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The effect of job-related stress on psychological well-being
1
Running head: The effect of job-related stress on psychological well-being
The effect of job-related stress on
psychological well-being
Beata Basińska
Gdansk University of Technology, Poland
Abstract: The effect of job-related stress on psychological well-being
The aim of the investigation was to evaluate the effect of job stress factors on psychological
well-being of firemen. 121 firemen from rescue-firefighting units were examined. Goldberg’s
General Health Questionnaire GHQ-12 for well-being evaluation, the Perceived Job Stress
Questionnaire (PJSQ) by Dudek et al. for job stress assessment, and indicator of participation
in traumatic events were used. Nineteen percent of the firemen were qualified to the group
with increased risk of mental disorders. Occupational stress had definitely a strong impact on
well-being. Persons with lowered psychological well-being experienced a high job stress
level. Work overload was the main factor deteriorating the well-being. Having the above in
mind, the reduction of job stress is important in shaping mental health at the workplace.
Keywords: firefighters, health, occupational stress, traumatic events, well-being
The effect of job-related stress on psychological well-being
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INTRODUCTION
Psychic disorders are an essential cause of sick leaves from work and unfitness for
work among firemen [16, 21]. They were diagnosed in more than half Polish firemen retiring
for invalidity pensions. The fifth year of service and the 30-th year of age seem to be the
critical points [21]. According to some researchers, however, firemen in general enjoy good
mental health, and clinical psychopathology ratios are very low [7, 8].
The majority of uniformed services’ members assessed their job stress level as high
[18], whereas, as stated by research workers from other countries, it was close to that
observed in the general working population [10, 21]. Interpersonal contacts, social relations,
as well as the lack of rewards and appreciation at work were the main sources of stress
[18, 22].
Psychological well-being was affected directly by stress connected with operational
activities and indirectly through involvement in traumatic events, while the organizational
stress had no effect on firemen’s health but resulted in their worse social behaviour [4, 11].
The occurrence of “small stressors” due to organization of work (duration of the service,
availability, no possibility of eating meals) in the case of their accumulation was more
burdening than critical events [3]. Young and Cooper [22] have expressed a different opinion
that the job stress affects only physical health of firemen. It was found that the psychic
condition was more strongly affected by the job stress than by individual resources such as
self-evaluation, evaluation of own effectiveness, optimism or psychosocial support [16, 18].
Special character of firemen’s work results from frequent participation in traumatic
events. This is an objective factor increasing the risk of the psychological well-being deficit.
The firemen were most strongly impressed by situations related with fires and traffic
accidents, the worst being those involving children, acquaintances or the fireman himself [9].
The effect of job-related stress on psychological well-being
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The aim of the present study was to evaluate the impact of job stress factors and
participation in traumatic events on psychological well-being of firemen and on the scale of
clinical psychopathology risk in this occupational group.
MATERIAL
The study group consisted of 121 firemen working in rescue-firefighting units of the
State Fire Service in the Pomeranian region. The average age was 34 years (SD = 6.90), and
the period of service 10 years (SD = 7.81). Seventy-eight percent of firemen had secondary
education. The majority (70%) were married and had one or two children. Details are given in
Table I.
___________
Table 1 here
___________
METHOD
General well-being was assessed using 12-item Goldberg’s General Health
Questionnaire (GHQ-12) in the Polish adaptation by Makowska and Merecz [13]. This scale,
frequently used in the occupational stress literature, is a self-administrated screening
instrument designed to detect current diagnosable changes in the mental health status [19].
The internal consistency coefficients (Cronbach alpha) reached a value of .859 for GHQ-12 in
the study of 2,540 employees [12]. The bimodal method, commonly referred to as the GHQ
scoring method, scores items on a 0-0-1-1 scale with a score range of 0-12. The threshold
identifying potential cases (i.e. those having a probable psychiatric illness) was set to be more
than 2 points [13].
The effect of job-related stress on psychological well-being
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Job stress and its sources were evaluated using the Perceived Job Stress Questionnaire
(PJSQ) of Dudek, Waszkowska and Hanke [6]. The assumed model of job-related stress refers
to the environmental adaptation theory and the concept of organizational stress. Job-related
stress is a mobilizing reaction of the organism evoked by a real or anticipated requirement.
Such a reaction is described in physiological and psychological terms. The questionnaire
consists of 10 factors (work overload, lack of rewards, uncertainty at the workplace, social
relations, threat, physical burdens, difficult work conditions, lack of control, lack of support
and responsibility) and the general score. The internal consistency coefficients (Cronbach
alpha) reached a value of .84 in the study of 2570 employees. The more points, the higher the
stress level. The results are interpreted on the sten scale according to norms formulated by the
authors of the questionnaire. The implementation, consisting in education and improvement in
the ability to manage the stress, is accomplished by occupational medicine services.
The factor of participation in traumatic events consisted of the sum of answers to 8
questions concerning direct threat to health or life (own or another fireman’s), damage to
one’s health or being a witness to such an event, to death of a firemen, to terrifying sights,
events with children as casualties, and finding oneself in a hostile and aggressive crowd. A
bimodal form of answers (yes – no) was used. The internal consistency coefficients
(Cronbach alpha) reached a value of .811 in the study of 302 firefighters.
RESULTS
The spread of scores on the GHQ-12 scale varied from 0 to 11 points. A significant
group of firemen obtained 0 points (58%), which reflects a very good level of psychological
well-being. Nineteen percent of the firemen were qualified to the group with elevated risk of
psychic disorders (Table II).
___________
The effect of job-related stress on psychological well-being
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Table 2 here
___________
Most firemen participated in traumatic events (Table III) which were mainly threats to
health or life, either own or another fireman’s, as well as in terrifying situations with macabre
sights going beyond normal people’s imagination. More than half of the firemen witnessed a
colleague’s accident with damage to health and events with children as casualties.
___________
Table 3 here
___________
Forty percent of the firemen experienced a high job stress level, only 5% assessed it to
be low.
General job-related stress level was high. The most burdening factors, compared with
other occupational groups, were: work overload, lack of rewards, social relations, threat,
physical burdens, unpleasant work conditions and responsibility (Table IV).
___________
Table 4 here
___________
The relation obtained between general occupational stress level and psychological
well-being was statistically significant. The worst well-being was most strongly correlated
with work overload, lack of psychosocial support or rewards at work, sense of threat,
uncertainty caused by organization of work. Social relations were of minor importance.
Firemen with lowered psychological well-being experienced stronger job stress than
the others. Detailed results are given in Table V.
___________
Table 5 here
The effect of job-related stress on psychological well-being
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___________
Firemen feeling psychological distress perceived a high level of job-related stress both
in general and in respect of all its factors. Work overload, lack of rewards, uncertainty due to
work organization, social relations, sense of threat at work, lack of sense of control and of
psychosocial support at work were particularly stressful. No differences were observed as
regards the sense of responsibility and feelings related with difficult work conditions. Next,
regression analyses of the predictors of psychological well-being were carried out.
Participation in traumatic events and general occupational stress were first taken into account,
and then individual stress factors were considered.
Participation in traumatic events affected substantially psychological well-being of
firemen, but the degree of the explained variance variability (4%), although significant
statistically, was very low. The introduction of the general stress level as a variable caused the
increment in the variance for the well-being, with simultaneous elimination of statistical
significance of participation in traumatic events. Detailed data are summarized in Table VI.
___________
Table 6 here
___________
Occupational stress was found to most strongly affect the psychological well-being.
Therefore, further analysis was carried out disregarding the variable “participation in
traumatic events”, focusing attention on specific sources of the occupational stress.
Stress factors having the strongest impact on deterioration of psychological well-being
were identified. The results are shown in Table VII.
___________
Table 7 here
___________
The effect of job-related stress on psychological well-being
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From among variables included in the equation, the lack of psychosocial support,
interpersonal conflicts and sense of threat turned out to be important but not significant
statistically. The work overload accounted for 18% of the variance in the dependent variable.
Stronger sense of quantitative and qualitative work overload affected unfavourably the
psychological well-being.
DISCUSSION
The lowered level of psychological well-being and, hence, the risk of clinical
psychopathology were found in about one-fifth of the firemen. Ogińska-Bulik [18] has
similarly identified 21.2% of the members of uniformed services to be in a poor psychic
condition. In the general working population in Poland the relevant value amounted to 26.6%,
while among men to 19.2% [13]. Hence, a conclusion can be drawn that the percentage of
firemen with psychic health deficit does not diverge from that observed in working male
population, thus being consistent with the world research findings [7, 8]. However, this result
is not satisfying. In the qualification for work in the fire service, candidates with high stress
resistance are chosen.
The work in the fire service is stressful, which is its specificity. Participation in
traumatic events is common. Three-fourths of firemen experienced health or life threat during
actions. Almost two-thirds witnessed colleague’s accident and half saw children among
casualties. In addition, the majority of firemen were confronted with gruesome sights being
far beyond common human experiences. Such situations are the most depressing, as reported
by other authors [9]. Therefore, protection against traumatic stress effects and other psychic
disorders in this occupational group is compulsory. Protection exclusively by occupational
selection is important but insufficient.
The effect of job-related stress on psychological well-being
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Participation in traumatic events essentially, but not to a high degree, affected directly
psychological well-being of firemen, whereas the stress level caused the increase of the
variance related with well-being, with simultaneous elimination of statistical significance of
participation in traumatic events. As demonstrated in previous investigations, the cumulation
of adverse events, even those with a small power, exhausts preventive resources and
measures. [3, 15].
The firemen with worsened well-being experienced a strong job-related stress almost
in its each aspect, both organizational and operational. The strains connected with the sense of
responsibility and difficult work conditions were similar to those in the rest of the firemen.
However, it was the quantitative and qualitative work overload that had a decisive effect on
the deterioration of the firemen’s well-being. The sense of psychic work overload is mainly
caused by the number of operation activities and their pace, work under time pressure,
permanent standby and availability, and, first of all, by the overtime work. According to the
results of previous investigations, mental health of firemen depends directly on the nature of
their work and indirectly also on their participation in traumatic events during rescue actions
[4, 11].
From among minor factors shaping the psychological well-being, negative effect of
insufficient psychosocial support, enhanced sense of threat and too favourable social relations
was observed. As emphasized in earlier studies, the members of uniformed services rather
negatively judged the attitudes of commanders towards persons reporting psychological
problems, which limited the possibility to receive support [10]. On the other hand,
psychosocial support from colleagues builds up the sense of community and improves social
relations [2, 5, 17]. Moreover, firemen establish specific ties between each other, called a
“firemen family”, which is undoubtedly beneficial for the cohesion of the team but may
The effect of job-related stress on psychological well-being
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negatively affect the work–private life relation and promote unfavourable health behaviour
[14, 20].
Other countries’ experiences demonstrate that effective health protection should be
oriented towards prophylaxis and mental health promotion, counselling and prevention of the
effects of trauma [1]. Health promotion is first of all geared towards maintaining physical
(fitness tests and rehabilitation programmes) and mental fitness, primarily through anti-
alcohol policy at the workplace. Owing to systematic psychoeducation, firemen turned out to
be the most conscious group among uniformed services. Individual counselling was intended
mainly for persons with psychological problems. In order to prevent the effects of trauma, a
debriefing group, consisting mainly of firemen, has been appointed. The group is always
coordinated by a fireman working on the front line. Debriefings after events with participation
of children, suicides and gruesome events are compulsory. Systemic psychological care is of
benefit to protect and build up firemen’s mental health [1, 15]. Unfortunately, such a system
of psychological interventions does not exist in Poland. Intensive activities of psychologists
from the Main School of Fire Service and seven Provincial Headquarters of the State Fire
Service of Poland definitely do not meet requirements of a complex mental health protection
related with the work performed.
The most serious problem in introducing a systemic protection of firemen’s health
was to overcome opposition and mistrust of the commanders and, next, of their subordinates.
The more is psychological intervention needed, the lower the opinion of the availability of
psychological care and its effectiveness, and greater awareness of stigmatization [10]. Taking
actions in the scope of the job stress is essential when shaping the psychological well-being at
the workplace.
CONCLUSION
The effect of job-related stress on psychological well-being
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Lowered levels of psychological well-being were found in about one-fifth of the
firemen. The work of firemen involves psychosocial and post-traumatic stress risk.
Psychosocial stress more strongly affects firemen’s well-being that does participation in
traumatic events. The firemen with worsened well-being perceived strong organizational and
operational job-related stress. Work overload was the main factor deteriorating the mental
health and well-being. The alleviation of occupational stress is important in building the
mental health at the workplace.
REFERENCES
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psychological well-being within police, fire and ambulance workers. New Zealand
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[6] Dudek B., Waszkowska M., Hanke W. (1999). Workers Health Protection Against
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[7] Hagh-Shenas H. Goodarzi M.A., Dehbozorgi G., Farashbandi H. (2005). Psychological
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of Traumatic Stress, 18, 5, 477-483.
[8] Harris M.B., Baloğlu M., Stacs J.R. (2002). Mental health of trauma – exposed
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[9] Haslam C., Mallon K. (2003). A preliminary investigation of post-traumatic stress
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D. Goldberg’s GHQ-12 and GHQ-28 for diagnosis of mental disorders in workers.
Medycyna Pracy, 51, 6, 589-601 [in Polish].
[13] Makowska Z., Merecz D. (2001). Mental health Assessment on a Research Basis by
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[15] Morren M., Yzermans C.J., van Nispen R.M.A., Wevers S.J.M. (2005): The health of
volunteer firefighters three years after a technological disaster. Journal of Occupational
Health, 47, 6, 523-532.
[16] Murphy S.A., Bond G.E., Beaton R.D., Murphy J., Johnson L.C. (2002). Lifestyle
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[17] North C.S., Tivis L., McMillen J.C., Pfefferbaum B., Cox J., Spitzangel E.L., Bunch
K., Schorr J., Smith E.M. (2002). Coping, functioning, and adjustment of rescue workers
after the Oklahoma City bombing. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 15, 3, 171-175.
[18] Ogińska-Bulik N. (2005). The role of personal and social resources in preventing
adverse health outcomes in employees of uniformed professions. International Journal of
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[19] Pevalin D.J. (2000). Multiple applications of the GHQ-12 in a general population
sample: an investigation long-term retest effects. Social Psychiatry and Psychiatrics
Epidemiology, 35, 508-512.
[20] Regehr C., Dimitropoulos G., Bright E., George S., Henderson J. (2005). Behind the
brotherhood: rewards and challenges for wives of firefighters. Family Relations, 54, 3,
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[21] Szubert Z., Sobala W. (2002). Work – related injuries among fire fighters: sites and
circumstances of their occurrence. International Journal of Occupational Medicine and
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diagnostic study. Journal of Managerial Psychology, 10, 3, 29-37.
The effect of job-related stress on psychological well-being
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Tab. I. Demographic data of the study group (N=121).
Variables
Number [N]
Percentage [%]
Period of service
Up to 5 years
34
28
5-10 years
35
29
10-15 years
21
17
Over 15 years
26
21
No data
5
5
Age
Up to 30 years
45
38
Over 30 years
73
60
No data
3
2
Education
Vocational secondary
10
8
Secondary
95
79
Higher
15
12
No data
1
1
Marital status
Married
88
73
Bachelor
26
21
Divorcee
4
3
Widower
1
1
No data
2
2
Children
None
34
28
One
42
35
Two
30
25
Three at least
11
9
No data
4
3
The effect of job-related stress on psychological well-being
14
Tab. II. Psychological well-being – distribution of results.
GHQ-12 score
Number
Percentage
Cumulated Percentage
0
70
57.85
57.85
1
18
14.87
72.72
2
10
8.26
80.99
3
7
5.78
86.77
4
4
3.30
90.08
5
5
4.13
94.21
6
4
3.31
97.52
9
1
0.83
98.34
10
1
0.83
99.17
11
1
0.83
100.00
The effect of job-related stress on psychological well-being
15
Tab. III. Participation in traumatic events.
Traumatic events
Yes
[%]
No
[%]
Direct threat to one’s health or life
79
21
Accident with damage to one’s health
34
66
Direct threat to colleague’s health or life
75
25
Accident with damage to colleague’s health
61
39
Death of colleague
10
90
Children among casualties
53
47
Terrifying sights
75
25
Aggressive crowd
43
57
The effect of job-related stress on psychological well-being
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Tab. IV. Descriptive statistics for job stress and Pearson correlations with well-being.
Variables
M
SD
r
Work overload
16.22#
5.27
.43**
Lack of rewards
15.71#
5.78
.34**
Uncertainty at the workplace
14.80
4.27
.29**
Social relations
9.58#
2.34
.19*
Threat
11.48#
3.07
.32**
Physical burdens
8.75#
4.07
.16
Unpleasant work conditions
6.81#
2.84
.08
Lack of control
7.66
1.93
.17
Lack of support
4.71
1.97
.36**
Responsibility
8.61#
2.30
.08
General job stress
104.39#
25.65
.35**
Note: * p < .05; ** p < .001; # sten 7 and more
The effect of job-related stress on psychological well-being
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Tab. V. Job stress factors in a group with lowered (GHQ > 2) and normal psychological
well-being (GHQ 0-2).
Variables
GHQ>2
Distress
GHQ 0-2
Well-being
F
M
SD
M
SD
Work overload
20.91
6.17
15.12
4.39
27.40*
Lack of rewards
20.04
5.73
14.70
5.33
18.15*
Uncertainty at the
workplace
18.17
4.62
14.01
3.80
20.50*
Social relations
10.82
2.38
9.29
2.25
8.42*
Threat
13.52
3.85
11.01
2.66
13.75*
Physical burdens
10.61
4.38
8.32
3.89
6.15**
Difficult work
conditions
7.43
3.29
6.67
2.72
1.34
Lack of control
8.47
2.33
7.47
1.79
5.24*
Lack of support
6.69
2.30
4.26
1.57
36.93*
Responsibility
9.35
2.48
8.45
2.24
2.87
General job stress
126.04
27.01
99.31
22.60
24.14*
Note: * p < .01; ** p < .001
The effect of job-related stress on psychological well-being
18
Tab. VI. Summary of hierarchical regression model for prediction of well-being.
Variables
β
t
(116)
p-
level
R
2
change
Total R
2
F
Step 1
.04
6.16*
Traumatic events in
action
.22
2.48
.02
Step 2
.13
8.99**
General job stress
.31
3.36
.001
.12
Traumatic events in
action
.12
1.30
.20
.01
Note: * p < .05; ** p < .001
The effect of job-related stress on psychological well-being
19
Tab. VII. Summary of final regression model for prediction of well-being (GHQ-12).
Variables
Β
R
2
R
2
change
F
p
Work overload
.32
.18
.18
26.47
.001
Lack of support
.19
.19
.009
1.32
.25
Social relations
-.16
.20
.01
1.57
.21
Threat
.13
.21
.01
1.46
.23
Summed regression
Corrected R
2
=.19; F (4, 116) = 7.92; p < .001
