No full-text available
To read the full-text of this research,
you can request a copy directly from the authors.
Influence of windows on the energy balance of apartment buildings in Amman
Abstract
The influence of windows on the energy balance of apartment buildings in Amman is investigated by using self developed simulation software (SDS) based on the ASHRAE tables for solar heat gain calculation and coaling load factor for latitude 32°, where Amman city is located. The calculations of energy saving are made to find out the influence of windows on the energy balance of apartment buildings in Amman. Also, the present investigation aimed to study the energy performance of windows of an apartment building in Amman in order to select the most energy efficient windows that can save more energy and reduce heating load in winter, the percentage of saving energy and saving fuel and money through time.Variations of type of glazing using eight types of glazing (clear glass, types A, B, C, D, E, F, and G) are made to find out the most appropriate type of glazing in each direction. Also the orientation of window is changeable in the main four directions (N, S, E and W). The area of glazing varies also in different orientation to find the influence of window area on the thermal balance of the building. The results show that if energy efficient windows are used, the flexibility of choosing the glazed area and orientation increases.It has been found that choosing a larger area facing south, east and west can save more energy and decrease heating costs in winter using certain types of glazing such as glass type A and clear glass, while decreasing the glazing area facing north can save money and energy. However, it has been found that the energy can be saved in the north direction if glass type B has been used. In the apartment building, it is found that certain combination of glazing is energy efficient than others. This combination consists of using large area of glass type A in the east, west and south direction, and glass type B in the north direction or reducing glazing area as possible in the north direction.
... No obstante, si bien es cierto que este tipo de lineamientos nos pueden señalar las directrices para desarrollar edificaciones que proporcionen las condiciones óptimas de confort, es importante realizar estudios que se adecúen a las particularidades de cada región y que permitan implementar tanto las técnicas pasivas (Hassouneh et al., 2010;Hatamipour y Abedi, 2008), como las activas (Yew et al., 2018;Ma et al., 2012), ya sea para edificios construidos o en fase de planeación, y así aprovechar el potencial de ahorro energético. ...
... En la fase inicial de este estudio, se efectuaron simulaciones para determinar la transferencia de calor por radiación y conducción en las áreas acristaladas del espacio físico, utilizando las ecuaciones de energía y tablas ASHRAE (ASHRAE, 2001) para el aumento de calor solar y el factor de carga de enfriamiento de vidrio (Hassouneh et al., 2010). Las ganancias de calor de los fenómenos de radiación y conducción solar a través de ventanas y puertas se estimaron empleando la ecuación (1) y ecuación (2), respectivamente. ...
... Con base en este estudio se conocen las temperaturas externas e internas de una biblioteca ubicada en la latitud 18 °N en donde el clima cálido húmedo es imperante, permitiendo tener datos que sirvan como base para el planteamiento de técnicas pasivas de arquitectura y energías renovables que puedan propiciar confort térmico a los usuarios sin mermar en el consumo energético. Junio 2018 Vol.2 No.4 30-35 Como trabajo a futuro se espera diseñar, evaluar e implementar sistemas de acondicionamiento de aire alternativos como el caso de los intercambiadores de calor tierra aire (EAHE por sus siglas en inglés) que permiten enfriar aire sin recurrir al uso de refrigerantes y con un consumo eléctrico significativamente menor comparado con los sistemas convencionales (Ozgener y Ozgener, 2010) así como el uso de películas de control solar en ventanas para reducir las ganancias de calor por radiación solar (Hassouneh et al, 2010), se plantea efectuar mediciones in situ, en otros edificios y en más épocas del año para hacer un mejor diseño y selección de los sistemas alternativos de enfriamiento. ...
Análisis térmico de un edificio escolar durante el verano en condiciones de clima cálido húmedo Thermal analysis of a school building during the summer in hot humid weather conditions Resumen Coatzacoalcos, se encuentra ubicado en una zona económica especial, y aunque ha sido una región beneficiada por la industria petroquímica y el tráfico marítimo, se encuentra en condiciones climáticas que impactan negativamente en el consumo eléctrico y en el desarrollo de las actividades laborales. Por este motivo, es importante realizar acciones que aprovechen adecuadamente los recursos naturales existentes, como es el caso de las energías renovables y técnicas pasivas de arquitectura para poder brindar satisfacción de confort térmico a los usuarios de edificios ya construidos y en fase de planeación sin necesidad de hacer un uso irracional de la energía eléctrica. Con esta motivación, en este trabajo se presenta un análisis integral de las condiciones térmicas de una biblioteca que tiene la concurrencia más alta de estudiantes de la región, estimando las ganancias de calor por el método de ASHRAE para las cargas de mayor impacto, así como la detección de las secciones que captan las mayores ganancias de calor por medio de termografía. Se estima también la temperatura de confort térmico, y con los resultados obtenidos se plantean alternativas que permitan brindar confort térmico a los usuarios. Abstract Coatzacoalcos is located in a special economic zone, and although it has been a region benefited by the petrochemical industry and maritime traffic, its climatic conditions have a negative impact on electricity consumption and the development of work activities. For this reason, it is important to carry out actions that adequately take advantage of existing natural resources, such as renewable energy and passive architectural techniques to provide thermal comfort satisfaction to users of buildings that have already been built or in planning phase by not making irrational use of electric power. With this motivation, this paper presents a comprehensive analysis of the thermal conditions of a library that has the highest concurrence of students in the region, estimating heat gains by the ASHRAE method for the highest impact loads, as well as as the detection of the sections that capture the highest heat gains by means of thermography. The thermal comfort temperature is also estimated, and with the results obtained there are alternatives that provide thermal comfort to users.
... In the Eastern Mediterranean climate, (Hassouneh et al., 2010) have found that bigger glazed areas facing south, east and west can save more energy and reduce heating costs in winter, while less north glazed areas can save energy by using certain types of glass. Regarding cold climate, ( Feng et al., 2017) highlighted that the most significant impact of different WO on energy consumption could be ordered as east, west, south and north. ...
... Southern, southeastern and southwest Humid subtropical (Chi et al., 2020) Can save more energy and reduce heating costs in winter. South, east and west Eastern Mediterranea (Hassouneh et al., 2010) With less north-facing glass area can save energy. North ...
... This results in a better balance between daylight and the decrease of glare. (Hassouneh et al., 2010) asserted that an efficient glazed window can help to maximize the WWR with more flexibility of WO. Ihm & Krarti, (2012) concluded that WO, WWR, glass type, wall and ceiling insulation and energy efficiency system are among energy efficiency measures that could save energy up to 59%. ...
Sustainable aspects of buildings became one of the most crucial aspects of the built environment. The thermal performance can be improved through sustainable design guidelines and, thus, reduce energy consumption. This review covered studies that addressed Window Wall Ratio (WWR) and Window Orientation (WO) and their effect on thermal performance. WWR as a design variable that deals with window design, while the WO as an environmental variable that deals with orientation. The results will help to highlight open issues and research directions in the context of WWR, WO and integrations with other factors in buildings. Keywords: WWR, window design factors, Energy, WO eISSN: 2398-4287© 2020. The Authors. Published for AMER ABRA cE-Bs by e-International Publishing House, Ltd., UK. This is an open access article under the CC BYNC-ND license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/). Peer–review under responsibility of AMER (Association of Malaysian Environment-Behaviour Researchers), ABRA (Association of Behavioural Researchers on Asians) and cE-Bs (Centre for Environment-Behaviour Studies), Faculty of Architecture, Planning & Surveying, Universiti Teknologi MARA, Malaysia. DOI:
... WWR is considered as an influence factor for energy balance(98), including cooling and heating energy use [89]. The selecting of large area of windows of clear glass facing south, east and west can result in saving more energy and a reduction in heating cost in winter (99). Many studies investigated the optimum WWR for different functions, climates and orientations (100). ...
... Many studies investigated the optimum WWR for different functions, climates and orientations (100). Under European climate, WWR was generalized in a relatively narrow range of 0.23 < WWR < 0.31, and only south-facing units in a very warm or very cold climate will have WWR out of this range (99). On the other hand, 20% of WWR is recommended in moderate climate. ...
People spend a significant portion of their lives indoors. Nowadays, windows are the essential architectural element that allows users to have contact with the outside world. This contact has an important impact on our physiology, psychology, well-being, and indoor environment. Understanding the physical and behavioral (social) characteristics of this element in the Palestinian residential building is still insufficiently explored. A cross-sectional survey of 272 respondents was conducted to investigate the openings’ characteristics and user’s behavior to assess their influence on residents’ satisfaction and indoor performance. This assessment was based on the concept that residents’ satisfaction with their homes is a measure of buildings’ performance in meeting users’ needs, expectations, and aspirations. The findings show that the physical properties (i.e. Window wall ratio, Window floor ratio, position, orientation, etc.) of windows do not meet the minimum threshold of sustainable and energy-efficient values (i.e. Daylight, thermal comfort). In addition, the survey analysis determines the driving parameters and their corresponding variations influencing window operations in different periods of the day and season. The culture plays a central role in the Palestinians’ window operation behavior.
... The temperature level significantly influences people s use of cooling and heating systems. Efficient windows should result in reduced heat gain in the interior during summer and minimized heat loss in the winter [47], and passive exterior windows are designed with this objective in mind. In summer, the external heat easily transfers to the interior through windows, resulting in increased indoor temperatures and higher demand for air conditioning. ...
... The temperature level significantly influences people's use of cooling and heating systems. Efficient windows should result in reduced heat gain in the interior during summer and minimized heat loss in the winter [47], and passive exterior windows are designed with this objective in mind. In summer, the external heat easily transfers to the interior through windows, resulting in increased indoor temperatures and higher demand for air conditioning. ...
As the energy crisis continues to intensify and with increasing awareness of global climate change, the issue of high energy consumption and emissions in buildings is garnering more attention. Windows have significant research value and importance as pivotal components in the development of ultra-low-energy buildings. This study presents a proposal for a passive exterior window considering the climatic conditions prevalent in the hot summer and cold winter zone of China. Firstly, an experimental platform was established outside a standard office to conduct tests and analyze the indoor thermal environment for four different scenarios in the summer and winter by comparing a passive room (PR) and non-passive room (NPR), respectively. The human apparent temperature was calculated based on the collected thermal environment data and subsequently evaluated. Lastly, the indoor environmental temperature (IET), window surface temperature (WST), and apparent temperature (AT) data were subjected to non-linear fitting regression analysis using Origin software. The primary aim of this analysis was to examine the impact of the passive exterior window on the indoor thermal environment and establish the feasibility of implementing such a window in the hot summer and cold winter zone of China. The results showed that: (1) in the summer, the IET and WST in the PR exhibited reductions of 0.8 °C and 0.6 °C, respectively, under ventilated conditions compared to the NPR; (2) in the winter, the IET and WST of the PR remained lower compared to those of the NPR (however, the temperature differential between the IET and WST in the PR amounted to 6.8 °C and 7.7 °C, respectively, while the corresponding disparity in the NPR was 8.1 °C and 9.3 °C); and (3) regarding the AT, during summer ventilation, the PR exhibited a substantial reduction of up to 3.5 °C in comparison to the NPR. Moreover, in the context of winter, the time for indoor human thermal perception to reach a comfortable level was extended by 0.5 h. Future investigations will delve into the influence of passive exterior windows on building energy consumption, and this research can provide a practical reference for energy-efficient design and retrofitting of exterior windows in the region.
... As a result, it was understood that the heating costs of the homeowners are less than those of tenants are. Hassouneh et al. (2010) performed a study to investigate the in uence of window types on the energy balance of the apartment type buildings in Amman, Jordan. Meier and Rehdanz (2010) used multiple linear regression analysis to investigate the factors determining the space heating costs in the United Kingdom. ...
... It seems that facing direction of the dwelling does not appear to have a considerable amount of direct effect on the space heating costs of the dwellings. A study by Hassouneh et al. (2010) in Amman, Jordan, however, suggest that facing directions of the buildings are important when combined with the suitable kind of window glasses at the appropriate direction to reduce the costs of heating and cooling of the apartment type buildings. ...
Energy is one of the main concerns of humanity because energy resources are limited and costly. Hence, effective use of energy is important. In order to reduce the costs and to use the energy for space heating effectively, new building materials, techniques and insulations facilities are being developed. Therefore, it is important to know which factors affect the space heating costs. This study aims to introduce the use of Bayesian networks to analyze the effects of dwelling characteristics on the space heating costs. The Bayesian Network model shows that the space heating costs of the dwellings are mostly affected by the heating systems used. The second important factor appears to be the existence of external wall insulation. The third most important factor, however, is the building age. Additionally, dwellings on the ground floors and on the first floors appear to pay the highest space heating costs. On the other hand, dwelling type and facing direction seem not to have a considerable effect on the space heating costs.
... As a result, it was understood that the heating costs of the homeowners are less than those of tenants are. Hassouneh et al. (2010) performed a study to investigate the in uence of window types on the energy balance of the apartment type buildings in Amman, Jordan. Meier and Rehdanz (2010) used multiple linear regression analysis to investigate the factors determining the space heating costs in the United Kingdom. ...
... It seems that facing direction of the dwelling does not appear to have a considerable amount of direct effect on the space heating costs of the dwellings. A study by Hassouneh et al. (2010) in Amman, Jordan, however, suggest that facing directions of the buildings are important when combined with the suitable kind of window glasses at the appropriate direction to reduce the costs of heating and cooling of the apartment type buildings. ...
Energy is one of the main concerns of humanity because energy resources are limited and costly. Hence, effective use of energy is important. In order to reduce the costs and to use the energy for space heating effectively, new building materials, techniques and insulations facilities are being developed. Therefore, it is important to know which factors affect the space heating costs. This study aims to introduce the use of Bayesian networks to analyze the effects of dwelling characteristics on the space heating costs. The Bayesian Network model shows that the space heating costs of the dwellings are mostly affected by the heating systems used. The second important factor appears to be the existence of external wall insulation. The third most important factor, however, is the building age. Additionally, dwellings on the ground floors and on the first floors appear to pay the highest space heating costs. On the other hand, dwelling type and facing direction seem not to have a considerable effect on the space heating costs.
... Besides, a number of scholars have discussed the relationship between WWR and human thermal comfort [20][21][22][23][24][25][26][27][28]. By using an office as an experimental space and conducting thermal comfort evaluation statistics for the people, the best value of the WWR is evaluated, which may provide pleasant situations during the longest time of the year [25]. ...
... Besides, a number of scholars have discussed the relationship between WWR and human thermal comfort [20][21][22][23][24][25][26][27][28]. By using an office as an experimental space and conducting thermal comfort evaluation statistics for the people, the best value of the WWR is evaluated, which may provide pleasant situations during the longest time of the year [25]. In terms of comfort, however, it should also be noted that the degree of influence of window characteristics in the practical environment also lies in human performance [29]. ...
Along with the rapid urbanization and economic growth of China over the past decades, the thermal comfort needs of the people in this region have risen dramatically, and at the same time, promoting building energy efficiency is cited as part of the major projects in the 14th five-year plan for energy efficiency improvement. In addition, the outbreak of the COVID-19 epidemic has plunged people into long-term panic, and promoted the entire construction industry to think about a healthier and more sustainable living environment. To respond to the imbalance between energy supply and demand, an optimization analysis based on energy use is developed, assessing the energy efficiency of the window-to-wall ratio (WWR) design and calculating the energy consumption of three different types of residential buildings for both cooling and heating loads as well as for year-round loads. Owing to its harsh climate and huge energy consumption, in this study, the Hot-summer and Cold-winter (HSCW) zone of China was chosen as the experimental setting for the optimization analysis of WWR. Then, in the three main types of residential buildings, including detached houses, multi-story dwellings and high-rise dwellings, a correlation between WWRS and energy consumption in the cooling season, heating season and year-round was built. The comparisons between the WWRS and energy consumption for different types of residential buildings are presented. The design optimization recommendation for WWRS are proposed. It has significant positive meanings for the development of green and sustainably designed residential buildings that offer high levels of thermal comfort and energy efficiency.
... There might be many types of windows however the best type of window is the one with most energy efficiency, highest energy savings, reduced heat loss, and low investment cost (Hassouneh, Alshboul, & Al-Salaymeh, 2010). Windows are generally 7 th International Conference on Embracing Capacity Building Opportunities in the Modern Day Dispensation (ECABOMODD 2019) 2-4 September 2019, South African Renewable Energy Technology Centre (SARETEC) Cape Town, South Africa consisted of frame, glass or glazing, gas fills and spacers. ...
... The energy losses exceeded the energy savings in the North façade when clear glazing is used. For South orientation, the size of the 7 th International Conference on Embracing Capacity Building Opportunities in the Modern Day Dispensation (ECABOMODD 2019) 2-4 September 2019, South African Renewable Energy Technology Centre (SARETEC) Cape Town, South Africa window was advised to be enhanced in the winter for energy savings (Hassouneh et al., 2010). From these studies it can be concluded that the optimization of a window requires sacrifices on some aspects (Hee et al., 2015). ...
Daylight is a demand of living in a closed space. The use of daylight can contribute to energy savings of a building and can improve the well-being and job satisfaction of occupants. Therefore, designers generally aim to obtain daylight usage for interiors. However, when daylight is not well-designed it may cause glare. Glare is an unwanted outcome of receiving light and when it occurs, visual comfort cannot be obtained. When glare occurs, it may cause energy consumption to increase as well. Because users may close shutters/curtains to block excessive daylight and turn on the lights. Furthermore, cooling loads might increase due to extra heat gains. In both cases, energy consumptions increase because of excessive daylight. To achieve an energy efficient and well illuminated space, openings play an important role with their glazings, frames and shadings. Nowadays, the improved technology supports different variety for all of these components. Therefore, when they are carefully selected, they can ensure energy savings. Studies present that glazings with different visible transmittance values (VT) can affect the energy consumption; when low VT glazings are used, the amount of light entering the space and overheating reduces. However, since the daylight is blocked, illuminance levels may be insufficient and the need of using artificial lighting may arise. On the other hand, when high VT glazings are used, due to extensive daylight, overheating and glare can happen. Prolonged exposure to glare can result in headaches and eye fatigue. It is important to design openings to have optimum daylight by using appropriate window size and window components. Within the scope of this study, the contribution of different VT's to energy consumptions are examined. This research investigates the relation between different glazing visible transmittance values (VT 90, VT 70 and VT 50) and energy efficiency of space. The study was carried out in a south facing studio of Yaşar University in İzmir, Turkey. The energy efficiency simulations where carried on DIALux software and results were evaluated in accordance to EN 12464-1. The results obtained in this paper is to suggest glazing VT values that can be used to reduce energy consumption while having a daylight integrated space with an access to outside view.
... This is connected to the reduction of emissions during the operation of the given object, which results in an increase in the thickness of thermal insulation layers and the integration of technologies into buildings (such as recuperation units, heat pumps, photovoltaic panels, etc.). However, the energy efficiency of a building depends not only on quantitative calculations of the building's heat exchange envelope and the technology used, but also on the orientation of the building to the cardinal points and on the chosen substance, which affects the building's shape factor [2]. Few articles considered the effect of orientation, size and glazing properties [3,4,5]. However, the research on the influence of window size, position and orientation on energy load is still missing. ...
The contribution follows on from two previous researches, which dealt with the influence of the orientation of the construction of catalogue family houses from the point of view of CO2 production during their operation. The previous research was focused on family houses (orientation of windows on all sides of the world) and terraced buildings (orientation of windows on two opposite sides of the world). The contribution in question is focused on family houses on a slope with one-sided orientation of the windows, which is the final phase of the research. The main reason for the overall research is the fact that developers are currently trying to realize the same type of family houses (catalogue houses) regardless of which side of the world the exposed glazed areas of the house are oriented. For this reason, the approval and energy certification often do not reach A0, which is a mandatory requirement of the energy assessment of buildings from 1 January 2021. The environmental impact research compares four basic types of streets with ten identical houses. The environmental impact research compares four types of basic streets with ten identical houses. if it is a comparison of the environmental impact of the same development of family houses on a slope, with different orientations to the cardinal points and with different local houses within the streets. The benefit of the research for practice will be the formulation of principles for the orientation of transparent areas in residential construction and the formulation of urban planning principles for the siting of houses in settlements on sloping terrain, where it is possible to place windows only on the front facade.
... This enhancement provides total solar radiation energy and thus enables the use of large glazing surfaces, primarily south-oriented, to illuminate indoor areas and ensure solar heating' (Leskovar & Premrov, 2011;Vidrih & Medved, 2008). Likewise, prior research (Hassouneh et al., 2010;Figure 1. Climatic parameters of the study location (Al-Madinah City). Hee et al., 2015) investigated the effect of glazing type and orientation on the energy balance of apartments in Amman, Jordan, from a selection of eight glazing choices. ...
... As a result, it was understood that the heating costs of the homeowners are less than those of tenants are. Hassouneh et al. (2010) performed a study to investigate the in uence of window types on the energy balance of the apartment type buildings in Amman, Jordan. Meier and Rehdanz (2010) used multiple linear regression analysis to investigate the factors determining the residential space heating costs in the United Kingdom. ...
Energy is one of the main concerns of humanity because energy resources are limited and costly. To reduce the costs and use the energy for residential space heating effectively, it is important to know which factors affect the residential space heating costs. This study aims to analyze the effects of residence characteristics on residential space heating costs in the United States of America by using Bayesian networks, which is a machine learning method. The constructed Bayesian network model shows that the residential space heating costs of the residences are affected mostly by the size of heated residential area. The second most important factor, on the other hand, appears to be major outside wall type, while the third factor is residence type. It is also seen that the insulation levels of the residences seem to have the least effect on the residential space heating costs.
... In the initial phase of this study, simulations were carried out to determine the heat transfer by conduction and radiation in the glazed areas, later the optimal areas of windows that allow the least heat gain were determined, in the final phase heat gains were determined again considering the optimal area and the use of solar control films. The study has been developed using the energy equations and ASHRAE tables for the solar heat gain and the glass cooling load factor (Hassouneh et al., 2010). The heat gain from radiation phenomena and solar conduction through windows and doors is shown in Eq(1) and Eq(2) respectively. ...
The evaluation and results of a thermal balance is presented for a building located at latitude 18° N, in an intercultural university community in the "Sierra de los Tuxtlas" (Tuxtlas Mountains), southeast of Mexico. The case study corresponds to the main building of the Intercultural University of Veracruz "Las Selvas" which is able to house the library, a center for learning native languages and a computing. In order to maintain thermal comfort conditions in this space, the use of an air conditioning system is required, which works at its maximum capacity, implying high consumption of electrical energy, as well as important maintenance expenses. The objective of this work was to evaluate the thermal load of the building considering the American Society of Heating, Refrigeration and AirConditioning Engineers (ASHRAE) methodology in order to reduce the consumption of the electric energy required for the use of air conditioning, which is of vital importance in this tropical zone. In the first stage of evaluation, the following assumptions were considered: (a) the loads related to the glazed enclosures (radiation, conduction and infiltration of air), (b) the effect of the surface of the windows of the different orientations of the building and, (c) the use of solar control films to decrease heat gains. Special care was taken not to make alterations on the infrastructure of the physical space and to not compromise the external environment. In the building that was under evaluation it was found that by reducing the enveloped area of the north and south sections, heat can be minimized and the transmitted visible light required for the development of the occupants' activities is not affected. However, if the enveloped area on the west side is modified, visible light would be compromised. The use of solar control films provides significant benefits because the heat gained by radiation can be minimized by more than 60 %, this is achieved without obstruction the view to the outside nor the visible light required by the occupants to maintain an adequate performance in the development of their activities. If these strategies are implemented, the consumption of electrical energy can be reduced considerably.
... The external load depends on the conditions outside and the space being conditioned. (Hassouneh et al., 2010). The influential components in external loads include: a) heat conduction through walls, ceilings and floors and b) heat transfer by conduction and solar radiation through glazed areas. ...
The heat transfer of buildings contributes directly to the consumption of electricity, because the most common alternative to reduce the internal temperature has been the disproportionate use of conventional air conditioning systems. The bioclimatic architecture is an alternative of a still limited application. However, nowadays, several investigations indicate a significant correlation between heat gain and internal thermal comfort perceived in built spaces. This proposal reviews the techniques studied and used to reduce the thermal load coming from outside
and generated inside buildings located in a warm weather zone in Mexico. These cases are intended to show the current status of this research topic, as well as identify areas of opportunity relevant to the analysis and its implementation especially in coastal areas. Critical factors to explore include the influence of relative humidity
on the thermal sensation, as well as warm geographical and climatic conditions, which can be humid tropical or
arid and dry.
... On the other hand, windows are one of the most inefficient components in the building industry in energy conservation, and preventing this waste by increasing the thermal efficiency of windows will reduce energy consumption and greenhouse gas production (Hui and Kwok 2006). The most important components affecting heat transfer in windows can be considered as area, heat transfer coefficient, building orientation, shading and external environment conditions (Hassouneh, Alshboul, and Al-Salaymeh 2010). Doubleglazed windows are a solution and answer to reducing the transfer and loss of energy through convection, but the incoming radiation can be controlled with the help of shading devices and smart glasses (Mustafa, Almehmadi, and Alqaed 2022). ...
For the time being, Controlling and reducing energy consumption is very important and
it seems that the amount of energy lost and the cost of it must be clarified. The thermal
functions of the building can be separated and studied in two parts: walls and transparent
walls. It seems that in hot and dry climates, due to the intensity of the received radiation,
it is very important to control the incoming radiation from the window. For this purpose
and to make a comparative comparison, a four-story commercial-office building was
selected in the hot and dry climate of Kashan City. Therefore, the thermal performance
and the amount of energy consumption of this building in the four modes of the basic
mode, modified walls, modified transparent walls with the help of shading devices, and
the comprehensive mode (modified walls and modified transparent walls) is examined.
The results of this research show that modification in walls reduces the amount of primary
energy consumption by more than 19%, in transparent walls by more than 20%, and in the
comprehensive mode by more than 27%. This can reduce the annual cost by more than
22% in walls, more than 24% in transparent walls, and more than 33% in comprehensive
mode.
... Thermal insulation materials are commonly used in the walls and roofs of buildings to minimize heat ingress [117]. However, the windows of a building are responsible for a significant increase of the cooling load (amounting to ~32 % of the total load) as they are the weak links for heat flow from the outdoor space to the indoor space [118,119]. Hence, the energy consumption of a building can be significantly reduced by controlling the direct solar radiation and convective heat transfer through windows [120], and researchers have explored many techniques for this purpose [121]. Besides, new stricter regulations for energy-efficient buildings along with innovative techniques and development of special materials have promoted the design of energy-efficient windows. ...
With the global increase in population and temperature, cooling demand has increased tremendously in the building sector, especially in the GCC and African and South Asian countries where temperature can reach 50 °C from mid-May to August. Thermal performance of buildings can be effectively improved by using thermal energy storage (TES) systems based on phase change materials (PCMs). As PCMs melt during the daytime and solidify at nighttime, they can prevent rooms from overheating during daytime in hot months and may also reduce the need for heating during nighttime in the winter. This paper discusses the use of TES for the storage of sensible heat, latent heat, and thermochemical energy in buildings. Sustainable heating and cooling in buildings employing TES can be achieved with passive building envelope systems, active systems containing PCMs, sorption systems, and seasonal storage systems. This review presents results obtained in earlier studies on the incorporation of PCMs in building materials, the problems associated with the selection of PCMs, and various methods used to encapsulate PCMs for space heating and cooling applications. Furthermore, this article provides an outline of a range of PCM applications in buildings for decreasing the cooling loads under hot atmosphere conditions, and the parameters influencing the productive and viable use of PCMs under hot weather conditions. Several shortcomings in the application of PCMs, mostly due to the extreme summer weather conditions preventing the PCM from completely solidifying at night and thereby decreasing its effectiveness during the day, were identified. Although sunlight is abundant in the Middle East, the use of solar energy in conjunction with PCM technology for temperature control in buildings is rare. One of the main reasons for the status quo is the small temperature difference between day and night. Hence, the selection of a suitable PCM is crucial and challenging for this type of a hot atmosphere. As a consequence, the current study will fill a scientific gap concerning PCM usage in this vital hot temperature range. Under such extreme environmental conditions, thermal conductivity, density, and the specific heat of the insulation affect the heat flow. Finally, future research opportunities were explored and shortcomings of the technology as of today were discussed.
... Windows are a special kind of component whose overall U-value is normally five times greater than that of other components of a building's envelope, and responsible for as much as 60% of the total energy consumption of a building [16]. Alam et al. [17] have pointed out that, nowadays, it is possible to reduce energy consumption of the window by using high-performance windows and glazing systems, such as double or triple glazing, insulating gas sandwiched between panes, etc. Hassouneh et al. [18] studied eight types of glass and found the most suitable type of glass for each direction. Through a case study, they showed that energy-saving windows can save more energy and reduce heating load in winter. ...
An educational building is a kind of public building with a high density of occupants and high energy consumption. Energy-saving technology utilization is an effective measure to achieve high-performance buildings. However, numerous studies are greatly limited to practical application due to their strong regional pertinence and technical simplicity. This paper aims to further optimize various commonly used technologies on the basis of the current national standards, and to individually establish four recommended technology selection systems corresponding to four major climatic regions for realizing nearly zero energy educational buildings (nZEEBs) in China. An educational building was selected as the case study. An evaluation index of energy-saving contribution rate (ECR) was proposed for measuring the energy efficiency of each technology. Thereafter, high energy efficiency technologies were selected and implemented together in the four basic cases representing different climatic regions. The results showed that the total energy-saving rate in severe cold regions increased by 70.74% compared with current national standards, and about 60% of the total energy-saving rate can be improved in cold regions. However, to realize nZEEBs in hot summer and cold winter regions as well as in hot summer and warm winter regions, photovoltaic (PV) technology needs to be further supplemented.
... The findings of this study have proved that heating loads are mainly impacted by the window's size and type. Hassouneh et al [8], have studied several types of window glazing using the four building orientations along with the variation in the size and area of the windows. Hee et al [9], have reviewed and discussed the influence of window glazing on energy performance and daylighting performance too. ...
To improve the building’s energy efficiency many parameters should be assessed considering the building envelope, energy loads, occupation, and HVAC systems. Fenestration is among the most important variables impacting residential building indoor temperatures. So, it is crucial to use the most optimal energy-efficient window glazing in buildings to reduce energy consumption and at the same time provide visual daylight comfort and thermal comfort. Many studies have focused on the improvement of building energy efficiency focusing on the building envelope or the heating, ventilation, and cooling systems. But just a few studies have focused on studying the effect of glazing on building energy consumption. Thus, this paper aims to study the influence of different glazing types on the building’s heating and cooling energy consumption. A real case study building located under a semi-arid climate was used. The building energy model has been conducted using the OpenStudio simulation engine. Building indoor temperature was calibrated using ASHRAE’s statistical indices. Then a comparative analysis was conducted using seven different types of windows including single, double, and triple glazing filled with air and argon. Tripleglazed and double-glazed windows with argon space offer 37% and 32% of annual energy savings. It should be stressed that the methodology developed in this paper could be useful for further studies to improve building energy efficiency using optimal window glazing.
... For instance, changing the window-to-wall ratio (WWR) of an office building from 13,3% to 53,3% in India resulted in a 53,33% increase in total energy consumption (Ghosh & Neogi, 2018). While, in Hassouneh et al.'s study (2010) using solar-e glass instead of clear glass in an apartment block saved energy by up to 160% (Hassouneh et al., 2010). Similar effects can be observed also in patient rooms since they are one of the most significant spaces in healthcare facilities in terms of both energy consumption and users' well-being. ...
Windows are the weakest elements due to their high heat transfer coefficient and are responsible for 60% energy heat/gain loss. Healthcare buildings are one of the biggest consumers of energy due to continuous occupation hours and medical requirements, providing comfortable conditions for people in need of care and staff; yet recently less attention was given to healthcare buildings due to their unique operational requirements and advanced medical equipment. Thus, the main purpose of this study was to evaluate energy saving potentials of windows through glazing and shading alternatives over a case study. Within this study, a single patient room in Izmir Turkey has been chosen as a case study, and the room was simulated for sixteen scenarios generated by using four different glazing and shading systems. Each design scenario was simulated using DALEC for their lighting, heating, cooling, and total energy consumption. Results showed that lighting energy consumption constitutes the highest energy demand (up to 52%) and high transmitting glazing usage can reduce lighting loads. Finally, up to 16.3%, energy saving is possible only by changing shading and glazing types. Though there is a great diversity of glazing and shading types, this study’s outputs only reflect the selected four glazing and four shading system types that are offered by DALEC.
Healthcare buildings spend a vast amount of energy to provide thermal and visual comfort for various user profiles. Considering the large number of patient rooms in healthcare facilities, only careful consideration of glazing or shadings can significantly contribute to energy savings. This study focuses on shading and glazing alternatives as an energy-saving strategy. For simulation, an underrecognized BES tool DALEC was hyped to show integrated thermal and visual energy consumption. The findings highlight that energy savings of up to 16.3% is possible.
... This study aims to analyse the energy consumption and payback period of energy-efficient strategy implementation in glass type options. This strategy is important since the choice of glass type significantly influences the building energy consumption (Hassouneh, 2010). ...
Cities are facing a challenge with the steady increase in energy consumption for buildings. This study aims to analyse the energy consumption and payback period of energy-efficient strategy implementation in glass type options. The energy-efficient strategy in the glass options is chosen since it affects the energy consumption the most. A study on the payback period needs to be conducted since purchasing high-performance glass materials increase the building capital cost and become a consideration for decision-maker. This study tested 5 variations, including single and double glass windows and incorporating 5 types of glass materials with various solar transmittance properties. The energy consumption then is calculated using energy simulation software OpenStudio using Jakarta weather data. The payback period is calculated to find out the length of time the energy cost saving can recoup the additional capital cost needs to purchase better thermal performance glass. The result shows that the double glass windows with low solar transmittance value reduce the energy consumption for cooling the most. Thus, cheaper glass material with similar solar transmittance value reaches the payback period fastest.
... Boyano et al. [20] suggested that the obstacle in improving the building energy efficiency is not having sufficient knowledge regarding the factors that determine energy consumption. Most of the studies show that various factors must be considered when analyzing building energy performance, like properties of the insulation [21], heat gain [22][23], climatic parameters [24], and characteristics of building as window orientation [25][26][27], etc. The energy performance of the building may also be influenced by the factors such as building inertia [28], the geometry of the building [29], or Window to wall ratio [30][31]. ...
Fenestrations of the buildings are playing an important role in the building’s energy efficiency for the tropical climate. The energy that comes from the glass window into the building can be restricted by providing shading on the windows. So, to provide the shading on the window, the most common way is fixed shade like overhang and fin. Shading devices are very helpful to control the SHGC and light transmittance through the fenestrations of the building. Most of the studies analyze the impact of WWR, shadings, and SHGC on a building’s energy demand but did not consider the combined effect of these parameters. By considering all the parameters of the building envelope in the analysis like WWR, orientation, shading devices, projection factor, and type of glass, the energy demand in the building can be significantly reduced. The goal of this paper is to analyze the variation of residential envelope transmittance value with the window-wall ratio, projection factor, and fixed shading devices and also to optimize the energy from building envelope elements in residential buildings using a statistical method, namely the Taguchi method. The transmittance of energy through the building envelope is calculated in 8 cardinal directions by providing shading with the fin and overhang. Based on the result, the optimum energy saving achieved by selecting the optimum combination of the process parameters for minimizing the energy from the building envelope is A1B1C3D2 i.e. window to wall ratio 7%, triple glazing type of glass used, shading with the overhang fin, and orientation in the west direction. The result shows the most significant factor among the selected parameter is the window to wall ratio. Also, by focusing on the building envelope parameters, an architectural designer may reduce the building energy demand significantly and offer more alternatives to achieve energy-efficient buildings.
... A lot of effort has been devoted to improve energy efficiency by placing transparent materials such as polyethylene, depositing thin metal and/or dielectric films to modify the spectral characteristics such as the optical transmittance and absorbance of the visible and near infrared radiation. However, the deposition of thin metal or dielectric films on glass has been found to change greatly the spectral properties of glass (Hassouneh et al., 2010;Wang et al., 2016;Zahiri & Altan, 2016). ...
This paper presents the optical transmittance properties of thermally evaporated coatings of ZnS/Ag nanostructures as a function of film thickness and deposition angle designed to mitigate the challenges of indoor heating and their effects on low temperature storage facilities. The nanostructures were deposited on glass by varying the film thickness and deposition angle of both silver and zinc sulphide nanofilms at a pressure of 2.5×10-5 mBars in the diffusion pump microprocessor vacuum coater (Edwards AUTO 306). The optical transmittance of the coatings was measured at normal incidence in the wavelength range of 250-2500 nm of the incident electromagnetic radiation. Spectral studies showed that the transmittance decreased with increase in the film thickness of the ZnS/Ag nanostructures and the optical transmittance increased with increase in deposition angle of zinc sulphide in the infrared region. The transmittance of (4 nm)ZnS/Ag, (7 nm)ZnS/Ag, (10 nm)ZnS/Ag and (15 nm)ZnS/Ag samples deposited at normal angle in the visible region had peaks at 61.7%, 66.3%, 54.9%, and 18.0% respectively. The transmittance of the nanostructures increased with the increase in deposition angle of silver nanoparticles. Thus optical transmittance measured at 1800 nm wavelengths for ZnS(0o)/Ag(0o), ZnS(0o)/Ag(30o) and ZnS(0o)/Ag(60o) were 2.8%, 21.7% and 22.1% respectively. The coating of ZnS at high deposition angle decreased transmittance in the visible wavelength. The transmittance peak values in the visible region measured up to 51.1%, 53.5%, and 45.1% for (4 nm)ZnS(0o)/Ag(0o) and (4 nm)ZnS(0o)/Ag(30o) and (4 nm)ZnS(0o)/Ag(60o) samples respectively. However, increase in deposition angle of (10nm)ZnS/Ag nanostructures measured at 1000 nm; ZnS(0o)/Ag(30o), ZnS(30o)/Ag(30o) and ZnS(60o)/Ag(30o) increased transmittance in the infrared wavelengths from 9% to 12% and 34% respectively. Therefore, to increase transmittance in the visible region, the Zinc sulphide nanoparticles should be coated on silver at low deposition angles.
... Hassouneh et al. [37] studied the impact of eight types of window glazing on thermal behavior of an apartment located at latitude 32 • N in Amman. The results indicated that a larger window with clear glass facing east, west, and south reduces heating load. ...
The significant increase in construction industry demand with its negative effects on energy consumption is particularly evident in areas with severe climatic factors. Here, the designers aim at providing comfort with the least amount of energy, and consequently have resorted to using different software tools to choose the optimal solution in the early phase of design to avoid time and cost losses. The use of smart innovative technologies such as electrochromic (EC) glazing may provide an important contribution in reducing consumptions while providing good thermal and visual comfort conditions. Nonetheless, as shown in the literature, such glazing should be used and managed carefully to avoid any adverse effects or low performance. Thus, a parametric simulation was carried out using Rhinoceros and Grasshopper to assess the advantages in terms of energy use resulting from use of EC glazing in residential buildings as a function of façade orientation and window-to-wall ratio (WWR) with reference to the city of Biskra, located in the northeastern region of Algeria. Eight main orientations and ten WWR scenarios were investigated in order to evaluate the benefit of using this technology in the selected climatic region. The research results proved the benefit of using EC glazing in all orientations, with energy savings ranging from 35.88% in the northern façade to 60.47% in the southwestern façade.
... The building has to include utility of integrated renewable systems for hot water, heating and solar photovoltaics. Hassouneh et al., [8] discussed the influence of windows on the energy balance of apartment buildings. In this study, the energy audit was performed for an apartment building in Jordan to illustrates the impact of several modifications on the glazing, wall insulation and lighting system. ...
... Urbikain and Sala (Urbikain and Sala, 2009) numerically calculated the energy savings heating load using various residential buildings' windows. In the same vein, Hassouneh et al. (Hassouneh et al., 2010) demonstrated how different window types in residential buildings affect building energy consumption. Ebrahimpour and Maerefat (Ebrahimpour and Maerefat, 2011) examined the impacts of a window with solar control devices on energy consumption. ...
Nowadays, new generations of building envelope need to manage the energy exchange between outdoor and indoor environment responsively and save the building energy. A significant amount of solar heat gain in buildings comes through the windows. The transparent envelope also must answer to visual requirements allowing for external vision but guarantying comfort conditions. In this framework, this article aims to test numerically the thermal performance of a new design of multifunctional glazed window combining the most recent technologies used in building envelopes. Five distinct window designs combing phase change material (PCM), vacuum glazing (VG), photovoltaic (PV), and air cavity were numerically tested for hot weather conditions. The proposed window designs slide inside the wall of the building. A comprehensive transient Multiphysics model coupling the thermo-electric model of the PV, melting and solidification model of the PCM, and the heat transfer mechanisms in the vacuum and air gaps are developed. The model is step by step validated with data in the literature. Various PCM types and PCM thickness are investigated. Among the five investigated window designs, the result showed that the window, including the air gap with PV, PCM cavity, and VG, is the optimal design for the indoor air's thermal isolation. Simultaneously, the PCM with a melting point of 35 ˚C and thickness of 50 mm is the best performance material in a hot arid region in summer at Cairo. The proposed multifunction window generated maximum electrical power intensity of 162 W/m² at received solar radiation of 1000 W/m².
... Therefore, improving the performance of glazing is essential in optimizing the building energy-saving design [15,16]. Nowadays, it is possible to reduce the energy consumption of the window by using high-performance glazing systems, such as coatings and triple glazing, with an insulating gas between panes [17,18]. Thermal transmittance U, solar heat gain coefficient, or g-factor and visible transmittance Tv are global glazing parameters needed to calculate the energy performance of a window, and therefore of a building. ...
Buildings represent complex systems with high levels of inter-dependence on many external sources. Building envelope expertise is a part of the building process, from pre-design through post-occupancy. Large glazed surfaces increase the building’s luminosity. However, the glass is a poor thermal insulator, and allows a great part of the solar radiation passing through it. The use of a glazed façade has the disadvantage of introducing an excess of energy in the building by means of solar radiation during the summer months. New glass technologies solve the energy problems raised by the use of glass in buildings: double and triple glazing, surface treatments, solar control glazing, low-emissivity glazing, etc. One of these is the water flow glazing. Due to the spectral properties of water, it captures most of the infrared solar radiation, allowing the visible component to pass through. This provides the water flow glazing with the same luminosity than conventional glazing, only lessening the heat transfer towards the interior space. Furthermore, the water circulation allows us to use, store or dissipate the captured energy as deemed appropriate. The first goal of this paper is to study the integration of the water flow glazing to evaluate its behavior in different weather conditions. Active and passive strategies will be tested in real case studies to achieve the goal of a Zero Energy Building.
... Assim, para o Hemisfério Norte, a orientação sul das aberturas assume grande importância, com implicações na demanda energética em edificações residenciais (HASSOUNEH; ALSHBOUL; Al-SALAYMEH, 2010;GASPARELLA et al., 2011;JABER;AJIB, 2011). Analogamente, na região subtropical do Hemisfério Sul, a orientação norte assume grande relevância. ...
This paper presents an analysis of the effect of solar orientation in terms of thermal performance and occupant perception in two indoor environments of a Cost-Effective Building Bioclimatic Chamber (CBBC), with window facades in two opposite solar orientations. This study employed Post-Occupancy Evaluation (POE) techniques and temperature measurements at CBBC in Bioclimatic Zone 1, Curitiba/PR, Brazil. The users’ evaluation sessions took place in the winter of 2018, with subjective evaluations by 136 voluntary participants. The results of the objective measurements were corroborated by the perceptions of users, proving the thermal contribution of north-facing window façades in winter. Window orientation (north/south) led to changes in air- and internal surface temperatures, with effects on the vertical profile of the temperature and on thermal performance levels, even for window configurations with closed shutters, i.e., without direct solar heat gains in the environment. The internal air temperature discrepancy increased with direct solar heat, reaching a difference of 5.9 °C.
... In recent years, a great deal of research has been carried out to improve thermal comfort of buildings and reduce their energy use by adopting suitable glazing options. Hassouneh et al. (2010) found that in Amman the use of certain glazing types such as dual-type glass and clear glass for a south-facing surface can save more energy and lower heating costs in winter. A thermal evaluation of four double-glazing configurations has shown that a reflective double-glazed window reduces indoor heat flux by up to 73% in hot climates (Aguilar et al., 2017). ...
The windows are considered the most sensitive part against external conditions in the building envelope. A suitable window selection reduces the energy requirements of a given building in a given climate. This article presents a parametric study of annual heating and cooling requirements for a commercial building, depending on the type and size of glazing in different climatic regions in Morocco. The study was carried out for six climatic zones: Agadir, Errachidia, Fez, Ifrane, Marrakech, and Tangier. Seven types of windows were studied, including single-glazing, double-glazing, and triple-glazing with inert gases in the cavity. The results obtained using the TRNSYS software show that the energy savings depend on the window type and size and also on the climatic conditions of the place. It is demonstrated that with triple-glazing with xenon, energy savings can reach more than 90% with a window/wall ratio of 90% in all climatic zones.
Related payback periods were found to be between 4.4 and 7 years. Furthermore, the optimization of windows ratio and type can induce significant energy savings, but strongly rely on the investment cost of glazing materials.
... Energy is one of the most important factors in economic growth and social development in all countries [4]. For this reason, as in the world, it is observed that the CO 2 emissions concerning energy have increased in the last 20 years [5]. ...
The reality of global warming must have been settled by now while the incidence of same has in very recent times adopted unprecedented dimensions. Rapid advancement of Information Technology (IT), is now transforming the way we create and interact with the built environment with the notion of Intelligent Buildings (IBs) underscoring its main features. However, these IBs utilize systems that require energy, and fossil fuels are currently the world's primary energy sources; they can also irreparably harm the environment, exacerbating climate change. This paper, through review of existing literature, attempts to explore some issues associated with the conceptualization of IBs, highlighting how they are similar with other notional options that deliver the same benefits. It also discusses the need to focus on less energy demanding and management approaches at design or occupancy of buildings as a way to reduce the demand and thus consumption of fossil fuels across the world.
... The percentages of OE and EE difference are quantified using Eqs. (1) and (2) [107] * * * Zamella et al., [108] * * * Gasparella et al., [109] * * * * Leskovar and Premrov, [110] * * * * Jaber and Ajib, [111] * * * Sozer, [112] * * * * * Castleton et al., [113] * * Hassouneh et al., [114] * * * Aste et al., [115] * * Singh and Garg, [116] * * * Utama and Gheewala, [21] * * * * Ochoa and Capeluto, * * * * * Bahaj et al., [117] * Yu et al., [118] * * * * Masoso and Grobler, [119] * Poirazis et al., [120] * * Xing et al., [121] * * * Li and Wong, [122] * Wang et al., [123] * * * Chitherlet and Defaux, [124] * Lollini et al., [125] * * Persson et al., [126] * * * Marceau and VanGeem, [127] * Wang et al., [27] * * * * * Christenen et al., [128] * * * * * * Cheung et al., [129] * * * * * * Mitraratne and Vale, [71] * Oral et al., [130] * * * * * Caldas and Norford, [131] * * Comakli and Yuksel, [132] * Bojic et al., [133] * Scofield, [134] * * * * * * * * Oral and Yilmaz, [135] * * * * Balaras et al., [136] * * * * Bouchlaghem, [137] * * * * * * * * Chan and Chow, [138] * * * * (vi) Scope: Our study did not evaluate the impact of changing the glass type for the skylights and varying floor assemblies. We also restricted our simulations to a specific building type, form, and geographic location (variations might yield different results). ...
Annually, 48% of the global energy is used by buildings in their construction, operation, and maintenance, causing significant damage to the environment due to the resulting greenhouse gas emissions. During their life cycles, buildings use energy in the form of embodied energy (EE) and operating energy (OE). In a conventional building, EE accounts for 10-20% of a building’s life cycle energy (LCE), while OE accounts for 80-90%. As a result, the building sector has taken several measures to reduce OE in buildings. These OE reducing measures fail to account for the subsequent increase in EE and might cause an increase in the building’s overall LCE. A systematic review of the literature shows limited research that comprehensively evaluates the impact of design measures aimed at OE reduction on EE for different construction assemblies. In this study, we quantify and compare trade-offs on EE demand, caused by OE reduction measures for eight different building wall assemblies across four climatic zones within the United States. The EE and OE demands of the ASHRAE 90.1-2016 benchmark model and its variations were computed using Tally™ and Autodesk® Green Building Studio® (GBS), respectively. The results helped us determine the EE factor (EE spent per unit of OE savings) for different OE reduction measures. Although the calculated EE factors vary across different climatic zones and construction assemblies, these factors show significant EE costs for different OE reduction measures. This knowledge could help inform the design of evolutionary and deep/machine learning-based algorithms to assess and optimize building energy use.
... Based on their findings, the thermal transmittances can be reduced by utilizing the triple vacuum glazing concept. Hassouneh et al.(Hassouneh, Alshboul, & Al-Salaymeh, 2010) ...
A significant share of the total primary energy belongs to buildings. In many buildings,
improving energy performance of buildings is of particular importance in new construction and
existing buildings. Building refurbishment is considered a practical pathway towards energy
efficiency as the replacement of older buildings is at a slow pace. There are various ways of
incorporating energy conservation measures in buildings through refurbishment projects. In doing
so, we have to choose among various passive or active measures. The energy usage can be
significantly reduced by adopting passive measures. These methods might not need additional
capital investment. An integrated building renovation approach, in which passive methods are
implemented, can reduce the energy consumption of building, compensating the additional cost of
new technologies. This thesis aims at developing an integrated assessment-optimization
framework to provide a decision support for prioritization and selection of building refurbishment
measures with energy conservation potentials by considering the cost uncertainty.
Firstly, a literature review is carried out to ascertain the state of the art in the retrofit decisions in
buildings at the presence of several decision criteria. possible and available passive measures are
investigated and identified based on four energy control principles. Secondly, the analytic network
process (ANP) is reviewed as a multiple criteria decision-making method capable of incorporating
the interdependencies among decision criteria to arrive at an overall assessment (relative scores)
for alternative retrofit measures. To incorporate uncertainties in formulating the initial cost of
materials, a fuzzy set approach is adopted. Then, the scores resulted from the assessment phase are
iv
formulated a utility objective function to be maximized alongside the cost objective function(s)
that are minimized. The fuzzy numbers representing the cost uncertainties are incorporated into
the cost objective function using alternative methods of graded mean integration, aggregate
approach and interval approach. Various Solution approaches are then utilized for the multiobjective models to deal with the conflicting objectives including distance to ideal, compromise
programming and goal programming. The cases of linear and integer assumptions about decision
variables are investigated. The applicability of the proposed three-stage assessment-optimization
approach under uncertainty is then illustrated through the case study of a typical building in order
to verify its applicability and usefulness and the solution scenarios are explored and compared The
proposed framework can assist decision makers in choosing the best passive measures in the
planning phase of the building refurbishment addressing the complexities arising from multiplicity
of feasible measures and their varied characteristics.Finally, in terms of the impact of the above
research, it worth mentioning that 40% of final energy is used in buildings and the use of passive
measures as a means of refurbishment for building stocks could create significant energy efficiency
gains.
... Based on their findings, the thermal transmittances can be reduced by utilizing the triple vacuum glazing concept. Hassouneh et al. [161] investigated the energy performance of windows of an apartment building in Amman to find the most energy efficient window that can save more energy and decrease heating demand in winter. They used eight types of glazing (clear and type A-G). ...
... The in situ Center-of-glass U-factor is the most complex variables to measure among the above-mentioned properties. The heat transfer through a window could be significantly influenced by building parameters, outdoor weather conditions, window type, and glazing properties [11]. The overall heat transfer coefficient of windows is usually much greater than those of other building envelope components such as walls, roofs, and doors, and roughly 30% of heating and cooling conditioning in a building is lost through the windows [12]. ...
... According to Boyano et al. (2013), one of the most important obstacle for reaching substantial improvements in building energy efficiency is the lack of knowledge regarding the factors that determine energy use. Several studies show that diverse contextual factors should be considered when analyzing windows energy performance, such as insulation properties (Ihara et al., 2015), heat gains (Amaral et al., 2016;Grynning et al., 2013), climatic parameters (Kull et al., 2015) and building characteristics as window orientation (Hassouneh et al., 2010;Lee et al., 2013;Yildiz, 2015), building energy use (Bikas et al., 2014), building insulation (Ahn et al., 2016;Skarning et al., 2016), etc. Indirectly, windows' performance also depends on how useable heat gains or losses through windows are for mitigating building energy demands. For this reason, factors having a significant impact on the building energy balance, such as building inertia (Mingozzi et al., 2007), building geometry (AlAnzi et al., 2009;Ordoñez et al., 2014) or window-towall ratio (Aste et al., 2018;Goia, 2016), may influence windows' energy efficiency as well. ...
In various regions in the world, including Argentina, low-performance windows are massively sold, which means that windows energy saving potential is high. Windows energy efficiency depends on thermal indices (U-factor, SHGC) but also on climate and building characteristics. In order to identify the most influential factors and to explore energy savings strategies for the climatic and technological context of Argentina, a parametric study based on detailed building simulations was conducted using EnergyPlus. The analyzed parameters were window type, leakage rate, location, building geometry, window-to-wall ratio (WWR), orientation and building envelope materiality and exposure. The results indicate that window type is one of the most determining factors, followed by location, orientation and building envelope characteristics. In the most populous locations of Argentina, characterized by mild winters and high solar irradiation levels, windows mainly impact on buildings cooling demand. In consequence, the most energy efficient windows are generally not the more insulated but the ones with low SHGC, which shows the importance of shading devices. In addition, it was found that an adequate architectural design (as regards WWR and windows orientation) may produce substantial energy savings, offering alternative strategies to expensive high-performance window technologies.
... Biskra is one of the 48 Algerian provinces, situated in the south of the country at latitude 34.80 °N, and longitude 5.73°E, altitude of 82 m [16] . The climate in Biskra is largely influenced with solar radiation, (9.32h average annual sunshine duration, and about 5545 Wh/m 2 of global irradiation incident on a horizontal plane) [17][18] , which leads to an increase in temperature. ...
One of the most important functions for windows is to connect the interior space to the outside, as well as having a role in ventilation and natural lighting. However, as it is considered the weakest link in the building envelope, in terms of thermal insulation, designers in the areas with severe climatic factors, tend to minimize the window ratio, without taking into account the importance of the other functions, in providing the user’s comfort. This research aims to investigate the ability of electrochromic glazing to solve limited ratio problem and give designers more flexibility. A case study located in a hot and dry area was compared with several scenarios where electrochromic glazing was used in various ratios. Simulations were made using parametric design tools based on Rhinoceros and Grasshopper, which are among the most used software by designers. The study concluded that electrochromic glazing was useful in increasing the window-to-wall ratio and improving the building opening on the outside without having a negative impact on building energy performance.
... Façade solar orientation is extremely often included in existing window research (see Table 1), and for good reason. It has been shown to be connected to the impact of at least the following properties: climate [6,29,52], apartment/room shape [6,20], window area [31,33,35,42,49,53], window position [38], external shading [33,36,52], and glazing properties [20,29,34,50,51]. Therefore, in this study each of the cardinal directions was included. ...
The building sector constitutes a significant share of global energy consumption and CO2 emissions. Despite improving technology and materials, the foundation of successful energy design lies in architectural design decisions. Windows are one architectural design issue that is a key factor in both energy efficiency and functionality. This research utilized dynamic building simulations to study the direct and combined energy impacts of window related architectural design through the following main variables’ effect on heating, cooling, and lighting need: window area, proportions, horizontal position, external shading, glazing properties, and adjacent room proportions. Four solar orientations and three climatically different Finnish locations were included as context variables.
Window energy efficiency in the studied cases was found to be primarily about controlling solar heat gain. Geographic location changed not only energy consumption directly, but also the individual variables’ impact on it and each other. The results indicate that cooling can be a significant factor even in cold climates, and that energy efficiency should always be evaluated using local weather data as well as sufficient design detail. Most properties affected each other significantly, highlighting a need for a comprehensive approach in both research and design practice and allowing evaluating previous studies comprising fewer variables.
In the twenty-first century, technology has continued to evolve rapidly and has found more applications in various sectors of life, especially in the control and monitoring of processes. The idea of automating appliances and control has been implemented in the automatic sliding window. Automation, indeed makes human living less stressful, which is the goal of engineering as a field. The automatic sliding window is designed with the primary aim of programming the action of the window per time to depend on environmental conditions utilizing sensors. The methodology, design, implementation, and testing of the system is explained in detail in this study.
Sputter grown copper (Cu) and titanium dioxide (TiO2) based transparent solar heat rejecting film has been developed on glass substrates at room temperature for energy saving smart window applications. The performance of as-deposited ultra-thin TiO2/Cu/TiO2 multilayers was elucidated, wherein the visible transmittance of the multilayer significantly depends on the crystal quality of TiO2 layers. In-situ nanocrystal engineering of TiO2 films with optimized sputtering power improves crystallinity of nano-TiO2 domains. The transparent heat regulation (THR) coating with an average transmittance of ∼70% over the visible spectral regime and infra-red reflectance of ∼60% at 1200 nm was developed at room temperature. Optical characterization, X-ray diffraction (XRD), high resolution-transmission electron microscopy (HR-TEM) and atomic force microscopy (AFM) have been utilized to analyze the crystallinity of TiO2 and quality of the multilayered structure. TiO2/Cu/TiO2 based prototype device has been demonstrated for the energy saving smart windows application.
Fenestrations allow for natural daylight and outdoor views, but also represent the least thermally efficient portion of the building envelope, and thus can be a source of unwanted direct sunlight and associated discomfort glare. A well-designed fenestration system operated with proper control strategies is capable of reducing building energy usage significantly while maintaining a both thermally and visually comfortable environment for occupants. This paper reviews and analyzes window design studies for high-performance buildings, which could be interpreted as decision-making processes to achieve the window performance goals by controlling a series of design variables (e.g., location and dimensions of windows, glazing type, etc.). An overview of available design options for window systems to date is introduced first, and then the decision-making methodologies of window system are categorized and analyzed to present a comprehensive review, where we present a detailed analysis of sequential knowledge-based design methods and simulation-based optimization methods. Last, potential challenges and future research trends are identified and analyzed to help promote all automatic simulation-based optimization design methods for high performance fenestration systems.
Energy is one of the main concerns of humanity because energy resources are limited and costly. In order to reduce the costs and to use the energy for space heating effectively, new building materials, techniques and insulations facilities are being developed. Therefore, it is important to know which factors affect the space heating costs. This study aims to introduce the novel Rank Correlation Bayesian Network model and its application in analyzing the effects of dwelling characteristics on the space heating costs. The results show that the constructed Rank Correlation Bayesian Network model performed better than the Bayesian networks models estimated by Bayesian search, PC and Greedy Thick Thinning algorithms, which are kinds of structure learning algorithms having different kinds of estimation mechanisms to build Bayesian networks. The constructed Rank Correlation Bayesian Network model shows that the space heating costs of the dwellings are mostly affected by the heating systems used. Coal stoves, air conditioners and electric stoves appear to be the costliest heating systems. The second most important factor appears to be the existence of external wall insulation. The lack of external wall insulation almost doubles the space heating costs. The third most important factor is the building age. Dwellings on the ground floors and the first floors appear to pay the highest space heating costs. Therefore, dwellings on these floors need to be more effectively insulated. As the size of the dwelling increases the heating cost increases too. Another result is that facing directions and floor levels of the dwellings have the least effects on their space heating.
Optimization is one of the oldest sciences or practices. Since the beginning of mankind, people strived for perfection when it came to their creations, products, gains, or self-improvement. Extension of activities and their cost, time, and resource limitations have caused researchers to pay their attention to optimizing the activities in construction management engineering. Rapid development in optimization techniques to solve related problems in structural design can be achieved accordingly. In this paper, meta-heuristic algorithms used for strength, energy, and cost optimization of building material in construction management. The novel meta-heuristic algorithm can be used for electricity cost and peak load alleviation with the minimum user waiting time. The proposed model is implemented in a smart building in terms of electricity cost estimation for both a single smart home and a smart building. The results demonstrate the effectiveness of our proposed scheme for single and multiple smart homes in terms of strength, energy, and cost optimization of building material in construction management engineering. This study has used the artificial intelligence (AI) model as particle swarm optimization (PSO) model to calculate the accurate and material-specific energy of three commonly used building materials as fly ash, copper slag, and phospo-gypsum. Two regression models as root mean square (RMSE) and coefficient of determination (R²) were used to calculate the results. Following the results of (R²) and RMSE, PSO has shown its higher performance in predicting the strength, energy, and cost of building materials besides revealing a significant and positive correlation among them.
The building stock in most of the countries has been accountable for consequential portion of energy use. Due to global climate change and sustainable green development concerns, an emerging trend in recent years towards building energy efficiency has been observed. To significantly reduce high cost of energy consumption in buildings, endorsing energy efficient technologies and strategies is still an ongoing challenge. Thus, research in cost-efficient strategies to minimize energy load of buildings is conducted by several researchers in compliance with global fundamentals of sustainability. To avail the maximum potential of a building’s capacity leaving minimum environmental impact, understanding the role of design in buildings is a necessary step towards sustainable green development. The work represents the linkages between energy efficiency, sustainable green development and building design strategies. The objective of this paper is to review the interactions between building design and energy efficiency with respect to studies based on optimization of building performance. This research work is pivoted upon studies conducted on simulation-based approaches to optimize buildings. Building envelope, roof and wall insulation and building shape are major design variables which has impacted buildings found in the literature review. The most popular optimization method used by researchers is parametric study coupled with most applied simulation techniques like EnergyPlus and TRNSYS (Transient System Simulation Tool).
This book follows on previous works addressing sustainable development research in the Asia-Pacific region. It mainly focuses on India, a country currently facing immense challenges in the form of climate change, rapid urbanisation, and population pressures in its journey to help achieve the Sustainable Development Goals. Expecting to surpass China in terms of population in the near future, India needs to develop its own solutions in order to uphold its commitments under the Paris Agreement.
This book makes a contribution in that direction by presenting case studies on various aspects of the built environment, from education to managing cities, procurement, and considerations for a circular economy. The papers gathered here offer a vital resource for government policymakers, educators, and current and future professionals, equipping them with the knowledge and expertise they need in order to overcome today’s complex challenges in the built environment.
Sustainable banking is a relatively new term which is concerned with the various measures adopted by the banking sector towards meaningful contribution to the triple bottom line (people, planet and profit). This study is aimed at developing a framework for sustainable banking. Towards achieving this objective, a comprehensive review of literature has been conducted to identify the variables of sustainable banking. These variables are then structured in the form of a questionnaire. Data is collected from banking professionals through survey method. The process thus entails the formation and empirical validation of a scale for sustainable banking. Since such a comprehensive framework is not known to exist, this study is unique and presents value to both researchers and banking industry professionals.
Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR) is an approach for any kind of business organization to brand themselves as sustainable. Construction is an interwoven industry in the sectors of economy, environment, and society. In addition, it is a growing business entity with many stakeholders. CSR activities performed by Sri Lankan Construction companies could be categorized under three main branches such as philanthropic, business environment (BE) related CSR practices and CSR in business processes (BP). Yet there are ample opportunities for the industry to utilize the concept of CSR in their business processes (BP) related activities. Furthermore, it has been identified that many organizations undertake CSR only to furnish the legal requirement and customs. Apart from that lack of awareness and misconception regarding CSR, there are key constraints of adopting CSR in Sri Lankan construction industry. Thus, this research has focused on developing a practical guideline for construction companies to cater for sustainable development of Sri Lanka. Qualitative research study based on grounded theory through transcribing, coding and categorizing has been utilized as the key research method for this study. Twenty in-depth interviews were carried out with client organizations, consultants, contractors and material manufacturers/suppliers to gather primary data and five focus groups to validate the data. Based on the analysis of primary data the final framework has been developed. This framework mainly focused on incorporating CSR to the business process, to its culture and strategies. Encouragement of green practices to construction organizations while inculcating a culture of greenery was the main determination behind this initiation.
This study investigates different cases to obtain optimal Window-to-Wall ratio (WWR) in seven different climate conditions based on the Köppen–Geiger climate classification. The optimal WWR was decided based on the minimum amount of total energy use (total of cooling, heating, and lighting energy use) of a building model during a complete year. The impact of overhang and automatic blinds were assessed on the optimization of WWR for a building with integrated automatic lighting control. Moreover, three different windows with different U-values and features were employed in order to analyze their effect on the energy use and WWR of the building. IDA-Indoor Climate and Energy (IDA-ICE) was used to carry out the simulations. The software has been validated based on ASHRAE Standard 140. Based on each climate condition, orientation, employed window type, and comfort conditions, an optimal range with a specific combination of window with blind, overhang, or neither was found.
Demographic changes have a profound impact on residential energy consumption. The number of single-person households is rapidly increasing around the world and the percentages of elderly individuals in the populations of almost all countries are expanding. The objective of our research was to analyze how single-person households and elderly households impact residential energy intensity, defined as annual residential energy consumption per capita per unit of finished area of the household’s house, and how those impacts interact with each other using South Korea as a case study. Our findings suggest that the rise of solo living and an ageing population have overlapping effects on energy consumption and threaten future improvements in residential energy intensity. Specifically, an increase of single-person households results in a decline in energy intensity regardless of whether the household is elderly or non-elderly and the effect of an increase in elderly households on energy intensity depends on whether the household is single- or multiple-person. Given the similar average size of finished area for single-person households, the difference in per unit energy consumption between elderly versus non-elderly households likely comes from behavioral differences such as a greater use of energy-intensive appliances by non-elderly households than elderly households. However, for multiple-person households, the effect of such behavioral differences seems to be dominated by the effect of a house’s shared amenities. The common space and energy-consuming amenities of a house are shared by more individuals in non-elderly households, leading to more intensive energy consumption by non-elderly multiple-person households than by elderly multiple-person households.
The buildings sector contributes 20% of global greenhouse gas emissions, and building energy use is anticipated to double by 2050. Building performance research has typically focused on the operational phase, with life-cycle impacts increasingly studied, but often in isolation. This paper presents a novel framework integrating building energy modelling with life-cycle analysis and life-cycle costing. This is applied to four façade glazing materials in a 15-story case study office building in Queensland, Australia – a sub-tropical and commercial example rare in literature but important for future building development. Results demonstrate that double-glazed low-emissivity material (Type 4) was the most energy and financially efficient despite higher embodied energy and carbon than alternatives. It yielded operational energy and greenhouse gas emission savings of 13% against the baseline, and 2% lifetime financial savings. Clear double-glazing (Type 3) had the poorest overall performance, attributed to its low U-value trapping heat within the building and increasing net energy and emissions. This was new evidence that clear double-glazing should be carefully considered in sub-tropical climates. The integrated approach identified a material with improved overall performance. If only embodied impacts (production, transport, disposal) were assessed, GT1 would appear the best option as it takes less energy and carbon to manufacture and transport yet has very poor operational performance. This paper extends existing knowledge on façade materials and will aid future work on sustainable, low-emission building design in other climates, economies, designs and industries.
As a large energy-consuming part of the envelope, windows and shading system play a significant role in building savings. Once established in the primary design stage, it is difficult to make changes later, especially for high-rise buildings with large areas of glass. Moreover, strongly influenced by solar radiation, the configuration of windows and shading system conflicts with each other in terms of energy consumption and indoor comfort, the optimal configuration of windows and shading system under different climatic regions has not been well solved at yet. This paper proposes an easy-operation, useful, and efficient multi-objective optimization method, using a smart optimization algorithm NSGA-II in combination with DesignBuilder energy simulation software, especially beneficial for non-programming designers. In this research, a typical high-rise office building with a large area window has been selected as a case study. Building orientation, the configuration of windows and shading system, including materials for each layer of the double-layer window, installation angle and depth of overhangs have been taken into consideration, aiming to minimize the heating, cooling, lighting energy consumption and discomfort hours, and to find the mutual relationship between each other. A set of Pareto solutions can be obtained after optimization, and the most recommended variable parameters of windows and shading system in four cities representing severe cold climate, cold climate, hot summer and cold winter climate, and hot summer and warm winter climate can be identified, respectively. Besides, Pareto optimal solutions can give designers different scheme choices based on preferences, which are of great significance to provide guidance and suggestion for designers in the early design of buildings.
In addition to the solar water heating (SWH) system, other domestic water heating systems used in Jordan were considered in terms of benefits and costs using the Analytic Hierarchy Process. In terms of cost, the SWH system was the least expensive. On a percentage basis, the SWH cost about 13% compared to the most expensive heating system, LPG, of about 28%. In terms of benefits, the SWH was also the most beneficial. Approximately, the SWH benefits were about 31%, while the least benefits were obtained from the kerosene water heating system, which is about 9%. By considering both cost and benefit (i.e. cost-to-benefit ratio), solar was also the least expensive, about 7%, with kerosene being the most expensive, over 30%.
This paper uses fuzzy set methodology to perform the comparison between different solar systems for various applications. The aim of the paper is to determine the order in which solar systems should be given higher priority to be used in Jordan. The systems considered are solar distillation, solar water heating, solar space heating and ventilation, solar water pumping, photovoltaics and solar electric power production. They were compared according to their benefits and costs. Based on benefit to cost ratios, the results show that solar distillation is found to be the best choice and should be given the highest priority in terms of research and development. It is followed by the solar pond for electric power production, then, solar water pumping followed by solar space heating and photovoltaics. Finally, solar water heating may not need further development.
A general computer simulation model, ψ, for predicting average hourly diffuse solar radiation, developed and tested for Amman, Jordan, is presented in this paper. This model is based on three simple components with a control function ψ that can be switched on ( ψ = 1) or off ( ψ = 0) or set at half way position between on and off ( ψ = 0.5), The three components which constitute the ψ model are a normal distribution, a half-sine wave, and a polynomial of the fourth degree. These are individually tested as separate models. It is determined that none of them is alone adequately acceptable for the tested data. It is found that for an error of 1% or less, the polynomial model - although it is the best of the three - represents the data for only 18 hours of the year or 10% of the time while the ψ model represents 53 hours or about 29% of the time. The acceptability of the three models increases with an increase of the upper limit of error. If the error is 10% or less the polynomial model represents the data for 92 hours or about 51% of the time of the year compared with 122 hours or about 68% of the time of the year representable by the ψ model. It is also shown that the ψ model can represent the data for up to 92.4% of the time if the two early morning and the two late afternoon hours are neglected.
Hourly and daily global and diffuse solar radiation data measured on a horizontal surface during the period 1983–1987 for Amman, Jordan are studied and analyzed. The observed ratios between monthly mean hourly to daily global and diffuse radiation are determined. The applicability of various radiation models for the estimation of hourly global and diffuse radiation from daily values of global and diffuse radiation, respectively, for Amman is tested against measured data. The normal distribution curve suggested by Jain [Solar Wind Technol.5, 7 (1988)] is found suitable for predicting hourly global radiation for Amman and it has shown excellent agreement with the observed values amobgst all other models used. The classical equation of Liu and Jordan [Solar Energy4, 1 (1960)] produced satisfactory results of hourly diffuse radiation which are much closer to the observed values as compared to that obtained using other suggested models. Comparison between results obtained using various radiation models is made by calculating the root mean squared error, RMSE, for each model used.
Three simple prediction models of hourly global radiation, namely, a normal distribution model (ND), a half-sine wave model (HW), and a polynomial model (PO), are tested using data for a period of five years of the area of Amman, Jordan. The results show that none of these models alone can adequately represent the tested data. Specifically, the results show that PO model represents the data in about 42% of the hours of the year, the ND model about 32%, and the HW model about 34%. Thus a new model which is a combination of the three simple models developed to provide a comprehensive representation of the tested data. This model is given as follows: where h is the hour of the day, i the month of the year, and Φp, Φs, and Φn have 0, 0.5 or 1 values depending on i and h. It is found that this model represents the data in about 74% of the time.
As measured solar radiation data for all parts of Jordan are not available, they have to be estimated using correlation relations and models. This paper presents, for the first time, values of solar radiation over Jordan as estimated from these relations. Measurements of global solar irradiance on a horizontal surface and sunshine duration at nine meteorological stations in Jordan are correlated and used for prediction of the regression coefficients of an Angstrom type correlation relation at these stations and others which only have records of sunshine duration. Regional regression coefficients are obtained and used for prediction of global solar irradiance. The agreement with measurements is better than 5% and 1% on monthly and yearly basis respectively. Estimation of diffuse solar irradiance by Page's and also Liu and Jordan's correlations, as well as the direct beam component are also performed and the results are examined and presented. The abundance of solar energy in Jordan is evident from the daily average global solar irradiance which ranges between 5 and 7 kWh/m2. A correlation of Angstrom type of the form: H/Ho = 0.448+0.203 S/So is found suitable for Jordan with correlation coefficient r = 0.93.
The largest-ever exercise to validate dynamic thermal simulation programs (DSPs) of buildings has recently been completed. It involved 25 program/user combinations from Europe, the USA and Australia, and included both commercial and public domain programs. Predictions were produced for three single-zone test rooms in the UK. These had either a single-glazed or double-glazed south-facing window, or no window at all. In one 10-day period the rooms were intermittently heated and in another 10-day period they were unheated. The predictions of heating energy demands and air temperatures were compared. The observed interprogram variability was highly likely to be due to inherent differences between the DSPs, rather than the way they were used. Predictions of the difference in performance of two rooms were no more consistent than predictions of the absolute performance of a single room. By comparing the predictions with the measurements and taking due account of experimental uncertainty, the DSPs that are likely to contain significant internal errors are distinguished from those which, in these tests, performed much better. The likely sources of internal error are discussed. It is recommended that empirical validation exercises should consist of an initial blind phase in which program users are unaware of the actual measured performance of the building, and then an open phase in which the measurements are made available. The work has produced five empirical validation benchmarks, which have significant practical benefits for program users, vendors and potential purchasers. There is considerable scope for improving the predictive ability of DSPs and so suggestions for further work are made.
Hattar Office for Mechanical Design
- A Hattar
Hattar A. Hattar Office for Mechanical Design, Amman, Jordan; 2007 [Personal Communication].
Architectural Graphic Standards
- Ramsey Wj
Ramsey WJ. Architectural Graphic Standards. 10th ed. New York: John Wiley and sons; 2000.