10.1061/JSWBAY.SWENG-528
The rise of global warming, climate change, and human activities has led to numerous predicaments, notably the heat island effect and uncontrollable floods. To mitigate and prevent the occurrence of further problems, the suggestion of sustainable urban development and construction based on the concept of porous concrete pavement has been put forth. Then, properties of pervious concrete such as compressive strength, porosity, and permeability, have been studied, with a focus on durability and resistance to the freeze-thaw cycle, and wear. Furthermore, the method of testing and the means of examining the performance of diverse properties of pervious concrete have been investigated. Also, clogging phenomena and methods to maintain and restore permeability were discussed. Subsequently, with the explication of sustainable development and the heat island effect, the correlation between the porous pavement and the sponge city has been scrutinized. Finally, an appropriate mix design has been presented based on the research findings, which is optimal in terms of mechanical and hydraulic resistance and meets the structural requirements and needed durability to be used as a pavement material in sponge city.
Nearly 170 million tons per year of waste rice husks are produced worldwide, which pollutes the environment and poses health risks. RHA has become a potential threat to the ecosystem and needs real solutions. The direct disposal of RHA into open land or water bodies causes environmental pollution. One of the possible solutions is to utilize RHA additive to cement, lime, basalt fibers, Carbide slag, etc. This paper summarized the fundamental properties of soil and rice husk ash and its application in ground improvement and environmental protection. A comprehensive review of the literature available on RHA-soil mixture was performed to identify the gaps in understanding the behavior of the mix in terms of mechanical properties, durability, environmental impact, and internal mechanism. The results showed that adding RHA may significantly improve the soil's compressive strength, shear strength, and CBR value, which would be advantageous for both the economy and the environment.
Additionally, it can significantly enhance soil performance in terms of shrinkage cracking. Generally, the full use of RHA as an addition for cement/lime, etc., in-ground improvement is promising since it can result in energy savings, low carbon emissions, and sustainable development. However, using control burned RHA with high amorphous silica content, conducting soaked CBR tests, consolidation tests, and freezing/thawing tests to analyze the effects of RHA on the geotechnical properties of soil still need to be studied further.
For reusing the construction and demolition waste (C&DW) materials and solving waterlogging problems, the feasibility of applying C&DW to the permeable pavement (PP) was investigated. The recycled brick aggregate (RBA) and recycled concrete aggregate (RCA) were used as PP base materials under different mixing ratios and grades. Geotextiles were also used in this study as filter contaminants. Modified compaction tests, rainfall model tests, and column leaching tests were conducted on a total of 15 samples with three gradations and five RBA and RCA mix ratios. The specimens for the rainfall model test were compacted at around optimum moisture content, and the degree of compaction was 97%. Using the sub-layer compaction method, each group of samples is compacted in five layers in strict accordance with the specifications. In general, C&DW has the potential to be used underground without pollution to the groundwater. The heavy metal concentrations in C&DW are less than in the local soil and related to material resources. The water yield performance was the best when 100% concrete was used to build PP, and the total water storage was the most when 100% of bricks were chosen to make PP. Due to the excellent permeability, C&DW can be selected for pavement fillers. The geotextile reduces the permeability by about 13% but effectively filters out more than 50% of the fine particles in the rainfall. The permeability performance of concrete aggregates may be better than that of bricks, and fine particles can reduce the permeability.
Street trees provide many environmental and stormwater management benefits including increased aesthetic values, reduced heat island effects and stormwater runoff reduction. These benefits ensure street trees are an integral part of our daily lives through their incorporation into urban areas by council designers and city planners. However urban areas can be hostile environments for street trees to grow. Allocating enough space for trees to grow issometimes difficult, with planting spaces often too small to allow room for requiredroot growth and to allow roots to obtain the nutrients and water they require for survival. Potentially this canresult in costly damage to infrastructure as tree roots search out new moisture sources. Pervious paving systems are a relatively new technology that allow water and oxygen to infiltrate through a paving surface and into the soil below. Permeable paving systems may offer a solution to enhance street tree performance and to reduce pavement damage, as well as reducing stormwater flows. A field study is underway at the University of the Sunshine Coast to investigate whether permeable pavement systems with varying sub-base depths can prevent infrastructure damage and increase street tree health. This paper describes the experimental design and presents the interim results.
The surface infiltration rates of 40 permeable pavement sites were tested in North Carolina, Maryland, Virginia, and Delaware. Two surface infiltration tests (pre- and postmaintenance) were performed on 15 concrete grid paver lots filled with sand. Maintenance was simulated by removing the top layer of residual material (13 - 19 mm). Simulated maintenance significantly (P < 0.007) improved the surface infiltration rate. The median site surface infiltration rate increased from 4.9 cm/h for existing conditions to 8.6 cm/h after simulated maintenance. Fourteen permeable interlocking concrete pavers (PICP) and eleven porous concrete (PC) sites were also tested. PICP and PC sites built in close proximity to disturbed soil areas had surface infiltration rates significantly (p < 0.0014 and p < 0.0074, respectively) less than stable landscape sites. Median PICP surface infiltration rates of each condition were 80 cm/h and 2,000 cm/h, respectively. Median PC surface infiltration rates with and without fines were 13 cm/h and 4,000 cm/h, respectively. This study showed that: (1) the location of permeable pavements; and (2) maintenance of permeable pavements were critical to maintaining high surface infiltration rates.
This study examined the long-term effectiveness of permeable pavement as an alternative to traditional impervious asphalt pavement in a parking area. Four commercially available permeable pavement systems were evaluated after 6 years of daily parking usage for structural durability, ability to infiltrate precipitation, and impacts on infiltrate water quality. All four permeable pavement systems showed no major signs of wear. Virtually all rainwater infiltrated through the permeable pavements, with almost no surface runoff. The infiltrated water had significantly lower levels of copper and zinc than the direct surface runoff from the asphalt area. Motor oil was detected in 89% of samples from the asphalt runoff but not in any water sample infiltrated through the permeable pavement. Neither lead nor diesel fuel were detected in any sample. Infiltrate measured 5 years earlier displayed significantly higher concentrations of zinc and significantly lower concentrations of copper and lead.
A permeable pavement parking lot in eastern North Carolina consisting of four types of permeable pavement and standard asphalt was monitored from June 2006 to July 2007 for hydrologic differences in pavement surface runoff volumes, total outflow volumes, peak flow rates, and time to peak. The four permeable sections were pervious concrete (PC), two types of permeable interlocking concrete pavement (PICP) with small-sized aggregate in the joints and having 12.9% (PICP1) and 8.5% (PICP2) open surface area, and concrete grid pavers (CGP) filled with sand. The site was located in poorly drained soils, and all permeable sections were underlain by a crushed stone base layer with a perforated underdrain. All permeable pavements significantly reduced surface runoff volumes and peak flow rates from those of asphalt (p < 0.01). Of the permeable pavements, CGP generated the greatest surface runoff volumes (p < 0.01). The PICP1 and CGP cells generated significantly lower total outflow volumes than all other sections evaluated (p < 0.01), and had the lowest peak flows and the longest time to peak. The response of the PICP1 cell was likely due to an increased base storage volume resulting from an elevated pipe underdrain whereas the CGP cell response was attributed to water retention in the sand fill layer. Overall, different permeable pavement sections performed similarly, but were substantially different from asphalt. Subtle differences in the performance of CGP were primarily due to the characteristics of the sand filled media compared to small aggregate typically used in PC and PICP joints and bedding.
The performance of three different Sustainable Urban Drainage Systems (SUDS) in East Scotland is outlined in this paper. These systems are a porous pavement at the Royal Bank of Scotland (RBS) in Edinburgh, a roadside filter drain along Lang Stracht Aberdeen (LSA) and regional SUDS at Dunfermline Eastern Expansion (DEX). The systems' performance in attenuating flows proved to be satisfactory. This is shown by consideration of percentage runoff, initial runoff loss, monthly outflow reduction of rainfall and lag time. The systems were found to perform well in attenuating pollutant peaks. This is investigated through comparison of inflow and outflow concentrations as well as comparison with Environmental Quality Standards (EQS). Samples were analysed for standard sanitary parameters at all sites in addition to heavy metals and hydrocarbons at RBS. A computer model was developed to simulate outflow from the porous pavement at RBS and the filter drain at LSA. The modelling results show an excellent prediction of the outflow behaviour from the porous pavement and preliminary simulation show reasonable agreement with the outflow from the filter drain. Research at LSA and DEX is ongoing.
This paper investigates the 'effective life' (or useful lifespan) of permeable pavement installations subject to sediment loadings. The broad aims of this study, which included both laboratory and field work components, were to improve understanding of the long-term pavement hydraulic conductivity, to assess the effective life of permeable pavements and to quantify the degree of sediment trapping and associated pollutant retention. Three types of permeable pavement were investigated. For each type the effects of pavement cleaning were also investigated. Over a simulated 35 years of sediment loading conducted in the laboratory, the results showed reductions of 59-75% in hydraulic conductivity with an average sediment retention of 94%. Suspended sediment concentrations measured at the outflow of the laboratory test beds did not show any significant difference between pavers that were subjected to cleaning and those that were not. For the field studies presented in this paper, hydraulic conductivities were very high in locations where permeable pavements are subjected to small to moderate sediment loads. At other locations with high coarse sediment and organic sediment loads, hydraulic conductivity tests indicated that clogging occurred at a rapid rate, particularly where runoff. owing onto the pavement was concentrated.
The paper reports on a field study on a permeable, reservoir pavement constructed in 1986 at Nottingham, UK; surfaced with permeable, concrete block paving; and with a different sub-base stone-type is each of four reservoirs, from which the discharges were monitored for quantity and water quality. Hydrological relationships involving rainfall, outflow, outflow duration and antecedent conditions are presented. Water quality parameters are shown to be stable in value after some six months, by which time surface contaminants on the sub-base stone had been washed out of the construction. As outflow volume is reduced and water quality parameters (SS and Pb) are low in value, pollutant outflow loadings are significantly lower than with traditional, impermeable surfaces.
An innovative parking lot at the Florida Aquarium in Tampa, Fla., is being used as a research site and demonstration project to show how small alterations to parking lot designs can dramatically decrease runoff and pollutant loads. Three paving surfaces are compared, as well as basins with and without swales, to measure pollutant concentrations and infiltration. Preliminary results from the first year of a 2-year study indicate that swales reduce average runoff amounts by 30% at this site and pervious paving reduces it by an additional 10– 15%. Rainfall water quality was also evaluated, and rain is found to be a significant input for inorganic nitrogen. Other water quality data show higher phosphorus concentrations in basins with vegetated swales and higher metal concentrations in basins paved with asphalt rather than cement or pervious paving. Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons were detected in the sediments in all basins, but concentrations were higher in basins paved with asphalt and some values approached toxic levels. Pesticides were also detected in the sediments, especially the banned organo-chlorine pesticide, dichloro-diphenyl-trichloroethane, and its daughter products.
The paper intends to review the current status of low-flow hydrology — a discipline which deals with minimum flow in a river during the dry periods of the year. The discussion starts with the analysis of low-flow generating mechanisms operating in natural conditions and the description of anthropogenic factors which directly or indirectly affect low flows. This is followed by the review of existing methods of low-flow estimation from streamflow time-series, which include flow duration curves, frequency analysis of extreme low-flow events and continuous low-flow intervals, baseflow separation and characterisation of streamflow recessions. The paper describes the variety of low-flow characteristics (indices) and their applications. A separate section illustrates the relationships between low-flow characteristics. The paper further focuses on the techniques for low-flow estimation in ungauged river catchments, which include a regional regression approach, graphical representation of low-flow characteristics, construction of regional curves for low-flow prediction and application of time-series simulation methods. The paper presents a summary of recent international low-flow related research initiatives. Specific applications of low-flow data in river ecology studies and environmental flow management as well as the problem of changing minimum river flows as the result of climate variability are also discussed. The review is largely based on the research results reported during the last twenty years.
Pervious concrete typically has an infiltration rate far exceeding any expectation of precipitation rate. The limiting factor of a retention based pervious concrete system is often defined by how quickly the underlying soil subgrade will infiltrate the water temporarily stored within the concrete and/or aggregate base. This issue is of particular importance when placing a pervious concrete system on compacted fine textured soils. This research describes the exfiltration from twelve pervious concrete plots constructed on a compacted clay soil in eastern Tennessee, USA. Several types of treatments were applied to the clay soil prior to placement of the stone aggregate base and pervious concrete in an attempt to increase the exfiltration rate, including: 1) control--no treatment; 2) trenched--soil trenched and backfilled with stone aggregate; 3) ripped--soil ripped with a subsoiler; and 4) boreholes--placement of shallow boreholes backfilled with sand. The average exfiltration rates were 0.8 cm d(-1) (control), 4.6 cm d(-1) (borehole), 10.0 cm d(-1) (ripped), and 25.8 cm d(-1) (trenched). The trenched treatment exfiltrated fastest, followed by the ripped and then the borehole treatments, although the ripped and borehole treatments were not different from one another at the 5% level of significance. The internal temperature of the pervious concrete and aggregate base was monitored throughout the winter of 2006-2007. Although the temperature of the pervious concrete dropped below freezing 24 times, freezing concrete temperatures never coincided with free water being present in the large pervious concrete pores. The coldest recorded air temperature was -9.9 degrees C, and the corresponding coldest recorded pervious concrete temperature was -7.1 degrees C. The temperature of the pervious concrete lagged diurnal air temperature changes and was generally buffered in amplitude, particularly when free water was present since the addition of water increases the thermal capacity of the pervious concrete greatly. The temperature of the aggregate base was further buffered to diurnal changes, and no freezing temperatures were recorded.
Porous pavements allow precipitation to infiltrate through the pavement to the soil, reducing the volume of stormwater runoff produced at a site. However, porous pavements are not widely used on fine-grained soils due to concerns about their performance. Our objective was to investigate the efficacy of porous pavements in controlling stormwater runoff on clay soils. We compared the performance of an asphalt parking lot and a porous pavement parking lot of grass pavers in Athens, Georgia, USA, over relatively small and low-intensity rain events. The porous lot produced 93% less runoff than the asphalt lot. The total volume of runoff at the porous lot was significantly less than the asphalt lot (t = 2.96, p = 0.009). Turbidity was significantly greater at the asphalt lot (t = 6.18, p < 0.001) whereas conductivity was significantly higher at the porous lot (t = 2.31, p = 0.03). Metal and nutrient concentrations were below detection limits at both lots during seven of nine small storm events. During events in which we could detect pollutants, calcium, zinc, silica, and total phosphorus concentrations were higher at the asphalt lot whereas total nitrogen concentrations were greater at the porous lot. Our results suggest porous pavements are a viable option for reducing stormwater runoff and some pollutants from small storms or the first flush from large storms on clay soils.
This study compared the quality and quantity of stormwater runoff from replicated asphalt, permeable paver, and crushed-stone driveways. Rainfall was measured on-site and runoff was recorded using tipping buckets. Flow-weighted composite runoff samples were analyzed weekly for total suspended solids, total Kjeldahl nitrogen, nitrate-nitrogen, ammonia-nitrogen, total phosphorus (TP), zinc, lead, and copper. Infiltration rate was determined on each driveway annually. Repeated measures analysis of variance indicated that stormwater runoff was significantly different among each driveway type; the order of decreasing runoff was asphalt> paver> stone. Average infiltration rates were 0, 11.2 and 9.0 cm/h for asphalt, paver, and crushed stone driveways, respectively. Both paver and crushed stone driveways reduced stormwater runoff as compared to asphalt driveways. Runoff from paver driveways contained significantly lower concentrations of all pollutants measured than runoff from asphalt driveways. However, runoff from crushed stone driveways was similar in concentrations to runoff from asphalt driveways, except for TP concentrations, which were lower in runoff from crushed stone driveways than runoff from asphalt driveways. The mass export of measured pollutants followed the relative differences in stormwater runoff, rather than differences in concentrations.
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