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Taking the Ivory from the Tower to Coat the Economic World: Regional Strategies to make Science Useful
Abstract
In this paper, we aim at providing a critical appraisal of academic research valorisation models adopted in three regions in the world: the Provincia di Milano in Italy, the Technology-Region Karlsruhe in Germany and the Chinese municipality of Chongqing.Our first originality consists in developing a literature-based analytical grid to characterise and classify existing tools. In a second step, we depict and compare, thanks to a qualitative analysis run on fine-grained data (collected through in depth interviews and frequent interactions with actors of the regional innovation systems), the mechanisms adopted in the three regions so as to test for specificities in the implementation of academic knowledge transfer.Our analysis exhibits on the one hand a strong similarity among regions in terms of variety of existing tools. On the other hand, we also notice some specificities in the nature of the tools: European regions are characterised by an under-representation of absorption and appropriation tools, whereas the Chinese region seems to put great stress on direct valorisation mechanisms. Finally, rather than supporting the imitation, multiplication and superposition of newly created tools, our study encourages policy makers to be more selective and adapt their tools to regional innovative needs.
... s, organizing advanced technology bases, creating cross-regional applied science research networks, and investing in university spin-offs (Cai, Yang and Lyytinen 2019). In comparison, research universities from the same region primarily engage in knowledge transfer by providing highskilled labour, basic/applied research capacity, or academic fruit (Hussler, Picard. and Tang 2010). Cai, Yang, and Lyytinen (2019) demonstrate that the government offers very favourable conditions to these universities and industries to increase and incubate such capacity and academic fruit, in order to facilitate their innovation capacities and to encourage them to build linkages. Nevertheless, they notice that such generous policie ...
... Furthermore, the literature indicates that the channels of knowledge production and transfer between universities and industries affect the extent of university' embeddedness in the innovation systems (Hussler, Picard, and Tang 2010). Hong (2008) found that there is a geographic constraint for university research enhancing local industry innovativeness in China. ...
... Second, the financial flows in Chinese universities at both organizational and individual levels should be studied further. Extra-organizational sources such as venture capitalists, government bodies, and banks are becoming increasingly available to Chinese universities (Hussler, Picard, and Tang 2010;Yi and Uyarra 2018). Moreover, individual researchers are driven to engage in knowledge transfer activities by financial allocation plans, including projects which provide resources and monetary revenue. ...
China’s specific developmental context defines the need to understand its state logic of knowledge transfer, particularly from the agency perspective of universities. This paper proposes the new term ‘university engagement with industry’ (UEI) to highlight the active role of universities in university–industry linkages. A structural method is adopted to collect relevant literature and to provide a systematic and critical review of China’s UEI. This paper makes four key contributions: (1) it illustrates a structural approach to collect literature via precise and transparent identification for a targeted topic from an interdisciplinary research field; (2) it systematically presents the China-specific external institutional environment and internal governance of universities for knowledge transfer and captures influential factors for university’s embeddedness in multiscalar innovation systems; (3) it identifies China-specific UEI in comparison to Western findings; and (4) it suggests a research agenda on China’s UEI for future studies.
... TOs ont été créés pour faciliter le transfert de technologie des universités vers le monde socio-économique, en prenant en charge la négociation des modalités, notamment commerciales et financières, du transfert (Siegel et al., 2004). De manière un peu schématique, mais à des fins pédagogiques, nous avons repris ci-dessous la représentation du processus de transfert proposée par Hussler, Picard et Tang (2010) combinant trois étapes (voir figure 1.2) : (1) la diffusion des résultats de la recherche (2) l'adoption / l'exploitation de la recherche (3) la stimulation de la recherche (Hussler, Picard, & Tang, 2010). (Hussler et al., 2010, p. 511) (1) Diffusion des résultats de la recherche (2) Adoption / l'exploitation de la recherche (3) Stimulation de la recherche ...
... TOs ont été créés pour faciliter le transfert de technologie des universités vers le monde socio-économique, en prenant en charge la négociation des modalités, notamment commerciales et financières, du transfert (Siegel et al., 2004). De manière un peu schématique, mais à des fins pédagogiques, nous avons repris ci-dessous la représentation du processus de transfert proposée par Hussler, Picard et Tang (2010) combinant trois étapes (voir figure 1.2) : (1) la diffusion des résultats de la recherche (2) l'adoption / l'exploitation de la recherche (3) la stimulation de la recherche (Hussler, Picard, & Tang, 2010). (Hussler et al., 2010, p. 511) (1) Diffusion des résultats de la recherche (2) Adoption / l'exploitation de la recherche (3) Stimulation de la recherche ...
... Une étude exploratoire, menée récemment en France par Schieb-Bienfait et Boldrini (2016), confirme ces évolutions en soulignant à la fois l'importance de la dimension territoriale, notamment régionale, des activités de valorisation et en présentant les voies envisagées par la filiale de valorisation d'une université française (voir figure 1.4). A l'échelle internationale (Italie, Allemagne et Chine), Hussler et al. (2010) proposent un travail d'étude révélant la diversité des situations et des voies de valorisation selon les caractéristiques de la région. (2) De nombreux nouveaux acteurs de l'innovation ont vu le jour ces dernières décennies, certains au sein même des universités, transformant les relations universités-entreprises : d'un mode de fonctionnement centralisé, on assiste au développement de systèmes distribués, et l'université « pourvoyeuse de connaissances » évolue vers une forme plus « entrepreneuriale ». ...
Les systèmes d’innovation ont largement évolué, ces dernières décennies, vers des formes plus distribuées, au sein desquelles sont apparues des organisations d’intermédiation visant à développer de nouvelles modalités de collaborations entre sphères académique et économique. Dans le cadre d’une recherche - accompagnement sur une organisation intermédiaire atypique, créée par une grande université française, nous nous intéressons à la nature et à l’évolution des pratiques de valorisation, en étudiant la conception et la configuration de son business model (BM) sur neuf filières d’activité. Nous articulons le BM comme cadre d’analyse avec trois approches complémentaires, ce cadre élargi mais intégré permettant d’étudier les processus d’inscription du dispositif au sein des écosystèmes d’innovation et de valorisation préexistants. En effet, l’arrivée d’un nouvel acteur ne se fait pas sans tensions. L’étude des processus de conception du BM, l’analyse des proximités activées à différents niveaux, ainsi qu’une meilleure compréhension des dynamiques de formation et d’évolution d’un écosystème d’innovation nous permettent de contribuer à la dynamique de ce champ de recherche. Nos résultats portent sur les plans théorique (cadre intégrateur BM - proximités - écosystèmes), empirique (pratiques et BM pour la valorisation de la recherche universitaire) et praxéologique (instrumentation des managers des organisations intermédiaires).
... In fact, there is high heterogeneity from one case to another. This is because variables such as university's history, tradition, resources and organizational structure, beside the characteristics of the socio-economic system, have a high impact on its attitudes towards relationships with external partners and on its ability to play a key role in stimulating local development (Bercovitz and Feldman, 2006;Bronstein and Reihlen, 2014;Etzkowitz, 2004;Guerrero et al., 2014;Guerrero et al., 2015;Hussler et al., 2010;Martinelli et al., 2008;Powers and Mcdougall, 2005;Wright et al., 2007). Accordingly, "there is no typical way to be or become an entrepreneurial university" (Martinelli, Meyer and von Tunzelmann, 2008;p. ...
... As widely accepted in the literature, commercial performance of academic research is shaped by external contexts, since it is conditional on local specificities (e.g., Bronstein and Reihlen, 2014;Fini et al., 2011;Fini et al., 2017;Guerrero et al., 2014;Guerrero et al., 2015;Guerrero et al., 2018;Hussler et al., 2010;Kapetaniou and Lee, 2017;Powers and McDougall, 2005;Sternberg, 2014). In this regard, several contributions explored the reasons why universities in some countries create more spin-offs than others (e.g., Di O'Shea et al., 2008;Wright et al., 2004), and the reasons why in some contexts academics are more likely to engage in the commercialization of research than in others (e.g., Bercovitz and Feldman, 2006;Huyghe and Knockaert, 2015). ...
... Some specific institutional context variables received greater attention as potentially constraining or facilitating the university's entrepreneurial activities. These include the level of economic development, measured in terms of GDP per capita (e.g., Fini et al., 2017;Guerrero et al., 2018;Hussler et al., 2010;Liñán et al., 2011;Munari et al., 2016;Shirokova et al., 2018); the innovation culture and government support, measured in terms of investments in R &D (e.g., Autio et al., 2014;Fini et al., 2011;Fini et al., 2017;Hussler et al., 2010;Klofsten and Jones-Evans, 2000;O'Shea et al., 2008;Powers, 2004;Van Looy et al., 2011); and the social legitimacy of entrepreneurship (Kibler et al., 2014;Kibler et al., 2015;Kibler and Kautonen, 2016), measured in terms of self-employment rate (e.g., Autio et al., 2014;Shirokova et al., 2018;Sternberg, 2014). In fact, in countries with higher entrepreneurship rates, this is a more usual career path and a greater share of individuals is in contact with entrepreneurs and business owners. ...
This study explores the relationship between the entrepreneurial orientation of university departments and their entrepreneurial performance, in terms of academic entrepreneurship (spin-offs) and knowledge transfer (patents) outcomes. Moreover, we investigate how internal and external contextual variables interact in this relation. Using survey data from 294 heads of university departments in four different European countries (Italy, Spain, UK and Portugal), we found that entrepreneurial orientation is positively related to the number of spin-offs generated and that this relation is positively moderated by the departments’ age and size, as well as the country GDP per capita and R&D expenditure. Surprisingly, entrepreneurial orientation is negatively associated with the number of patents. We further explore the moderating role of contextual variables, discussing our results.
... Activity and sub-activity descriptions for the society domain. Unmet need identification The identification of unmet (socioeconomic) needs to inform research [26,27,45,46,47,48]. This involves assessing the current state-of-the-art (e.g. via public technology assessment tools, such as HTA in the public health sphere) and obtaining input from industrial and other societal actors. ...
... Demand articulation is required to inform public research organizations and academic researchers of specific needs for new knowledge. Articulated demands can play a mediating role between the policy and science domains [26,45]. ...
... Table 2 Activity and sub-activity descriptions for the science domain. Scoping and preparation S1 Generating research project ideas Generating and shaping (still abstract) ideas for research projects [27,45,47,50,51,52]. These may be inspired in a demand-pull way through interactions with societal actors (industrial, market or policydomain actors) [48,53,54]. ...
Despite their potential for preventing and reducing diseases, the availability of marketed probiotics with a relevant health or risk reduction claim is lagging behind. Food and pharmaceutical companies, as well as universities, are challenged to collaborate across the innovation value chain to deliver on the promises of microbiota research and development. A shared understanding of the knowledge valorization process is essential for the success of such public-private partnerships. Conceptual models enable stakeholders to discuss and understand complex processes and their corresponding activities but current models are lacking granularity in terms of activities taking place. Building upon the microbiota valorization and technology transfer cycle, this review synthesizes 32 conceptual models on knowledge valorization into a Societal Impact Value Cycle that describes relevant activities. The cycle is contextualized to the microbiota industry and 8 key points for successful innovation are highlighted. The model elucidates the importance of including unmet needs in wider society for generating socioeconomic benefits. While market and society domains contained the highest number of barriers in the probiotics industry, they were scarcely covered by the reviewed literature, highlighting their underexposure. The resulting generally applicable model aids stakeholders in outlining a thorough strategy to deliver really new and radical innovations.
... While high research intensive universities focused on the exploitation of IP and maximizing returns from research (see also Guerrero et al., 2015), low research intensive ones focused mainly on activities related to human capital development. Hussler et al. (2010), through the examination of academic entrepreneurship in Italy, Germany and China, put emphasis on the regional dimension of interactions. Their results suggest that differences among the technology transfer models emerge depending on regional characteristics: while European regions are characterized by an under-representation of mechanisms for the adoption/exploitation of academic research (like spin-offs, mobility of human capital or training programs), the Chinese region seems to put greater stress on direct valorisation mechanisms. ...
... These findings should stand as a cautionary tale against an adoption of the 'one-sizefits-all' model of the entrepreneurial university (Philpott et al., 2011;Sánchez-Barrioluengo, 2014). Some authors even conclude that there is no "unique and best way for academic research to contribute to regional economic development" (Hussler et al., 2010;p.515). Hence, we need to understand the ways in which the entrepreneurial university model has developed with a variety of triple helix interactions and orientations. ...
... ). Our findings echo previous studies confirming that there is no one model of triple helix interactions (e.g.Hewitt-Dundas, 2012;Hussler et al. 2010;Philpott et al., 2011;Sánchez- Barrioluengo, 2014), but further complements them by taking a longitudinal view of third mission performance over time.Some policy implications emerge from the empirical study for the UK and beyond.First, although the UK government stresses that universities should voluntarily choose appropriate functions (for example, ...
This paper examines the evolution of the dynamics of the triple helix interactions exemplified by the case of Higher Education Institutions (HEIs) in England. Results highlight the persisting heterogeneity between HEIs in their combination, geography and evolution of triple helix interactions, particularly between research oriented universities and newer universities with strong teaching orientations.
... Dentro de los estudios encontrados, los investigadores que tratan el tema desde el enfoque cualitativo (Albert & Laberge, 2007;Beerepoot, 2006;Breznitz & Taylor, 2014;Capó-Vicedo, Molina-Morales, & Capó, 2013;Doyle, 2010;Feakins, 2006;Fromhold-Eisebith & Werker, 2013;Fukugawa, 2008;Gordon, Hamilton, & Jack, 2012;Hennemann, 2011;Hoarau, 2014;Hussler, Picard, & Tang, 2010;Malecki, 2000;Perkmann, 2006;Zeller, 2001;Zhao, Song, Zhu, Peng, & Cai, 2013) aplicaron técnicas de recolección de información donde la observación de campo, las entrevistas, los análisis históricos y comparativos y, los estudios de caso aparecen como los más empleados en las regiones de Europa, China y Estados Unidos, escenarios donde más se trabaja en SRI. ...
... También sugieren que, como los recursos públicos en ocasiones son escasos, debe buscarse el desbordamiento del conocimiento (spillovers) y retornos de la inversión pública a través de la aplicación de benchmarking en políticas públicas de innovación. (Capó-Vicedo et al., 2013;Carson et al., 2013;Carvalho Ganzert & Pinheiro Martinelli, 2009;Fukugawa, 2008;Gao et al., 2011;Hong, 2008;Hussler et al., 2010;Schiller, 2011;Wei, 2009;Weidenfeld, 2013;Zabala-Iturriagagoitia et al., 2008) Los actores mencionados son importantes, pero las universidades podrían considerarse como el centro de los sistemas regionales de innovación, porque en los casos estudiados se les destaca como fuente de ventajas competitivas, eje, promotoras y catalizadoras de innovación, socios críticos, mediadores, generadores de conocimiento y su transferenciaen ocasiones limitada-gracias a que se enfocan en factores políticos e indicadores para mejorar las competencias internas, promueven los cambios estructurales a través de la implicación práctica de la cooperación, procuran alinear sus contribuciones con las necesidades de la innovación regional. (Allison & Eversole, 2008;Capó-Vicedo et al., 2012;Carson et al., 2013;Charles, 2006;Hong, 2008;Hussler et al., 2010;Liefner & Zeng, 2008;Maggioni, Uberti, & Usai, 2011;Parker & Hine, 2014;Schiller, 2006;Schiller, 2014;Su, Ali, & Sohn, 2011;Wei, 2009). ...
... (Capó-Vicedo et al., 2013;Carson et al., 2013;Carvalho Ganzert & Pinheiro Martinelli, 2009;Fukugawa, 2008;Gao et al., 2011;Hong, 2008;Hussler et al., 2010;Schiller, 2011;Wei, 2009;Weidenfeld, 2013;Zabala-Iturriagagoitia et al., 2008) Los actores mencionados son importantes, pero las universidades podrían considerarse como el centro de los sistemas regionales de innovación, porque en los casos estudiados se les destaca como fuente de ventajas competitivas, eje, promotoras y catalizadoras de innovación, socios críticos, mediadores, generadores de conocimiento y su transferenciaen ocasiones limitada-gracias a que se enfocan en factores políticos e indicadores para mejorar las competencias internas, promueven los cambios estructurales a través de la implicación práctica de la cooperación, procuran alinear sus contribuciones con las necesidades de la innovación regional. (Allison & Eversole, 2008;Capó-Vicedo et al., 2012;Carson et al., 2013;Charles, 2006;Hong, 2008;Hussler et al., 2010;Liefner & Zeng, 2008;Maggioni, Uberti, & Usai, 2011;Parker & Hine, 2014;Schiller, 2006;Schiller, 2014;Su, Ali, & Sohn, 2011;Wei, 2009). ...
... While high research intensive universities focused on the exploitation of IP and maximizing returns from research (see also Guerrero et al., 2015), low research intensive ones focused mainly on activities related to human capital development. Hussler et al. (2010), through the examination of academic entrepreneurship in Italy, Germany and China, put emphasis on the regional dimension of interactions. Their results suggest that differences among the technology transfer models emerge depending on regional characteristics: while European regions are characterized by an under-representation of mechanisms for the adoption/exploitation of academic research (like spin-offs, mobility of human capital or training programs), the Chinese region seems to put greater stress on direct valorisation mechanisms. ...
... These findings should stand as a cautionary tale against an adoption of the 'one-sizefits-all' model of the entrepreneurial university (Philpott et al., 2011;Sánchez-Barrioluengo, 2014). Some authors even conclude that there is no "unique and best way for academic research to contribute to regional economic development" (Hussler et al., 2010;p.515). Hence, we need to understand the ways in which the entrepreneurial university model has developed with a variety of triple helix interactions and orientations. ...
... ). Our findings echo previous studies confirming that there is no one model of triple helix interactions (e.g.Hewitt-Dundas, 2012;Hussler et al. 2010;Philpott et al., 2011;Sánchez- Barrioluengo, 2014), but further complements them by taking a longitudinal view of third mission performance over time.Some policy implications emerge from the empirical study for the UK and beyond.First, although the UK government stresses that universities should voluntarily choose appropriate functions (for example, ...
By looking at the case of English higher education, this paper addresses the tension between external isomorphic forces and
the heterogeneous nature of knowledge exchange activities at individual universities. It adopts an ‘institutional logic’ perspective
to explain the heterogeneous pathways that organisations take in response to external environments and their own strategic
choices. It draws from qualitative documentary analysis of the third mission institutional strategies of universities, as
well as data from the Higher Education Business Community Interaction Survey, to better understand the complex and intertwined
contexts of universities’ missions, strategies and perceived external environments. Against the ‘one-size-fit-all’ isomorphic
pressures, each university creates its own approaches and models of third mission by targeting different areas of activities,
partners and geographical areas, and by combining different set of missions, capabilities and resources. However, there is
a significant variety in the extent to which individual higher education institutions can actually implement these strategies.
... Research on the impacts of STPs on regional development (e.g., Dobrosavljević & Živković 2018;Kim et al., 2014;Molina et al., 2011;Yamamoto and Dos Reis Coutinho, 2019;Zeng et al., 2013), as well as the role of STPs in broader innovation policy (Yan et al., 2018), also remains important. A lack of infrastructure, government problems, negative incentives to R&D, lack of industrial clusters and links with universities, and managerial issues form big barriers for STPs' success (Cumming & Johan, 2013;Hussler et al., 2010;Link, 2019;Tonelli et al., 2015). Higher education policy is also important. ...
... Higher education policy is also important. Increasing expectations from policy-makers for universities to contribute to economic development (Hussler et al., 2010) by engaging in university-industry collaboration (Bishop et al., 2011) is an important part of the context for the development of STPs to support the third mission of universities. Nevertheless, STPs as institutionalized policies for local development are still underexplored, and they should be considered a gap to compose the agenda for future research (Tonelli et al., 2015). ...
As part of the third mission of universities to promote innovation and economic development, the popularity of science and technology parks (STPs) as a policy tool is increasing. The co-location of innovative companies and universities should be conducive to knowledge exchange between universities and industry, thus leading to more innovation. However, STPs have evolved in different contexts and to serve different purposes. Furthermore, the research on them has evolved mainly through case studies of individual parks and it is scattered across different disciplinary conversations. Building on 1,711 articles published from 1985 onwards, this study presents a systematic literature review of research on STPs and their relationships with universities. We find three different phases in the evolution of this literature: a formation phase (before 2000), where the focus was on the creation of STPs; a geographical expansion phase (2000–2010) reflecting the geographical expansion of STPs to East Asia and other emerging economies, with heavy focus on high-technology firms mainly in ICT; and a topical expansion phase (2011 onwards) when the literature expands to cover a diversity of new topics, including open innovation and sustainability, reflecting broader changes in the understanding of innovation.
... While highly research-intensive universities tend to focus on the exploitation of IP and maximising returns from research (see also Guerrero et al., 2015), low research-intensive ones tend to focus mainly on activities related to human capital development. Hussler, Picard, and Tang (2010) compared the approaches to academic valorisation activities in three different regions in Italy, Germany and China. They observed strong differences in terms of the key actors, with a strong focus on small and medium enterprises (SMEs) in Milan vis à vis medium and large firms in Chongqing in China, and the types of instruments used to support KE, with greater use of direct mechanisms for the adoption/exploitation of academic research like spin-offs, mobility of human capital or training programmes in Chongqing compared to the European regions. ...
... Universities adopt different configurations of activities, which can be seen as the result of changes in their internal capabilities, traditional trajectories and surrounding structural and functional changes (Wittrock, 1993). Our findings echo previous studies confirming that there is no one model of the entrepreneurial university (e.g., Benneworth et al., 2016;Hewitt-Dundas, 2012;Hussler et al., 2010;Philpott et al., 2011;Sánchez-Barrioluengo, across different activities, partners and geographic interactions. Second, in terms of regional development policy, increased concentration of funding in particular types of HEIs, combined with the reduction of incentives for regional and SME engagement, may constrain universities' capability and resources to address specific economic and social needs, particularly in their local areas, thus potentially aggravating regional disparities in innovation and economic growth. ...
There has been strong policy interest in universities becoming more entrepreneurial and engaging in knowledge exchange activities as part of an expanding third mission agenda. However, our understanding of the evolution and diversity of such activities is limited. Using longitudinal data from the Higher Education Business Community Interaction (HEBCI) Survey, this study examines the evolving configuration of universities' knowledge exchange activities and stakeholders by analysing distinctive clusters of English universities. We find an increasingly diverse profile of third mission activities across different types of universities: within old, more established universities, Russell Group universities increasingly focus on research‐oriented activities typically in partnership with large firms and non‐commercial organisations; while another group engages in a broad range of knowledge exchange activities with low specialisation over time. Newer, less research intensive, universities increasingly rely on activities such as consultancy and formation of spin‐offs. A decreased engagement with small and medium enterprises and a lower share of knowledge exchange activities at the regional level are observed across the time studied for all universities.
... Some universities combine these activities with their education efforts, resulting in more applied education programs (Coman, 2008;Harris & Gibson, 2008;Mallick & Chaudhury, 2000;Solomon & Fernald, 1991). Today there is wide acceptance of the growing importance of university spin-off activity and technology transfer (Bathelt et al. , 2010;Hoye & Pries, 2009;Hussler et al.,2010;Linton, 2009;Prodan & Drnovsek, 2010). Although the role of universities is increasingly recognized by governments (Rasmussen, 2008) and perhaps less so by business media (Linton, 2010), changes at public universities still occur relatively slowly. ...
... Much of the existing research in this area examines the interaction between the university and industry, or research commercialization at the university level. Researchers have observed an existence of differentiated tools identified for technology transfer at the regional level (Hussler et al., 2010), as well as a variety of business models available to transfer an innovation from the academic world to the practitioner realm (Pries & Guild, 2010). Some researchers focus on the academic inventor, their intentions (Prodan & Drnovsek, 2010), or their propensity to reengage in commercialization (Pries & Guild, 2010). ...
... This makes them difficult to understand and unlikely to be used by practitioners (Aken, 2004;Moody, 2005). Moreover, most of these models describe parts of the valorisation process but fail to provide an overarching perspective of the complete process for all stakeholders involved (Hussler, Picard, & Tang, 2010). The lack of a common, overarching perspective on knowledge valorisation is likely to result in many process inefficiencies and consequently there is a need for further insight and an improved understanding of valorisation processes (Leydesdorff, 2010;Van den Nieuwboer et al., 2015). ...
... e reservoir, but the use of knowledge from the Academic Response Reservoir is implicitly present in every step of the SIVC. Furthermore, since the current model aims to elucidate the link between activities executed in domains, the science domain is shown as being integral to the subsequent development of the created knowledge. Picard, & Tang, 2013. Hussler et al. (2010. Taking the ivory from the tower to coat the economic world: Regional strategies to make science useful. ...
Scientific advancement and advancements in information technology have increased our capability for sharing information, and spreading scientific discoveries throughout society. In the past decade the Dutch government has been trying to stimulate the knowledge economy through various means. Among them the stimulation of the founding of the Dutch Centres for Entrepreneurship, and the Valorisation programme. However, over the years, publication volume has become the main indicator for being a successful scientist. This focus on publications and research disincentivizes scientists from activities that generate more concrete value for society. The Societal Impact Value Cycle seeks to offer scientists and others a toolbox for visualising and understanding the way innovation can be fostered, and how other processes can foster scientific research in return. It also maps the way by which an innovation ecosystem generates socio-economic value from academic activities. It should be noted that not all scientific research leads to innovations that generate value for society, and not all research is intended to change the course of events. Nonetheless, fostering cooperation between research institutes and societal stakeholders, and increasing awareness of how entrepreneurial skills and activities could not only lead to a return on investments necessary for scientific advancement, but also increase the societal impact from academic endeavours. This could benefit our society, and societies worldwide, both socially and economically. This publication will offer valuable insight and an effective toolbox for people interested in socio-economic value creation from scientific research, or, in other words, valorisation. Therewith, it lays at the heart of Stichting Maatschappij en Onderneming’s daily occupations and our close cooperation with the Erasmus University Rotterdam.
... Isto significa que nem todas as universidades precisam adotar o mesmo comportamento em termos de política de suporte à inovação (HUSSLER; PICARD;TANG, 2010). Nesse sentido é necessário estudar mais a fundo a articulação entre a universidade e a sociedade para promover a compreensão mais profunda sobre o papel de cada uma nessa relação para a produção de inovação. ...
... Isto significa que nem todas as universidades precisam adotar o mesmo comportamento em termos de política de suporte à inovação (HUSSLER; PICARD;TANG, 2010). Nesse sentido é necessário estudar mais a fundo a articulação entre a universidade e a sociedade para promover a compreensão mais profunda sobre o papel de cada uma nessa relação para a produção de inovação. ...
As universidades enquanto geradoras e difusoras de conhecimento são agentes de inovação quando interagem com o meio. O papel da universidade no amparo à inovação depende também do contexto regional, isto significa que nem todas as universidades precisam adotar o mesmo comportamento em termos de política de suporte à inovação. Nesse sentido é necessário estudar mais a fundo a articulação entre a universidade e a sociedade para promover a compreensão mais profunda sobre o papel de cada uma nessa relação para a produção de inovação. Com vistas a conhecer melhor a área e verificar se esta percepção procede foi realizada uma revisão sistemática da literatura e pesquisa documental. Assim, este artigo visa aprofundar essa análise através da realização de uma revisão sistemática que foi executada a partir das sete etapas básicas propostas por JACKSON et al (2004). Com base nessa discussão, são levantados documentos que relatam o funcionamento do Sistema Nacional de Inovação Brasileiro e, a partir da interface entre os resultados da revisão sistemática e da análise documental, foi desenhado o papel da universidade nesse sistema. Também foram identificados fatores catalisadores da inovação que apontam para resultados da pesquisa acadêmica que impactam no desenvolvimento econômico. Sugere-se que este trabalho seja seguido de pesquisa empírica que possa demonstrar resultados práticos do papel das universidades na inovação.
... For these reasons, most SMEs continue to rely on informal networks and suppliers, and they do not consider the potential benefits that might be generated by KIS (Hussler et al., 2010). ...
... In this regard, past public policies intended to foster innovation and collaborations in SMEs have been only partially effective. One reason could be that policy-makers encouraged the diffusion of academic research results instead of helping SMEs to access and use external knowledge (Hussler et al., 2010). Another reason could be that traditional policies had inherent problems for SMEs related to the size of the projects and administrative burdens (Andersson, 2000). ...
This study analyses the effects and dynamics behind a new type of innovation policy for Small and Medium Enterprises (SMEs): innovation vouchers. This policy is aimed at encouraging SMEs to collaborate with universities and with organisations offering Knowledge Intensive Services. Despite its innovativeness and growing diffusion, the innovation voucher has received only limited attention in the literature. After reviewing the literature on R&D collaborations and innovation vouchers, the article conducts in-depth analysis on two innovation voucher programs in the Lombardy region (Italy). The analysis is based on seven case studies of SMEs that have benefitted from this policy. The results highlight how innovation vouchers have influenced the development of innovation projects and technological collaboration in SMEs. The article concludes with discussion on the effectiveness of the voucher policy, its limitations and policy implications.
... Generally, typologies range from favorable positions, called new school (Owen-Smith and Powell 2001) or entrepreneurial (Lam 2011), to resistant positions, passing for hybrid profiles in which the idea of collaborating with industry coexists with the idea of maintaining clear boundaries between academia and industry. At the macro-foundation level, scholars have argued that the universities and their local region context seem to adopt similar strategies or tools to handle the entrepreneurial challenges, following imitation processes (Baldini et al. 2012;Hussler et al. 2010). For example, while analyzing the Italian case, Baldini et al. (2012) observed a flattened trend on entrepreneurial productivity after 2005, even when the three most important strategies were adopted, including spin-off, patent and collaboration regulations. ...
... Both commercialization and academic engagement appear to be pursued. This approach has been thought to be particularly effective for the third mission (Philpott et al. 2011), because it provides different approaches to be followed, in line with the characteristics of a context (Hussler et al. 2010). ...
An invisible revolution, known as the third mission, is claimed to be occurring within universities. Accordingly, the canonical missions associated with research and teaching have been integrated with the one aimed at territorial development. But do all universities conceive the third mission in the same way? This paper tries to elucidate which organizational orientations emerge by classifying the espoused values embedded within the statutes of 75 Italian universities. Using a qualitative content analysis, we highlighted four orientation patterns: first, need for coherence, focused on balancing public functions and third-mission activities; second, exploitation, focused on patent disclosure; third, openness, readiness to participate in external change and to satisfy external needs; and finally, old school, focused on entrepreneurial activities as a source of funding. This classification shows a more complex phenomenon for the institutionalization of the third mission with respect to a simple binary public-private opposition.
... Research shows that there is no best way to implement the entrepreneurial and engaged university concept (Hussler et al., 2010 Transitioning to an entrepreneurial and engaged university demands integrating project-based experiential learning into education, seeking useful implications for research outputs, and developing a network of public and private partners (Etzkowitz et al., 2019). Public venture capital can initiate the transition (Etzkowitz et al., 2008), but there is a need for caution because a strong top-down push can discourage academic engagement (Philpott et al., 2011). ...
The entrepreneurial and engaged university concept calls for utilizing the university’s knowledge to create economic and social impact. Its accomplishment, however, is challenging and thus requires an investigation. This research responds to this call first by exploring the ways that the concept can be realized at the graduate school of education and second by studying what kind of leadership is needed for successfully implementing it.
The empirical study was guided by a framework developed from the literature review. It employed the case study research strategy, and the selected case is the Harvard Graduate School of Education. Qualitative data from multiple reliable sources was analyzed using the method of theoretical thematic analysis.
The empirical study revealed four findings for the graduate school of education. First, adopting the broad-sense definition of the entrepreneurial and engaged university concept is more appropriate. Second, the impact extends to the country and the world, thus it is not limited to the region. Third, the observed ways to implement the concept are entrepreneurship by students, providing entrepreneurship training, consulting and training leaders in the industry, and conducting transformative research. Fourth, successfully implementing the entrepreneurial and engaged university concept demands both entrepreneurial and collaborative leadership. While entrepreneurial leadership promotes entrepreneurial agency and makes the university more entrepreneurial, collaborative leadership promotes collaborative agency and makes the university more engaged. This research unveils the ways to exercise these two types of leadership.
... Multilevel configurations are supported with governance arrangements with polycentric characteristics that could strike a balance between centralized and fully decentralized or community-based governance (Carlisle and Gruby, 2019;Imperial, 1999). The ability to create systems of governance that are more selective in local and regional specificities has been seen as central to innovation systems (Hussler et al., 2010). However, for such a governance system to exist, there needs to be better coordination between these decision-making centers. ...
Although for a long time policy has emphasized the role of intellectual property rights as a growth agent facilitating innovation, the literature has called into question this relationship. Critical studies have focused on studying policy frames and protection modes that could transform the intellectual property rights system to be more beneficial. Studies have not, however, focused on the intellectual property rights system stakeholders in cocreating the system. Our study contributes to the literature by uncovering the tensions in developing a national-level intellectual property rights strategy. Using the Delphi method, we draw from a broad stakeholder dialogue to show the barriers for intellectual property rights system development. Our results highlight that the development of intellectual property rights system is challenged by a lack of inclusiveness, matching capabilities, and high levels of disagreement among the stakeholders on development paths.
... University-industry collaboration can also expand the relevance of research outcome in public institutions, foster the commercialization of public R&D outcomes, and increase the mobility of labor between public and private sectors (AbebeAssefa, 2016). In a similar way, firms' interaction with universities may grant access to specialized knowledge and the opportunity to conduct high-quality research (Hussler, 2010;Laursen, 2004), thereby creating new possibilities for innovation development (Cohen, 2002;Barnett, 2011). ...
... Linkages between SMEs and knowledge suppliers can foster innovation. However, SMEs are not very effective at identifying their needs and accessing relevant knowledge (Hussler et al., 2010). Some guidance to address these weaknesses can be useful. ...
Innovation vouchers are policy instruments supporting the collaboration of small and medium enterprises (SMEs) with specialized knowledge suppliers. These innovation vouchers are typically appreciated by beneficiaries because of their simple application and reporting procedures. However, because of their small size, innovation vouchers seem to have relatively limited impacts. This study analyzes the outcome of an innovation voucher scheme through a survey of 582 Italian firms receiving these vouchers in 2011. Findings show that the effects of the vouchers are mainly indirect: the vouchers foster new skills development and trigger unforeseen results. Given the local nature of the voucher measure, results also control for geographical, technological, and social proximity among beneficiaries and suppliers.
... It is argued that, within the context of the changing landscape of knowledge production, universities need to embrace the third mission of economic and social development, along with the traditional roles of teaching and research. In effect, the university of the future is seen as the entrepreneurial university able to function, not merely as knowledge factory but as a boundary-spanning innovation hub bringing industry actors and government stakeholders together Bjerregaard, 2010;Hussler, Picard and Tang, 2010). For developing countries, there are specific challenges for universities to grapple with in order to make this transition. ...
Against the backdrop of a Nigerian government directive to make entrepreneurship education compulsory in Nigeria's higher education institutions, this chapter assesses the current state of entrepreneurship education provision and how a new model of partnership between university, industry and public sector stakeholders can facilitate improved delivery and better outcomes of EE programmes. The chapter therefore draws from the Triple Helix theory to propose a new conceptual framework to examine the prospects and opportunities for multi-stakeholder co-creation of entrepreneurship education. The framework is further explored in the light of the case study of Covenant University, a leading Nigerian university that has had some considerable success in delivery of EE programmes. The chapter concludes with recommendations a new collaborative approach to entrepreneurship education design and delivery, and support for the emergence of new entrepreneurial universities that are better equipped for both knowledge production and knowledge capitalisation.
... The organization of close interaction with the environment and with all stakeholders is a key element of the University 4.0 concept (Dewar, 2017). The interaction of enterprises with universities provides them with access to knowledge and opportunities for research at a high-quality level (Hussler et al., 2010;von Raesfeld et al., 2012), as well as for innovative development (Dahlander & Gann, 2010;Estrada et al., 2016;Galán-Muros & Plewa, 2016). Various studies are conducted to identify the conditions for effective collaboration between enterprises and universities (Bruneel et al., 2010;Mueller, 2006; Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development [OECD], 2019). ...
Universities play a vital role in innovation ecosystems. Besides, their role is being transformed and reinforced due to the interdisciplinary nature of modern innovations and inter-sectoral collaboration in the process of implementing cross-industry projects. The article’s main objective is to reveal the emerging new goals, functions, and goals of university as knowledge integrator and consolidator within cross-industry ecosystem. The article introduces the approaches to the implementation of the cross-industry ecosystem integrator functions as an “entry point” for the creation of new ideas, competencies, technological solutions, and projects for the development and testing of new technologies. The research results are useful for academics and policy makers in emerging economies to adopt and consider, so as to improve the contribution of the universities to the country’s economic and innovation development.
... The literature mentions several factors that shape the development of a newly established institute's transfer model (Arnold et al. 1998;Tö dtling and Trippl 2005;Hussler et al. 2010;Hewitt-Dundas and Roper 2011;Trippl et al. 2018). Three are particularly relevant. ...
China has long struggled to make science and technology useful for industry. One essential element in overcoming this problem is vigorous knowledge infrastructure development. This paper focuses on the most salient outcomes of recent organization-building initiatives in Guangdong: the “New R&D Institutes” (NRDIs). We employ a process tracing approach including a mix of methods to systematically study NRDIs, and we examine the ways in which these institutes extend, and improve upon, previous Chinese approaches to technology transfer. We observe a flexible approach that engages a wide range of intra-regional and extra-regional knowledge actors and allows for the emergence of a variety of technology transfer models – including models that are better adapted to the local setting than those discussed in the literature. The paper contributes to fragmentary knowledge on the role of technology transfer in China and to the literature on innovation policy in peripheral manufacturing regions.
... Hülsbeck, Lehmann, and Starnecker (2013) used the number of invention disclosures as a performance measure and revealed that technology transfer office (TTO) performance is mainly a function of the kind of labor division within the TTO and the research intensity of the university. Other studies in the context of entrepreneurial universities have focused on technology relatedness in university-industry interactions (Bathelt, Kogler, & Munro, 2010), characteristics of repeat commercializers (Hoye & Pries, 2009), research valorization (Hussler, Picard, & Tang, 2010), commercialization implementation process (Linton, 2009), academic-entrepreneurial intentions (Prodan & Drnovsek, 2010), role of university culture in commercialization outcomes (Braunerhjelm, 2007;Hsu, 2007) and academic entrepreneurship (Etzkowitz, 2011). These studies imply that being entrepreneurially oriented can be a driving force behind the organizational pursuit of entrepreneurial activities (Covin & Wales, 2012). ...
Research Summary
As a firm‐level attribute, entrepreneurial orientation (EO)'s beneficial relationship to firm performance has been established in the corporate sector; however, its implications in other sectors including university settings remain a rather underexplored area. Based on a sample of 107 universities in the United States, we examine the impact of EO on a wide range of university performance measures from commercialization of intellectual property to more comprehensive university performance metrics. Our findings underscore the critical importance of EO in the context of universities and also reveal the moderation effects of university characteristics such as size and the presence of science, technology, engineering and math (STEM) focus.
Managerial Summary
This study examines the impact of EO on university performance. Our findings can be of significance to higher education administrators in several ways. First, we draw attention to the need to recognize university EO as the glue that binds resources together for discovery and exploitation of opportunities. Furthermore, the evidence connecting EO to the U.S. News and World rankings demonstrates that leveraging university EO has potential to impact metrics that many of its stakeholders pay attention to. In addition, our findings suggest that large universities and those with a STEM focus are able to better leverage the EO shift upward in their rankings, which provides guidance for university administrators on how to strategically create and develop new academic programs.
... However, whereas some have identified that the vaccine industry evaluates the business case and the scientific feasibility to set priorities for R&D [20], a thorough description of criteria used to evaluate the progress of vaccine innovation activities is lacking. Finally, stakeholders from different domains have diverging norms and priorities, complicating cross-domain collaborations [35][36][37]. Public and private stakeholders from academia, public health institutes, regulators, industry, SMEs, health care professionals, vaccine users, and policymakers, therefore have to bridge their own perspective in order to effectively collaborate with each other [16,21,38,39]. ...
Continuing investments in vaccine innovation are insufficiently translated into market entries of novel vaccines. This innovation paradox is in part caused by stakeholders lacking complete understanding of the complex array of steps necessary for vaccine development and collaboration difficulties between the wide variety of stakeholders involved. Models providing cross-domain understanding can improve collaboration but currently lack both comprehensibility and granularity to enable a prioritized view of activities and criteria. Key opinion leaders (KOLs) were asked to contribute to the definition of a vaccine innovation cycle (VIC). In a first step, 18 KOLs were interviewed on the stages (activities and results) and gates (evaluation criteria and outcomes) of vaccine innovation. This first description of the VIC was subsequently validated and refined through a survey among 46 additional KOLs. The VIC identifies 29 distinct stages and 28 corresponding gates, distributed in ten different but integrated workstreams, and comprehensibly depicted in a circular innovation model. Some stage-gates occur at defined moments, whereas the occurrence and timing of other stage-gates is contingent on a variety of contextual factors. Yet other stage-gates continuously monitor internal and external developments. A gap-overlap analysis of stage-gate criteria demonstrated that 5 out of 11 criteria employed by vaccine developers correspond with criteria employed by competent (regulatory) authorities. The VIC provides a comprehensive overview of stage-gates throughout the value chain of vaccine innovation. Its cyclical nature highlights the importance of synchronizing with unmet needs and market changes, and conceptualizes the difference between incremental and radical vaccine innovation. Knowledge on the gap between internal and external criteria will enhance the viability of newcomers to the field. The VIC can be used by stakeholders to improve understanding and communication in forming collaborative alliances and consortia. Such a boundary-spanning function may contribute to the reduction of process inefficiencies, especially in public-private partnerships.
... On the one hand, HEIs' strategic behaviour has been explored mainly in relation to 5 their teaching and research missions (Adcroft, Teckman, and Willis 2010;Bonaccorsi, Daraio, and Simar 2006;Bonaccorsi and Daraio 2008) and sometimes to third mission or engagement activities (e.g. Hussler, Picard, and Tang 2010;Hewitt-Dundas 2012), without considering HEIs' stakeholder prioritisation. On the other hand, stakeholder engagement has been discussed in the context of HE governance (Bleiklie and Kogan 2007;Chou et al. 2017), and with regard to the alignment of curricula to different stakeholders and particularly students (stakeholder curricula, e.g. ...
It has been suggested that higher education institutions (HEIs) may develop different activity profiles (including research, teaching and socio-economic engagement) in their attempt to maximise the fit between institutional resources and strategic opportunities; the latter include strategies of engagement with different groups of external stakeholders. Understanding the extent to which HEIs’ resources and activity profiles are aligned with their strategic prioritisation of stakeholder groups, allows us to better understand the different ways in which HEIs drive socioeconomic development. Using non-parametric techniques – qualitative and quantitative ordinal multidimensional scaling – applied to data on the universe of HEIs in the United Kingdom, we show that HEIs with different institutional resources and undertaking different sets of activities prioritise their engagement with different stakeholder groups. We also confirm the complex associations between HEIs’ institutional resources, activity profiles and stakeholder prioritisation strategies, which lock HEIs into configurations that are difficult to change.
... Technology-based business incubator (TBI), which is an overall denomination for organizations that constitute or create a supportive environment to foster new technologybased firms (NTBFs), has become ubiquitous worldwide (Bergek and Norrman, 2008;Chan and Lau, 2005). As a fast developing economy, the central government of China emphasizes the importance of TBIs for nurturing NTBFs to support the indigenous innovation strategy (Armanios et al., 2016;Huang et al., 2013;Hussler et al., 2010;Sutherland, 2005). From the 1980s, TBIs have become a crucial "science and technology initiative to promote technology transfer and diffusion" in China (Hu, 2007, p. 77). ...
Purpose
This study aims to explore key factors and specific ways for the upgrade to hybrid incubators in the context of China. A hybrid incubator means that a technology-based business incubators (TBIs) can implement various distinct value creation processes with the integration of the advantages of non-for-profit and for-profit TBIs at same time as Chinese government now requires government-sponsored non-for-profit TBIs to be profitable self-sustainability with less dependent on direct public subsidies, aiming to motivate these TBIs to provide higher quality services for their tenant new technology-based firms (NTBFs).
Design/methodology/approach
This study conducts a single in-depth case-study of Tuspark Incubator (located in Tsinghua Science Park [TSP]) with categorical analysis.
Findings
Three factors, i.e. incubation subdivision, intermediary platform and proactive approach, are found to be essential for a formerly government-sponsored TBI’s upgrading. Incubation subdivision enables Tuspark Incubator to create multiple incubation processes with incubator characteristic variables of both non-for-profit and for-profit incubators; with the establishment of intermediary platform, Tuspark Incubator provides specialized business support and high-quality networking from relevant specialized service organizations external to the incubator; more proactive approach with equity investment on incubating firms from Tuspark Incubator help to generate social welfare and financial profit at the same time.
Practical implications
For the incubators’ managers, incubation subdivision enables TBIs to operate for-profit and non-for-profit processes at the same time and provides different specific needs; more open intermediary service platforms can leverage the full potential of the actors in innovation system and help TBIs to save resource when upgrading to hybrid incubators; proactive approaches nurture learning climate and entrepreneurship environment to enhance the successful rate on NTBFs inside incubators and provide main profit source for incubators. For policy makers, using proactive approaches including creating a good milieu for incubation on technology-based start-ups and the design of public guidance funds is increasingly crucial.
Originality/value
This research is a pioneering study on the key factors and specific ways for the upgrade of government-sponsored non-for-profit TBIs in China to hybrid for-profit and non-for-profit incubators.
... In this context, there is a combined need for continued technical support from the technology source [Hussler et al. (2010)] as well as for resources from the local business community [Goldhor and Lund (1983)] and integration into the local business environment [Donckels and Courtmans (1990)], to the point that the state of development of the local community a®ects how the CEO's previous knowledge can be leveraged [West and Noel (2009)]. More generally, it is accepted that technology transfer needs a solid base of \long and stable relationships" between universities and the business sector [Massa and Testa (2008)]. ...
High-technology new firms are an important source of strong economic value and spillovers. It is therefore theoretically and practically important to understand the antecedents to their creation. This study focuses on understanding attitudinal, situational and personal characteristics associated with entrepreneurial activity by academic inventors. We surveyed patent holders and examined differences between entrepreneur inventors (EIs) and non-entrepreneur inventors (NEIs) in many dimensions. In demographic variables, EIs are more likely male, who have had a career in academic institutions. They were actively involved in technology development with grants used to validate the commercial potential of the technology and in a large number of contacts in the industry. They were also involved in business activities outside of their employment that required technical skills. EIs who had commercialization support from their regions were more likely to become entrepreneurs. The ones who exhibited innovative behavior were also more likely to become entrepreneurs. We used these differences to predict inventors who were more likely to become entrepreneurs using these demographic, personal characteristics, situational and attitudinal descriptors using discriminant functions with very good success. The model to forecast the inventors’ likely path to commercializing their technologies can have practical implications for universities and public policy-makers.
... Since the mid-1990s, initiatives typically became based on more internal drives at university, for instance the establishment of spin-off firms by graduates and staff, and patenting/licensing. As a result, today, a wide spectrum of motives and modes/channels of transfer and commercialization is part of the research policy of 'entrepreneurial' universities, and this activity is officially considered one of the tasks of universities (Etzkowitz, 2008;Hussler et al., 2010;Rasmussen and Borch, 2010; van Looy et al., 2011;Martin, 2012). For example, in the Netherlands, the commercialization of knowledge was officially recognized as the 'third mission' in 2008, and it has been substantiated in a national policy program called the 'Valorization program' (Innovation Platform, 2009). ...
Universities increasingly are taking on the commercialization of knowledge as their third mission. More recently, they appear to be challenged to go even beyond that mission and adopt more interactive relationships with user groups and society. A shift like this calls for a solid study on how well the knowledge commercialization has performed at university in recent years. Focussing on a European country, the Netherlands, this paper provides a characterization of that performance and the underlying factors, and in particular the boundary-spanning capacity of university teams. In an analysis of trends in commercialization, involving almost 370 university-driven technology projects, we observe that 22% of all older projects succeed in market access within ten years after start of the project. For younger ones, this is 15% of all projects within 5 years after start. To clarify these possibly low levels, a rough-set analysis of about 40 technology projects is carried out, pointing to the years of collaboration with a large firm/user organization and an efficient use of resources as positive influences on commercialization, while affinity among project managers with the market also tends to be a key factor. Despite a general trend of more permeable university-industry boundaries, it deserves recommendation to further increase boundary-spanning activities, among other things through co-creation labs.
... Some of these challenges are said to be applicable in both developed and developing countries (Yokoyama, 2006). Echoing this viewpoint, Hussler, Picard, and Tang (2010) argue that contextual difference may lead to more challenges towards entrepreneurial university, with a greater pressure for those of developing ones. ...
The fact that universities have become complex organisations characterised by multiple missions including teaching, research, and entrepreneurship agenda served as a starting point for this enquiry. This study strives to offer a deeper insight into the views of the academics pertaining to the creation of an entrepreneurial university ideal within the context of a research university. The underlying complexities in achieving this mission were extracted from a series of semi-structured interviews conducted among academicians spanning the diverse disciplines within the university. The findings revealed a vast array of definitions given to the concept of an entrepreneurial university that ranges from the soft spectrum to the hard spectrum of entrepreneurial activities. This study adds value to the existing literature through the identification of dilemmas surrounding the creation of the entrepreneurial university that encompass challenges related to the academic resistance, internal factors and social capital issues. It is concluded that the right balancing between teaching, research and entrepreneurship is crucial to ensure that learning institutions do not digress from their core functions. Effective links between university, industry and government could assist to fast-track the transition from the traditional university to the entrepreneurial university concept.Key words: academic entrepreneurship; entrepreneurial university; university-industry link.---Činjenica da su sveučilišta postala kompleksne organizacije koje provode raznovrsne i višestruke aktivnosti poput predavanja, istraživanja i poduzetničkih aktivnosti, služila je kao polazište ovog istraživanja. Cilj mu je omogućiti dublji uvid u stajališta akademika vezano uz stvaranje idealnog poduzetničkog sveučilišta u kontekstu istraživačkog sveučilišta. Temeljna kompleksna pitanja bitna za postizanje ovoga cilja dobivena su polustrukturiranim intervjuom provedenim s akademicima iz različitih sveučilišnih disciplina. Rezultati su pokazali širok raspon definicija poduzetničkog sveučilišta koje variraju od mekog do tvrdog spektra poduzetničkih aktivnosti. Ovo istraživanje daje dodatnu vrijednost postojećoj literaturi prepoznavanjem dilema koje postoje oko stvaranja poduzetničkog sveučilišta, a koje obuhvaćaju i izazove povezane s akademskim otporom, unutarnjim faktorima i pitanjima društvenog kapitala. Zaključak je da je pravilan omjer poučavanja, istraživanja i poduzetništva neophodan da bi se osiguralo da obrazovne institucije ne odstupaju od svojih temeljnih funkcija. Učinkovite veze između sveučilišta, industrije i vlade mogle bi pomoći brzoj tranziciji iz tradicionalnog sveučilišta u poduzetničko sveučilište.Ključne riječi: akademsko poduzetništvo; poduzetničko sveučilište; veza između sveučilišta i industrije
... The most obvious example of value realisation is commercialisation whether through direct or indirect adoption of a new technology by industry or through a spin-out company. Technology transfer may work through user communities (Cummings and Teng, 2003;Oswald, 2005;Shanthy, 2011) or as part of regional development programmes (Hussle et al., 2010). Another form of value realisation may be in creating behaviour change in community contexts (for example, Kanouse et al., 1995;Dietrich et al., 2003;Russell, 2007), or changing the practice of professional practitioners (Ousley et al., 2010), or changing public policy (Kerner and Hall, 2009). ...
The objective of the paper is to demonstrate how the theoretical ideas of service-dominant
logic (S-D logic) can usefully be applied to innovation through collaboration among
university, industry and government. The debate around S-D logic has stimulated much
discussion of three areas that are particularly pertinent in considering the co-creation
of knowledge within the Triple Helix. The first area relates to understanding the
nature of the resources provided by all the parties involved and the process through
which they are integrated. The second area relates to interaction among the parties
involved. The third and most complex area relates to how value is perceived by the
different parties. This discussion leads to a proposed model of the co-creation process
and four suggested research agendas: Research Agenda One, looking at the resources
supplied by the parties and their integration; Research Agenda Two, concerning the
interaction practices that enhance co-creation; Research Agenda Three, exploring what
value propositions will motivate the different parties to co-create; and Research
Agenda Four, considering how co-creation modifies the resources of the parties involved.
A model of the co-creation process that encompasses these four research agendas and
provides a conceptual framework to analyse Triple Helix initiatives is proposed. Some
practical implications are then discussed relating to the challenges posed for researchers.
... Hülsbeck et al, 2013 used the number of invention disclosures as a performance measure and revealed that TTO performance is mainly a function of the kind of labor division within the TTO and the research intensity of the university. Other studies in the context of entrepreneurial universities have focused on technology relatedness in universityindustry interactions (Bathelt, Kogler, & Munro, 2010), characteristics of repeat commercializers (Hoye and Pries, 2009), research valorization (Hussler, Picard, & Tang, 2010), commercialization implementation process (Linton, 2009), academic-entrepreneurial intentions (Prodan and Drnovsek, 2010), role of university culture in commercialization outcomes ( Braunerhjelm, 2007;Hsu et al, 2007) and academic entrepreneurship (Etzkowitz, 2011 Further, the entrepreneurial university is a result of the working out of an "inner logic" of academic development with expanded focus on teaching to research. The internal organization of a research university consists of a series of research groups that have firm-like qualities, especially under conditions in which research funding is awarded on a competitive basis (Etzkowitz, 2003). ...
Entrepreneurial orientation (EO) has been examined immensely through a growing stream of research in both entrepreneurship and strategic management literature. As a firm-level attribute, the beneficial relationship to firm performance has been established in the corporate sector leaving EO’s implications in other sectors including university settings a rather underexplored area. Further, measurement of EO has been dominated by use of scales of initially proposed by Miller, warranting need for alternative method development. Our study adds to the body of literature that seeks to understand the dimensionality of EO and in contexts other than firms. We employ the use of content analysis of university president letters to measure university EO and establish its relationship to both commercialization of intellectual property and regional business development outcomes. The findings have significant managerial implications for higher education administrators as institutional adaptiveness, capacity of universities to generate new knowledge and facilitate spillovers that spur regional economic growth are true reflections of university entrepreneurialism.
... On the other hand, literature describes the organizational innovations set up by universities to accomplish their third mission of economic development. It is manifest the heterogeneity from one case to another (Etzkowitz, 2004;Martinelli et al., 2008;Hussler et al., 2010). Based on the examples observed around the world, Etzkowitz (2004) describes the paths of the evolution towards the entrepreneurial university model, starting with the institution of an industrial liaison office, followed by the setting up of a technology transfer office, and, finally, the creation of an incubator. ...
In the context of public universities the use of the entrepreneurial orientation construct is not widespread and still there is no precise definition of what it means. It is, in fact, necessary to consider the peculiarities of universities and then adopt a coherent operationalization of the construct. The main aim of this paper is to identify the determinant attributes of the entrepreneurial orientation within the Italian universities. To this aim, the study moves from a recent and innovative definition of the public universities' entrepreneurial orientation proposed in the literature, and is based on survey data from 103 Italian university departments. A multiple regression analysis and an importance-performance analysis are used to investigate the relationship between the dimensions and the single items used to operationalize the entrepreneurial orientation and the entrepreneurial orientation perceived by the surveyed department heads. The findings show that not all the dimensions and the items considered affect in the same way the Italian university entrepreneurial orientation. Implications and limitations are discussed.
... These challenges are said to be applicable in both developed and developing countries. Having noted that, the scholars argue that the contextual difference may lead to more challenges towards entrepreneurial university, with a greater pressure for those of developing ones [4]. ...
The recent development in the educational landscape has seen an increased demand being placed on higher education institutions to play an active role in economic development and income generation via the formation of " entrepreneurial universities " . This study aims at understanding the perception of the academics towards the mission of creating the entrepreneurial university in the context of a research university. The underlying complexities in achieving this mission are extracted from a series of semi-structured interviews with the academicians from various faculties. The findings revealed conflicting views pertaining to the movement towards this new mission. In addition, the internal challenges towards the creation of the entrepreneurial university are also discussed.
Purpose
The commercialization of research produced by universities constitutes a core facet of academic entrepreneurship (AE). Academic literature reveals the need to shed light on entrepreneurial processes in higher education institutions (HEIs). This study intends to fill this gap by researching the mechanisms for facilitating AE and the variables that can moderate the relationship between such mechanisms and AE in Portuguese HEIs.
Design/methodology/approach
Our research model aims to assess the mechanisms of academic entrepreneurship (AE) within a sample of 125 Portuguese public higher education institutions (HEIs). To test our research hypotheses, we employed a structural equation model (SEM) using the partial least squares (PLS) method. Additionally, our evaluation examines the potential moderating effects of incubator programs, support initiatives, and proof-of-concept programs (PoCs). Our research model seeks to evaluate the mechanisms for facilitating AE and explore the effects of including incubator programs, support initiatives, and PoCs as moderators. The seven variables (Research mobilization, Unconventionality, Industry collaboration, University policies, Incubator programs and support initiatives, Proof-of-concept programs, and academic entrepreneurship) were measured using a 7-point Likert scale.
Findings
The results revealed that different drivers of AE influence the creation and development of entrepreneurial activities. Our findings also show the moderating effects of incubator programs, support initiatives, and proof-of-concept programs on AE. We find that incubator programs, other support initiatives, and PoCs maintain a moderating effect on AE and benefit their respective HEIs.
Research limitations/implications
The study examines only the Portuguese HEI context. Therefore, generalizing these results necessitates reservations. However, the responses came from various actors in HEIs, from different academic backgrounds and research interests. This makes the results more generalizable. Limitations are evident in external validity, given that we gathered the data over a relatively short period.
Practical implications
Observed factors are explored to gain a deeper understanding of their influence on the mechanisms of AE. The implications arise from the new perspective presented and the methodology used to identify mechanisms capable of fostering AE. We hope this research will encourage other researchers to study this topic further.
Social implications
the engagement of universities at the global level should be emphasised in future policy. While universities in innovation systems often have a local focus, their engagement in innovation ecosystems transcends the boundaries of geographic locations.
Originality/value
PoCs had a significant positive moderating effect on the impact of research mobilization and university policies on AE. Thus, we find interactions between universities and industry boost AE. This study demonstrates how AE benefits HEIs by extending orientation towards mobilizing research, unconventional approaches, cooperation with industry, and university policy implementation. We thus advocate a new approach, demonstrating the influence that the mobility of research, unconventionality, industry collaboration, and university policies hold over AE.
The results from scientific research are disseminated in books, papers, presentations and PPP with industry. More recently patents, startups and spinoffs are also regarded as parameters to measure the innovative contribution from academia and their societal impact. This thesis describes how academic patents, defined as patents which mention at least one university tenured scientist at the filing date of a patent application, shape future innovations. The relationships between the commercialisation of academic patents originating at European universities and four factors (policy, institutional, organisational and personal) in a time window of 20 years have been studied in detail. Overall, the entrepreneurial motivation of scientist appears to be far more associated with the commercial use of an academic patent than the institutional and organisational factors. On the other hand, policy instruments enhancing IP awareness amongst scientists and the uptake of academic patents by spinoffs also contribute to their commercial use.
It is commonly argued in the literature on regional innovation that regions must continuously develop new economic activities to compensate for economic decline. If a region manages to diversify from an existing path, it can sustain long-term economic development. One of the measures taken to increase these types of opportunities and to avoid lock-in is to stimulate a closer relationship and collaboration between universities and industry partners. However, we know little about the formation and investigation of successful university-industry relationships in regions outside metropolitan areas. This paper seeks to fill this research gap by investigating how different dimensions of cognitive, organizational, social and geographical proximity facilitate or hinder innovation processes in collaborations between industry and universities in peripheral regions. We find that social proximity, combined with high organizational proximity, overcomes the barriers presented by low geographical proximity. Social proximity compensates for thin regional structures with few high-tech firms, a lack of knowledge producers and a weak support system. An important policy implication is that stimulating collaboration within areas of expertise possessed by university and industry partners create potential for innovation.
The focus of this paper is to review the qualitative case methods that have beenused in technology transfer research over the last 20 years from 1996 to 2015. Casemethods allow for more in-depth analyses and provide the opportunity to place researchinto a certain context due to the selection of e.g. specific sectors, institutions, countries, etc.Using a systematic literature review of five of the top journals in the field of technologytransfer research, namely Journal of Technology Transfer, Research Policy, Science andPublic Policy, R&D Management and Technovation, it yielded 107 articles using thesearch terms: ‘‘Technology Transfer’’ AND (‘‘Case Study’’ OR ‘‘Case Method’’ OR‘‘Qualitative’’). Our findings indicate a clustering of themes using qualitative case methodsaround technology transfer mechanisms and TTOs, academic entrepreneurship, university-industry collaboration, commercialization as well as R&D and firm knowledge transfer.We also identify trends in case method technology transfer research with respect toauthorship, location of papers, sectoral contexts, data collection, numbers of cases and dataanalysis software. We conclude our paper discussing the implications of trends and themesand suggest that researchers need to reflect on used terminology and their utilization andpostulate a need for more plurality of data collection methods.
The focus of this paper is on living labs for health innovation. Health care (cure) systems are under pressure as a consequence of the ageing population and fast increasing population with chronic conditions, in a situation of decreasing financial budgets. At the same time, the valorization of health inventions is stumbled by many blocks. Living labs as an innovation tool, whether conceived as delimited environments for co-creation and development or as local/regional platforms, may offer various solutions. The paper identifies factors that hamper the valorization of knowledge in general and it identifies critical factors in the application of medical living labs, using the literature and five case studies.
Health of the population in cities is regarded as an important precondition for the development of social capital and social participation in the frame of urban sustainability. The focus of this paper is on living labs for health innovations. Healthcare is under pressure as a consequence of the ageing population and fast increasing population with chronic conditions in a situation of shortage of financial resources. At the same time, the valorisation of health inventions, i.e., to bring them to market and widespread use is stumbled by many blocks. Living labs - be-it conceived as delimited environments for co-creation and development, like a hospital or residential area, or as local/regional platforms of open innovation - may offer various solutions in this situation. Drawing on the literature, in this paper, a framework is designed of important factors influencing the role of living labs as a solution in knowledge commercialisation and of critical factors as a policy tool. This framework is explored and tested using five case studies of living labs.
Commercialization of research projects at the university, in particular, its efficiency and performance, have attracted little attention in the empirical literature to date. This despite the fact that commercialization of university knowledge is increasingly seen as a third task of universities and understanding of what enhances and what blocks the processes involved, is virtually lacking, particularly on the project level. The purpose of this chapter is therefore to identify factors that influence the performance of university-driven knowledge projects, including efficiency, in the context of commercialization of knowledge at universities. In this context, the study employs Data Envelop Analysis combined with Rough-Set Analysis on a sample of 42 projects in the Netherlands. The major factors influencing overall performance in commercialization turn out to be years of collaboration with large firms and efficiency in use of resources in the projects, but the affinity of the project managers at university with the market also plays a role. The best overall results in commercialization (introduction to market in a relatively short time) are gained with a longer period of collaboration with large firms (5-10 years) and a medium level of efficiency. There are also some contradictory trends. The chapter concludes with implications of the results, as well as some future research paths.
High growth firms are now a major focus within enterprise policy. This paper provides a theoretically informed analysis of the rationale and effectiveness of targeted public sector support designed to develop these firms. Drawing on empirical research undertaken in the UK, this paper challenges the appropriateness of the theoretical assumptions embodied in these state-backed support instruments. It outlines the nature of these programmes and provides a critique of some of their inherent weaknesses, revealing that the assumptions underpinning these programmes are often flawed. The paper examines the limitations of their selection procedures, the thematic nature of support and exit dynamics. It found that offering early stage firms intensive levels of resources may have important (and detrimental) unintended consequences previously overlooked by policy makers. The paper offers some suggestions for how policy instruments could be better attuned to the needs of these growth-oriented firms.
University-industry collaboration in research projects has received little attention in studies on the performance of universities in bringing knowledge to market. This situation holds also true for the differences between regions and for understanding the hampering factors in collaboration, including regional ones. To fill this gap, in this paper I attempt to characterize the outcomes of technology projects-in terms of market introduction, continuation, stagnation, and failure-and to identify the barriers, particularly regional ones. I also propose an extended use of a tool that facilitates and accelerates market introduction-that is, living labs. The study draws on a database of 370 technology projects covering two different regions in the Netherlands and on in-depth data of 51 of such projects in a limited number of technologies.
This study examines the espoused values of Italian universities that emerge from statutes with the aim of eliciting patterns of representation of the third mission, which embraces all the activities by which universities contribute to the economic and social development of society. Since all statutes were updated between 2011 and 2012 because of a law enacted on 30 December 2010, n. 240, it is timely to use Italian universities to highlight current patterns of representation. Using a qualitative content analysis performed with Atlas.Ti (Muhr, 1994), seventy-five statutes were analyzed by focusing on core missions, functions attributed to the third-mission activities, and primary tasks of the organization vis-à-vis its environment. By relying on the systematic association between codes created to extrapolate the embodied meaning of the text and units of analysis, results have shown four organizational archetypes in the third mission: 1) Need for coherence, with an emphasis on the need to respect the functions of public institutions regarding the third-mission activities; 2) Exploitation, which focuses on patent disclosure; 3) Openness to participating in external change and satisfying external needs; and 4) Old School, with a focus on entrepreneurial activities as a source of funding. Our analysis leads to proposals for future research.
Social networks play a vital role in the early years of spin-offs, but there is virtually no knowledge on the profile of these networks. Building on a resource-based perspective and the concept of ‘living labs’, we explore differences between spin-off firms according to level of innovativeness. The results indicate a smaller growth among highly innovative spin-offs as an impact of more homogeneous and more often locally oriented networks. This situation calls for opening the social networks. The paper speculates on how the new concept of living labs may be helpful in this strategy and what other advantages might be gained by spin-offs.
Resumen. Las redes sociales tienen un papel vital en los primeros años de las empresas derivadas (spin-offs), pero apenas se sabe nada del perfil de dichas redes. Con base en una perspectiva basada en los recursos y el concepto de ‘laboratorios vivos’ (living labs), exploramos las diferencias entre empresas derivadas en función del nivel de innovación. Los resultados indican que un crecimiento más pequeño entre empresas derivadas altamente innovadoras es el impacto de redes más homogéneas y más frecuentemente con una orientación local. Esta situación invita a una apertura de las redes sociales. El artículo especula sobre cómo el concepto novedoso de laboratorios vivos podría ayudar en esta estrategia y qué otras ventajas podrían obtener las empresas derivadas.
Local public technology centers, administrated by the prefectural and municipal governments, engage in providing technological support to small local firms. Using a comprehensive database, this paper quantitatively examines whether their strategy is contingent on or independent of the characteristics of a regional innovation system. The statistical analyses show that there are no significant differences between the strategies adopted by local public technology centers in line with the characteristics of the regional innovation system. This implies that the strategies were inefficient because economic welfare in the region would have improved if they had allocated resources in accordance with the characteristics of regional knowledge transfer.
Knowledge, once generated, spills only imperfectly among firms and nations. We posit that since institutions and labor networks vary by region, there should be regional variations in the localization of spillovers. We investigate the relationship between the mobility of major patent holders and the localization of technological knowledge through the analysis of patent citations of important semiconductor innovations. We find that knowledge localization is specific to only certain regions (particularly Silicon Valley) and that the degree of localization varies across regions. By analyzing data on the interfirm mobility of patent holders, we empirically show that the interfirm mobility of engineers influences the local transfer of knowledge. The flow of knowledge is embedded in regional labor networks.
This paper explains and evaluates the evolution of the UREs (University-run Enterprises) in China by building a new theoretical framework on the university–industry relationship. Unlike the Triple Helix or the New Economics of Science that advocates a certain type (integration or separation) of university–industry relationship, we take a contingent or context-specific perspective on the relationship, having the context of developing countries in mind. The framework developed in this paper explains in what condition universities would keep distance from industry or become entrepreneurial to take a part in the functions of industry (i.e. setting up and running their own business enterprises). In this typology the basic determinants are internal resources of university, absorptive capacity of industrial firms and existence of intermediary institutions, as well as the propensity of university for UREs. The paper has argued that the Chinese universities since the market-oriented reform had strong propensity to pursue economic gains and strong internal (R&D and other) resources to launch start-ups, and thus established their own firms (i.e. UREs), given the low absorptive capacity of industrial firms and the underdeveloped intermediary institutions. The recent adjustment of the UREs in China can also be understood in terms of changes in the above three factors, such as universities’ weakened propensity to pursue economic gains, relative decline of superiority of university resources, and improved external environment.
Drawing on the literature pertaining to the role universities play in promoting technology transfer, this paper develops an insightful conceptualization of spin-off processes, and applies it to a current regional case study. The suggested typology of university spin-off/start-up firms is based on several variables, including the type of university sponsorship, university involvement in firm formation, the character of knowledge applied, and co-localization of the founders. The empirical case study is used to demonstrate the usefulness of this approach in analyzing spin-off firms, and their dynamics. The study is based on interviews conducted with university spin-offs/start-ups in the information technology (IT) sector located in the Kitchener and Guelph metropolitan areas. This region, which is home to the University of Waterloo – one of Canada’s premier science and technology universities – has experienced an impetus of spin-off processes originating from university research dating back to the 1970s.
This paper analyses the technology transfer (t.t.) in the nine Cnr research Institutes located in Piedmont, a highly industrialised region of the north-west of Italy. Some taxonomic criterions are used for classifying the t.t. In particularly we have two main types of actions from research structures: (A) Market-oriented technology transfer split into: strict sense and wide sense of the term. (B) Education-oriented technology transfer (training and teaching activities i.e. not generated ‘financial revenues’). It is measured using physical quantities (for example, number of subjects, number of contacts, etc.).The correlation of outcomes shows that, if we consider as value of t.t. activity the ‘financial revenues’ (market-oriented technological transfer), the best Institutes are those operating in the technological area; instead, if we use, as indicator of t.t. activity, the number of external courses and the number of personnel trained (education-oriented technological transfer), the ranking changes to favour non-technological research institutes.Moreover, spatial dynamics of technology transfer are investigated; in particular, we verified whether the propagation of technology follows the Hägerstrand proximity-effect and finally the causes when these effects do not function.
In this paper, we argue that the ability of a firm to recognize the value of new, external information, assimilate it, and apply it to commercial ends is critical to its innovative capabilities. We label this capability a firm's absorptive capacity and suggest that it is largely a function of the firm's level of prior related knowledge. The discussion focuses first on the cognitive basis for an individual's absorptive capacity including, in particular, prior related knowledge and diversity of background. We then characterize the factors that influence absorptive capacity at the organizational level, how an organization's absorptive capacity differs from that of its individual members, and the role of diversity of expertise within an organization. We argue that the development of absorptive capacity, and, in turn, innovative performance are history- or path-dependent and argue how lack of investment in an area of expertise early on may foreclose the future development of a technical capability in that area. We formulate a model of firm investment in research and development (R&D), in which R&D contributes to a firm's absorptive capacity, and test predictions relating a firm's investment in R&D to the knowledge underlying technical change within an industry. Discussion focuses on the implications of absorptive capacity for the analysis of other related innovative activities, including basic research, the adoption and diffusion of innovations, and decisions to participate in cooperative R&D ventures.
Previous research has indicated that investment in R&D by private firms and universities can lead to knowledge spillover, which can lead to exploitation from other third-party firms. If the ability of these third-party firms to acquire knowledge spillovers is influenced by their proximity to the knowledge source, then geographic clustering should be observable, especially in industries where access to knowledge spillovers is vital. The spatial distribution of innovation activity and the geographic concentration of production are examined, using three sources of economic knowledge: industry R&D, skilled labor, and the size of the pool of basic science for a specific industry. Results show that the propensity for innovative activity to cluster spatially is more attributable to the influence of knowledge spillovers and not merely the geographic concentration of production. (SFL)
Sustainable economic development in advanced economies is increasingly linked to innovation in products, processes, and services. A high level of innovative activity is widely perceived as a necessary (though not sufficient) condition for good jobs and wages. As Bruce Mehlman, US Assistant Secretary of Technology Policy, remarked in 2003: “America must never compete in the battle to pay their workers least, and it will take sustained innovation to ensure that we don’t have to.” Yet in a world where work is increasingly outsourced and jobs exported offshore, economies are at risk of seeing vital innovative activities migrating overseas as well. It is therefore argued that for domestic economies to build and maintain innovative activities (and the good jobs associated with them), sustained investment in research and development is required, along with investment in the education of skilled professionals. In addition, the increasing complexity of the innovation process - and an increasingly open innovation system - requires closer collaboration between university and industry sectors and government policy.
Labor mobility is considered to be an important source of knowledge externalities, making it difficult for firms to appropriate returns to research and development (R&D). Interfirm transfers of knowledge embodied in people should be analyzed within a human capital framework. Testing such a framework, I find that the technical staff in R&D-intensive firms pays for the knowledge they accumulate on the job through lower wages early in their career. They later earn a return on these implicit investments through higher wages. This suggests that the potential externalities associated with labor mobility are, at least partially, internalized in the labor market.
This paper re-examines critically the growing literature on localized knowledge spillovers (LKSs), and finds the econometric evidence on the subject still lacking a firm theoretical background, especially in relation to the more recent developments in the economics of knowledge. LKSs as externalities are too narrow a concept to embrace the wide variety of knowledge transmission mechanisms that may, or may not, spread ideas and expertise while keeping the diffusion process bounded in space. Copyright 2001 by Oxford University Press.
This paper argues that it is important to devote greater attention to the study of entrepreneurship in technology transfer in the light of greater government attention, the growth in the phenomenon, the need to identify how wealth can be created from spin-outs, changes in the cultures of universities and differences with technological entrepreneurship in general. The paper summarizes the contributions made by the papers presented in the special issue in terms of their levels of analysis. At the spin-out level, issues are raised concerning identification of typologies of spin-out firms, the evolution of spin-outs and external resources. At the university level, issues concerning policies, internal resources and processes are discussed. An agenda for further research is elaborated which relates to the need to examine further levels of analysis: the academic entrepreneurs themselves and how they recognize opportunities and shape their ideas to meet the market; the nature of internal university environments, processes and resources; and the nature of the scientific discipline which may have implications for the process of creation and development of spin-out ventures.
Universities have two options when they formulate policies to develop new technology-based start-ups. One approach is to encourage faculty members to engage in this activity. Another avenue is to encourage surrogate (external) entrepreneurs to assume a leadership role. Based on a survey of technology transfer/business development officers at 57 U.K. universities, we examine perceptions regarding the advantages and disadvantages of each approach. We also analyze whether there are significant differences in these attitudes between universities that have launched many startups and those that have been less active in this arena. Our results imply that the most significant barriers to the adoption of entrepreneurial-friendly policies are cultural and informational. We also find that universities that generate the most start-ups have more favorable attitudes towards surrogate entrepreneurs. It appears that a combination of academic and surrogate entrepreneurship might be the best approach for universities that wish to develop successful technology-transfer based start-up companies. Copyright 2001 by Kluwer Academic Publishers
Introduction: The Problem of EmbeddednessOver-and Undersocialized Conceptions of Human Action in Sociology and EconomicsEmbeddedness, Trust, and Malfeasance in Economic LifeThe Problem of Markets and Hierarchies
The Canada's corrugated industry has shown signs of steady incremental growth in the year 2000 as the domestic and American markets remain strong while the downturn in the Asian economies only marginally affected exports. The future of the corrugated industry in Canada is looking very sound. As part of Canada's efforts to move its economy from a resource based exporter to a producer of finished, value-added goods the corrugated industry plays an important role. With potential new markets being explored and opened, and the development of new products that will expand old markets, the corrugated industry is becoming an integral part of the new economy.
This paper attempts a greater precision and clarity of understanding concerning the nature and economic significance of knowledge and its variegated forms by presenting 'the skeptical economist's guide to 'tacit knowledge''. It critically reconsiders the ways in which the concepts of tacitness and codification have come to be employed by economists and develops a more coherent re-conceptualization of these aspects of knowledge production and distribution activities. It seeks also to show that a proposed alternative framework for the study of knowledge codification activities offers a more useful guide for further research directed to informing public policies for science, technological innovation and long-run economic growth.
Political discussions and analyses have usually been devoted to an understanding of the development of high technology products, although low technology products have dominated the industrial structure of the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) countries. The important role of low technology products in these countries raises the question of whether we can observe a technological paradox in the industrial structure of the more advanced nations, the dominant role of this sector in spite of its competitive disadvantages because of high wages. Using the Danish packaging industry as an example, a central thesis in the article is that innovation processes are important in low technology industries. They are also often an integrated part of the marketing and production functions of the firm. The innovation processes in the low technology industries are therefore too complex for traditional R&D analyses to handle. The article points out that—especially in small firms—the “practical man” and his “tacit knowledge” play a very central role in both product and process development, and that low technology, even in the future, will play a central role in the industrial structure of the OECD countries.
Italy represents one of the success stories of postwar economic growth. Over the past 40 years, GNP growth has been higher in Italy than in most other industrialized countries. Similarly, productivity and income per capita have risen rapidly and manufacturing exports have increased considerably. In a relatively short period of time Italy has been transformed from an agricultural and semi-industrialized country to an advanced industrial economy. In addition, during the 1980s Italy experienced high growth rates in R&D, although Italian international specialization remains mainly in traditional products such as textile and shoes, as well as in mechanics and industrial equipment.
Researchers and economic development professionals have linked the technology transfer and high-tech firm output from science parks (SP) and business incubators (BI) to economic growth, as well as job and wealth creation in developed and developing countries. Yet little has been said about their role in converging economies, such as Portugal. The authors analyse the population of the Portuguese SPs and BIs in promoting economic growth using the case study method. Further, the authors search for the success factors of Portuguese SPs and BIs. This initial study suggests a modest contribution of SPs and BIs to economic growth in Portugal. Moreover, our findings confirm university links and suitability of management to be critical to an SP or BI success in this converging economy. We also discuss how SPs and BIs might make better contributions to economic growth in converging economies.
Germany is a special case, for several reasons. One is its recent political history. After World War II the country was divided into two states with opposed political-economic systems, the Federal Republic of Germany in the West (with a capitalist economy and a pluralist democracy) and the German Democratic Republic in the East (with a centrally planned economy and an authoritarian socialist political system).
The present research stems from the results of a survey on the innovativeness of a sample of Italian Small and Medium Enterprises (SMEs). These results, largely based on self-reported data by entrepreneurs or managers, showed that the considered SMEs were important developers of radical innovations in contrast with data published by local institutions. This misalignment between the entrepreneurs' opinions and the official data, that are typically defined and selected by academics and policy makers, motivated a new research aimed at analyzing the intimate reasons for it. The research is rooted in the social construction of innovation perspective and is based on interviews with the three main innovation stakeholders, identified as: entrepreneurs, academics, and policy makers. The results show the existence of deeply different perspectives concerning innovation, starting from its definition, to the effective policies to promote it, to the role of intermediary institutions and so on. Sometimes, these views show diverging goals among the stakeholders and, consequently, contrasting opinions on effective supporting policies. These results can partly explain the misalignment between the survey's output and ''institutional'' data and, maybe, also the failure of many supporting initiatives that are largely documented by our survey and also by literature. The aim of the paper is to investigate the different perspectives on innovation held by the considered stakeholders, highlighting the points of major contrast together with similarities in order to provide new insights into the problem. r 2008 Published by Elsevier Ltd.
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In this paper, we use data from the Carnegie Mellon Survey on industrial R&D to evaluate for the U.S. manufacturing sector the influence of "public"(i.e., university and government R&D lab) research on industrial R&D, the role that public research plays in industrial R&D, and the pathways through which that effect is exercised. We find that public research is critical to industrial R&D in a small number of industries and importantly affects industrial R&D across much of the manufacturing sector. Contrary to the notion that university research largely generates new ideas for industrial R&D projects, the survey responses demonstrate that public research both suggests new R&D projects and contributes to the completion of existing projects in roughly equal measure overall. The results also indicate that the key channels through which university research impacts industrial R&D include published papers and reports, public conferences and meetings, informal information exchange, and consulting. We also finnd that, after controlling for industry, the influence of public research on industrial R&D is disproportionately greater for larger firms as well as start-ups.
In this paper we explore the degree to which patents are representative of the magnitude, direction, and impact of the knowledge spilling out of the university by focusing on the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT), and in particular, on the Departments of Mechanical and Electrical Engineering. Drawing on both qualitative and quantitative data, we show that patenting is a minority activity: a majority of the faculty in our sample never patent, and publication rates far outstrip patenting rates. Most faculty members estimate that patents account for less than 10% of the knowledge that transfers from their labs. Our results also suggest that in two important ways patenting is not representative of the patterns of knowledge generation and transfer from MIT: patent volume does not predict publication volume, and those firms that cite MIT papers are in general not the same firms as those that cite MIT patents. However, patent volume is positively correlated with paper citations, suggesting that patent counts may be reasonable measures of research impact. We close by speculating on the implications of our results for the difficult but important question of whether, in this setting, patenting acts as a substitute or a complement to the process of fundamental research.
There has been a rapid rise in commercial knowledge transfers from universities to practitioners or university–industry technology transfer (UITT), through licensing agreements, research joint ventures, and start-ups. The purpose of this study was to analyze the UITT process and its outcomes. Based on 98 structured interviews of key UITT stakeholders (i.e., university administrators, academic and industry scientists, business managers, and entrepreneurs) at five research universities in two regions of the US, we conclude that these stakeholders have different perspectives on the desired outputs of UITT. More importantly, numerous barriers to effective UITT were identified, including culture clashes, bureaucratic inflexibility, poorly designed reward systems, and ineffective management of university technology transfer offices (TTOs). Based on this qualitative evidence, we provide numerous recommendations for improving the UITT process.
Political discussions and analyses have usually been devoted to an understanding of the development of high technology products, although low technology products have dominated the industrial structure of the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) countries. The important role of low technology products in these countries raises the question of whether we can observe a technological paradox in the industrial structure of the more advanced nations, the dominant role of this sector in spite of its competitive disadvantages because of high wages. Using the Danish packaging industry as an example, a central thesis in the article is that innovation processes are important in low technology industries. They are also often an integrated part of the marketing and production functions of the firm. The innovation processes in the low technology industries are therefore too complex for traditional R&D analyses to handle. The article points out that—especially in small firms—the “practical man” and his “tacit knowledge” play a very central role in both product and process development, and that low technology, even in the future, will play a central role in the industrial structure of the OECD countries.
The commercialization of university research has become an increasingly important issue, given concerns regarding licensing and the university's desire to maximize the returns to intellectual property (IP). In this paper, we assess the impact of university resources and routines/capabilities on the creation of spin-out companies. We find that both the number of spin-out companies created and the number of spin-out companies created with equity investment are significantly positively associated with expenditure on intellectual property protection, the business development capabilities of technology transfer offices and the royalty regime of the university. These results highlight the importance not just of resource stocks, but also of developing appropriate capabilities of technology transfer officers in spinning-out companies. The results suggest that universities and policy-makers need to devote attention to the training and recruitment of technology officers with the broad base of commercial skills.
This paper focuses on the role of sponsored spin-offs for industrial growth and dynamics. A sponsored spin-off is a firm born out of the venturing activities and the active involvement of an established organization; in this paper the latter in the form of retained partial ownership in the new firm. Sponsored spin-offs are one mechanism whereby the respective potential advantages of large and new firms may be exploited. Little is known about the nature and magnitude of contributions by existing firms to the creation of new technology-based firms and the effects these new firms have on innovation, change and renewal.In this paper, an empirical sample of 101 Swedish IPO firms is used in the analysis of three research questions. (1) Are sponsored spin-offs an important mechanism for the creation of new technology-based firms? (2) Are sponsored spin-off firms important for industrial growth? (3) Are sponsored spin-offs influencing industrial renewal and change? The results add to the understanding of how, and to what degree the venturing activities of existing firms contribute to the creation of new firms, as well as how and to what extent these spin-offs differ from other new firms in terms of their impact on industrial growth and change.
The paper analyses the role of technoparks as instruments of innovation promotion in Kazakhstan using data from a firm survey and interviews. It explores three specific issues: first, the overall effectiveness of technoparks in promoting innovation development in Kazakhstan, second, the underlying innovation model in Kazakhstan technoparks, and third, whether technoparks can compensate for missing elements in the technology-based infrastructure and environment. Our conclusions are that technopark firms are no more innovative than other firms. They are oriented largely towards the local market, and operate in traditional sectors; the frequency and intensity of their external links are more developed than are their internal links. The key motivations for relocating to a technopark seem to be lower rents and the possibility of accessing finance. Overall, Kazakh technoparks seem to be successful in terms of facilitating business incubation, but much less so in terms of innovation promotion and diversification of the economy. Focusing on technoparks as the main mechanism to diversify the economy seems to be an ineffective and uncertain policy option at this stage of the country's economic development. However, there seems to be significant scope for supporting business incubation. The conclusions of this study are of relevance to other emerging economies.
Do financial returns to licensing divert faculty from basic research? In a life cycle model in which faculty can conduct basic and/or applied research (the latter can be licensed) licensing increases applied relative to basic effort. However, leisure falls so basic research need not suffer. If applied effort also leads to publishable output, then research output and stock of knowledge are higher with licensing than without. In a tenure system licensing has a positive effect on research output unless license incentives are high. Overall results suggest a positive impact of tenure on research output over the life cycle.
Recently, some university spin-off firms have begun to substantially contribute to the technological upgrading of China's economy. The corresponding academic literature, however, does not yet deal with spin-off activities of Chinese universities in a comprehensive and theoretically sound way. Currently, most articles on Chinese spin-offs focus on case studies of the most prominent government-sponsored enterprises in Beijing. This paper aims to contribute to the literature in a more comprehensive manner by providing a theoretical discussion of spin-off formation in a developing and transforming economy, and by presenting results from a comparative study based on data from 82 interviews with spin-off enterprises in three metropolitan regions in China.The study shows that under the initial framework conditions, government-driven spin-off formation has indeed proved an appropriate solution for technology transfer at Chinese universities. Many of the companies thus formed, however, suffer from defective incentive structures and lack of performance. Consequently, since lifting or easing restrictive regulations, the formerly unique model of Chinese spin-off formation has been complemented by a surge of entrepreneurial spin-off formation.
Problems with the extant literature on science parks and incubators are examined in terms of four levels of analysis: the science parks and incubators themselves, the enterprises located upon science parks and incubators, the entrepreneurs and teams of entrepreneurs involved in these enterprises and at the systemic level. We suggest there is no systematic framework to understand science parks and incubators, that there is a failure to understand their dynamic nature as well as that of the companies located on them, that there is a lack of clarity regarding the performance of science parks and incubators which is associated with problems in identifying the nature of performance. We review briefly the papers contained in this special issue and demonstrate how each sheds light on an unexplored dimension of this emerging literature. In the concluding section, we synthesize the findings of the papers and outline a broader research agenda.
Nanotechnology is argued to be a potential engine for economic growth in the 21st century due to its general purpose technology-related characteristics. These enormous expectations find expression mostly in large public R&D expenditures and increasing numbers of scientific publications suggest these. This paper aims to clarify some aspects of these expectations by investigating whether nanotechnology relates to unique motivations, interactions, challenges and outcomes when commercializing scientific knowledge. By identifying these aspects, we aim to establish whether there is a need for nanotechnology-specific policies to facilitate nanotechnology transfer from universities to firms. We use individual-level survey data covering university researchers in the Finnish nanotechnology community. The results suggest that the university researchers more active in nanotechnology are endowed with motivations, show interactions and face challenges which are different from other disciplines.
Universities have assumed an expanded role in science and technology-based economic development that has become of interest to catch-up regions as well as to leading innovation locales. This paper examines how the role of the university has evolved from performing conventional research and education functions to serving as an innovation-promoting knowledge hub though the case of Georgia Institute of Technology (Georgia Tech). This case is discussed in the context of state efforts to shift the region from an agricultural to an industrial to an innovation-driven economy. Central to the transformation of Georgia Tech as a knowledge hub is the emergence of new institutional leadership, programs, organizational forms and boundary-spanning roles that meditate among academic, educational, entrepreneurial, venture capital, industrial, and public spheres. Comparisons between Georgia Tech's experiences and those of university roles in selected other catch-up regions in the southern United States highlight the importance to the case of networked approaches, capacity building, technology-based entrepreneurial development, and local innovation system leadership. Insights on the transformation of universities and the challenges of fostering a similar transformation in regional economies are offered.
This paper is written to provide an assessment framework of technology incubators in the science park. Based on the past studies, nine sets of criteria are identified and incorporated in the assessment framework: advantages from pooling resources, sharing resources, consulting services, positive effect from higher public image, networking advantages, clustering effect, geographic proximity, cost subsidies and funding support. Using business development data of six technology start-ups in the Hong Kong Science Park, the framework is then applied to examine the effectiveness of incubators from the perspective of venture creation and development process. It is found that the benefits required by technology founders at different stages of development are varied and therefore, the general merits that are claimed by incubators as useful to technology start-ups are debatable. In addition, the analysis of development process of six cases, particularly in the interaction with incubator, reveals some good, bad and ugly things about the incubator program. To meet the needs of technology firms during their stages of development, the paper is concluded with the recommendation that incubators' services and support should be prioritised in accordance with the development process of the technology firms.
Using data on more then 22,000 manufacturing firms participating to the second Italian Innovation Survey, fresh evidence is presented on the number of firms involved in innovation, the total expenditures devoted to innovation and the quantity and quality of innovating output. The most important innovation expenditures are investment in new machinery and R&D. The existence of major cross-industry differences are however confirmed. Within the group of innovating firms, the small ones do not emerge less innovative than the large ones. However, data clearly show that small firms introducing innovations are a minority and that they account for only a small share of total innovation expenditure of the Italian manufacturing industry. The paper also quantifies the share of new products and processes on total sales showing that a substantial part of sales in the manufacturing industry (62%) is made of unchanged products and processes and only 1.2% of total sales is made of entirely new products. It is also shown that only to a limited extent the innovation patterns highlighted in this article reflect the peculiar characteristics of Italian industrial structure. Most of them are common to most of the European countries which have taken part to the Community Innovation Survey (CIS).
The results of this study provide insight into why some universities generate more new companies to exploit their intellectual property than do others. We compare four different explanations for cross-institutional variation in new firm formation rates from university technology licensing offices (TLOs) over the 1994–1998 period—the availability of venture capital in the university area; the commercial orientation of university research and development; intellectual eminence; and university policies. The results show that intellectual eminence, and the policies of making equity investments in TLO start-ups and maintaining a low inventor’s share of royalties increase new firm formation. The paper discusses the implications of these results for university and public policy.
Increasing the effectiveness of technology transfer has strategic implications for both nations and companies. Despite considerable research on technology transfer from higher education institutions (HEIs) to companies in Western countries, research cannot be found on such an important issue in the context of China. This paper introduces a conceptual framework that addresses major determinants of technology development and transfer in China. The determinants include the economic system, government policy and initiative, and constraints and impetus. An overview of technology transfer in China indicates that China's HEIs have already become a major source of new technology. A case study of technology transfer at Tsinghua University suggests that successful practices of technology transfer already exist. Research and practical implications are discussed.
The author raises the classic question of welfare economics in relation to invention: to what extent does perfect competition result in optimal allocation of resources? There are three reasons for the possible failure of perfect competition to lead to optimal resource allocation: marginal-cost pricing, divergence between social and private benefit (or cost), and allocation of resources under uncertainty. The last receives attention in this chapter; specifically, only in the context of uncertainty arises the critical idea of information. Improving the efficiency of the economy with respect to risk may decrease technical efficiency. Devices for mitigating adverse effects of insurance are co-insurance and cost-plus contracts. Uncertainty creates a subtle problem in resource allocation: information becomes a commodity with economic value, and the economic characteristics of information as a commodity, and of invention as a process for the production of information are examined. The classic problem of indivisible commodities applies to information, and the problem of allocation in the presence of indivisibilities appears. The costs of transmitting information create difficulties in allocation. Invention is a process full of risk. Research by corporations is one way to reduce risk. Turning invention into property rights results in underutilization of information. Profitability of invention thus leads to non-optimal resource allocation The failure of a competitive system to achieve an optimal resource allocation is shown to be due to all three reasons (stated above). Incentives to invent can exist for monopolistic and competitive markets. A model is developed, and theoretical reasons are given to explain the biases that result in the misallocations and inefficiencies in the economic system. Some further implications for alternative forms of economic organization are offered. Optimal and efficient allocation of invention could require government or other non-profit finance, and provisions for innovation by individual talents (rather than by firms) could be devised; problems with these approaches are also noted. (TNM)
We review and synthesize the burgeoning literature on institutions and agents engaged in the commercialization of university-based intellectual property. These studies indicate that institutional incentives and organizational practices both play an important role in enhancing the effectiveness of technology transfer. We conclude that university technology transfer should be considered from a strategic perspective. Institutions that choose to stress the entrepreneurial dimension of technology transfer need to address skill deficiencies in technology transfer offices (TTOs), reward systems that are inconsistent with enhanced entrepreneurial activity, and education/training for faculty members, post-docs, and graduate students relating to interactions with entrepreneurs. Business schools at these universities can play a major role in addressing these skill and educational deficiencies, through the delivery of targeted programs to technology licensing officers and members of the campus community wishing to launch startup firms.
Although prior empirical research has established an association between science and the widespread diffusion of knowledge, the exact mechanism(s) through which science catalyses information flow remains somewhat ambiguous. This paper investigates whether the knowledge diffusion associated with science-based innovation stems from the norm of openness and incentives for publication, or whether scientists maintain more extensive and dispersed social networks that facilitate the dissemination of tacit knowledge. Our analysis supports the first mechanism: we track the movement of knowledge with patent citations, and find that science-based innovations diffuse more rapidly and widely, even after controlling for the underlying social networks of researchers as measured using information on prior collaborations. We also find that publication and social networks act as substitutes in the diffusion of knowledge.
We examine the effects of university-based star scientists on three measures of performance for California biotechnology enterprises: the number of products in development, the number of products on the market, and changes in employment. The `star' concept which Zucker, Darby, and Brewer (1994) demonstrated was important for birth of U.S. biotechnology enterprises also predicts geographically localized knowledge spillovers at least for products in development. However, when we break down university stars into those who have collaborated on publications with scientists affiliated with the firm and all other university stars, there is a strong positive effect of the linked stars on all three firm-performance measures and little or no evidence of an effect from the other university stars. We develop a new hypothesis of geographically localized effects of university research which is consistent with market exchange: Geographically localized effects occur for scientific discoveries characterized by natural excludability, those which can be learned only by working with discoverers or others who have received the knowledge through working together in the laboratory. Natural excludability results in intellectual capital, a transitory form of human capital, embodied in particular scientists whose services must be employed in order to practice the discovery. Contractual and/or ownership relationships occur between firms and the university scientists with intellectual capital and importantly determine firm productivity and growth.
This paper explores the patterns of citations among patents taken out by inventors in the U.S., the U.K., France, Germany and Japan. We find that, (1) Patets assigned to the same firm are more likely to cit each other, and come sooner that other citations; (2) patents in the same patent class are approximately 100 times as likely to cite each other as patents from different patent classes, but there is not a strong time pattern to this effect; (3) patents whose investors reside in the same country are typically 30 to 80% more likely to cite each other than inventors from other countries, and these, and these citations come sooner, and (4) there are clear country-specific citation tendencies, e.g., Japanese citations typically come sooner than those of other countries.
We introduce a new hybrid approach to joint estimation of Value at Risk (VaR) and Expected Shortfall (ES) for high quantiles of return distributions. We investigate the relative performance of VaR and ES models using daily returns for sixteen stock market indices (eight from developed and eight from emerging markets) prior to and during the 2008 financial crisis. In addition to widely used VaR and ES models, we also study the behavior of conditional and unconditional extreme value (EV) models to generate 99 percent confidence level estimates as well as developing a new loss function that relates tail losses to ES forecasts. Backtesting results show that only our proposed new hybrid and Extreme Value (EV)-based VaR models provide adequate protection in both developed and emerging markets, but that the hybrid approach does this at a significantly lower cost in capital reserves. In ES estimation the hybrid model yields the smallest error statistics surpassing even the EV models, especially in the developed markets.
The authors examine the interface between for-profit and publicly funded pharmaceuticals. Firms access upstream basic research through investments in absorptive capacity in the form of in-house basic research and 'propublication' internal incentives. Some firms also maintain extensive connections to the wider scientific community, which they measure using data on coauthorship of scientific papers between pharmaceutical company scientists and publicly funded researchers. 'Connectedness' is significantly correlated with firms' internal organization, as well as their performance in drug discovery. The estimated impact of connectedness on private research productivity implies a substantial return to public investments in basic research. Copyright 1998 by Blackwell Publishing Ltd