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A History of Accounting and Accountants
... He describes the usefulness of the keeping of accounts to ensure and protect the interests of citizens and government officials. Additional information is provided by Brown (1968) regarding sophisticated accounting principles and systems that were in existence during the Roman Empire of the first-century A.D. A study by de Ste. Croix (1956) provides additional details regarding the accounting practices used in that time period. ...
... The patriarch of the family kept an adversaria (common book) of all the household's income and expenses. Every month, he would post the collected entries into a larger register called the codex accepti et depensi (Brown, 1968). This created a tradition of recordkeeping that continued for centuries, even by the ruling class. ...
... This created a tradition of recordkeeping that continued for centuries, even by the ruling class. Brown (1968) indicates that the initial Roman constitution dictated very few sources of governmental revenue. Sources were restricted to limited taxes, dues, fines, confiscations, and wartime gains. ...
... Corporate reporting has evolved extensively over the last 10,000 years (Brown, 1905;Hopwood, 1987;Mattessich, 1998) in four distinct eras. The first era is known as the agricultural era and is distinguished by single-and then double-entry accounting. ...
... We cannot know what the first corporate reporting meme was. We can speculate that a meme to count quantities of grain and livestock is a likely candidate (Brown, 1905;Mattessich, 1998). ...
Corporate reporting is vital to the efficient functioning of capital markets. Integrated reporting is drawing increasing attention due to its ability to concisely tell a company’s value creation story. Equally important, the integrated report presents how companies use the six capitals to create value and aims to foster a culture of integrated thinking by management. Most integrated reporting research implicitly assumes it is a neutral, technical means of communicating financial and non-financial information. The prior research deploys legitimacy, stakeholder and neo-institutional theory to explain its evolution. This conceptual chapter provides an overview of memetic evolution theory and uses it to provide a novel perspective of integrated reporting’s evolution. The chapter illustrates the application of memetic evolution to integrated reporting and suggests areas for future research drawing on a memetic evolutionary lens of integrated reporting evolution.
... Corporate reporting has evolved extensively over the last 10,000 years (Brown, 1905;Hopwood, 1987;Mattessich, 1998) in four distinct eras. The first era is known as the agricultural era and is distinguished by single-and then double-entry accounting. ...
... We cannot know what the first corporate reporting meme was. We can speculate that a meme to count quantities of grain and livestock is a likely candidate (Brown, 1905;Mattessich, 1998). ...
The importance of sustainable agriculture cannot be understated. Responsible farming practices which address the growing demand for food with social and environmental imperatives are essential for the long-term viability of organisations in the agri-sector and, at the national and international level, for achieving the targets laid out in the Sustainable Development Goals. This chapter focuses specifically on SDGs 14 and 15 on protecting biodiversity. A change in business models is required. The agri-sector needs to transition from a maximisation of production logic or modus operandi (where the environment is an ancillary concern) to a ‘farming with biodiversity’ one (where nature is integrated into agricultural processes). While there are several frameworks, guidelines and initiatives in place which address different aspects of agricultural activity and related biodiversity issues, there is no consolidated approach to assist countries and companies respond to the sustainability challenge.
... The most precocious ancient accounting system of world was presented in Mesopotamia (Friedlob, et al, 1996;Henio, 1992). The early Egyptians and Babylonians created auditing systems, while the Romans collated detailed financial information (Brown, 2006;New York State Society of CPAs, 2003;Oldroyd, 1995). Some of the first accountants were employed around 300 BC in Iran, where tokens and bookkeeping scripts were discovered. ...
... Some of the first accountants were employed around 300 BC in Iran, where tokens and bookkeeping scripts were discovered. Around the first millennium the Phoenicians invented an alphabetic system for bookkeeping, while the ancient Egyptians may have even assigned someone the role of comptroller (Brown, 2006). The father of modern accounting is Italian Luca Pacioli, who in 1494 first described the system of double-entry bookkeeping used by Venetian merchants in his Summa de Arithmetica, Geometria, Proportioni et Proportionalita. ...
This paper aims to contribute to the existing literature on the issue of the accounting utility not for business reasons but for non-accountants and from the point of view of everyday life financial needs and human survival. In addition, this paper aims to reveal conclusions from the application of accounting by an ordinary essentially illiterate person, including that self-taught accounting is connected to the principles of accounting and modern application experience. Applying a qualitative-determinative analysis of a handwritten bookkeeping Diary, revealed that several accepted accounting principles were applied, even instinctively, by the illiterate young person. The improvised bookkeeping suggests that basic accounting knowledge derives from the specific needs of the individual and is configured according to specific circumstances of time and place and to the ease of understanding basic accounting theory and skills. The choice to use accounting, and the sanctuary and therapeutic value of accounting as bulwark in the worst possible circumstances reveals another option of social dimension of accounting. The accounting application as a means of finding structure and guidance in an unknown world and within a tragic environment helped extremely to turn the young refugee’s disaster to a success story. The few pages from the hand-written diary of an ex WWII captive is the quite unique and interesting material this paper is constructed on and consist an undoubtable original documentation, but at the same time the scarcity of the few saved pages comprises the main research limitation. The elements considered by an “Illiterate” in the accounting field, most significant, as well as the way in which these principles were registered, should be considered in Accounting Education. EL Classifications: D030, D100, M490 Key words: Accounting history, Bookkeeping, Accounting principles, Qualitative analysis
... In 1904, The Accountants' Ordinance, No. 3 (Private) of 1904 granted statutory recognition to the profession in the Transvaal Colony. Compulsory registration of accountants as members of a new accountants' organisation, The Transvaal Society of Accountants and Auditors was introduced (Transvaal Society ofAccountants, 1906;Brown, 1905). The actants in the actor network, the two professional accounting associations, and the state thereby engaged in interessement to secure enrolment and, finally, mobilisation to legislate statutory recognition of professional practising rights of accountants in the Transvaal Colony. ...
... Following the Transvaal Colony, the Government of the Colony of Natal also legislated to ensure that control over access and practising rights remained with the members of the new Natal Society of Accountants (Verhoef, 2014). Examinations to admit members were first conducted by the Institute of Accountants in Natal from 1895 and by its successor, the Natal Society of Accountants from 1909 (Noyce, 1954;Brown, 1905). In the Transvaal Colony, the Transvaal Society of Accountants[7]began setting examinations to admit members from 1905. ...
Purpose
This paper examines how the actions of the accounting profession, the state, universities, and academics have inhibited the development of South African accounting research.
Design/methodology/approach
A multiple history approach using traditional archival material and oral history is used.
Findings
Since the late nineteenth century, a network of human and non-human actors has ensured that accounting education in South Africa retained a technical focus. By prescribing and detailing the accounting syllabuses required for university accreditation, the South African Institute of Chartered Accountants (SAICA) and its predecessors exercise direct control over accounting education. As a result, little appetite exists for a discipline based on academic enquiry or engagement with international scholars. While the SAICA claims to support accounting research, this support is conditional on its meeting the professional body’s particular view of scholarship.
Research limitations/implications
The limitations associated with this research are that it focuses on one particular professional body in one jurisdiction. The South African situation provides a cautionary tale of how universities, particularly those in developing countries, should take care not to abdicate their responsibilities for the setting of syllabi or course content to professional bodies. Accounting academics, particularly those in a developing country currently experiencing major social, political, and economic problems, are in a prime position to engage in research that will benefit society as a whole.
Originality/value
Although actor network theory has been used in accounting research and in particular to explain accounting knowledge creation, the use of this particular theoretical lens to examine the construction of professional knowledge is limited. This study draws on Callon’s (1986) four moments to explain how various human actors including the accounting profession, the state, universities, and accounting academics, along with non-human actors such as accreditation, regulation, and transformation, have brought about South African academic disengagement with the discipline.
... De un paradigma positivista de verdad por correspondencia con una realidad externa a un paradigma neo-positivista de verdad "por correspondencia con criterios" La contabilidad y la auditoría se remontan a la Historia de la Antigüedad por cuanto su práctica se evidencia en casi todas las civilizaciones antiguas de la humanidad que desarrollaron una actividad económica (Brown, 1905(Brown, /1968Stone, 1969;Chatfield, 1974). En general, cuanto mayor era el nivel de civilización alcanzado, tanto más avanzados eran los métodos contables; ello implicaba, a su vez, un desarrollo equivalente en auditoría, por lo que respecta a determinado tipo de verificación de cuentas. ...
... De un paradigma positivista de verdad por correspondencia con una realidad externa a un paradigma neo-positivista de verdad "por correspondencia con criterios" La contabilidad y la auditoría se remontan a la Historia de la Antigüedad por cuanto su práctica se evidencia en casi todas las civilizaciones antiguas de la humanidad que desarrollaron una actividad económica (Brown, 1905(Brown, /1968Stone, 1969;Chatfield, 1974). En general, cuanto mayor era el nivel de civilización alcanzado, tanto más avanzados eran los métodos contables; ello implicaba, a su vez, un desarrollo equivalente en auditoría, por lo que respecta a determinado tipo de verificación de cuentas. ...
Se pretende argumentar que la relación entre contabilidad y auditoría se ha perdido porque los supuestos filosóficos básicos de la auditoría no se han desarrollado tanto como sus correspondientes en el campo de la contabilidad. En tanto que la contabilidad a valor razonable representa una realidad socialmente construida, la auditoría parece siempre estar fundada en la tradición positivista de la teoría de la evidencia (Cfr. Mautz y Sharaf, 1961; AAA, 1973; Flint, 1988). El resto del trabajo se focaliza en el análisis del problema de la relación perdida entre contabilidad y auditoría, problema que se ha planteado en la sección primera (status quæstionis). En primer lugar, la siguiente sección describirá brevemente la metodología utilizada para el análisis. En la tercera sección se dará una breve descripción del cambio histórico del paradigma principal de la contabilidad, que pasa de informar la verdad a informar en coherencia con los principios de contabilidad generalmente aceptados (PCGA) y los cambios correspondientes en el paradigma principal de la auditoría, desde los tiempos antiguos hasta la auditoría moderna en el siglo XIX, que culminó con la promulgación de ASOBAC. En la cuarta sección, se analizan los avances de la última o dos últimas décadas, más concretamente, el cambio de un enfoque contable basado en la correspondencia con criterios, a un enfoque contable basado en la construcción social de consenso, como puede constatarse en el giro contable a partir de la década de 1990 en adelante con el paradigma del valor razonable. Se argumentará que la auditoría no se ha modificado en consecuencia, y que este eslabón perdido entre el enfoque ontológico de la contabilidad y de la auditoría puede acarrear problemas a los académicos, emisores de normas y profesionales. El artículo concluye con estas implicaciones y la necesidad de investigación futura.
... Néanmoins, il convient de noter que les métiers comptables existaient depuis toujours et ont évolué d'une simple collection des impôts et son comptabilisation dans les anciennes civilisations (Brown, 2014), à un métier indépendant et incarné dans tout type d'organisation. ...
This article explores the Moroccan accounting industry in depth by examining its unique context and the legislative, regulatory, and institutional framework that governs it. The study also analyzes the particularities of this industry in an environment promoting the transition to digitalization, encompassing entities ranging from large firms affiliated with international networks to small independent practices. The adopted methodology is based on an in-depth documentary analysis of legislative texts, regulations, and scientific publications, complemented by a review of specialized press and an exhaustive literature survey. The results
of this study reveal the major challenges faced by the Moroccan accounting industry, notably the pressure exerted by a constantly evolving technological and regulatory environment, the necessity to adopt new technologies, and the need to develop innovative skills. The article concludes with a discussion of prospects for improvement for Moroccan accounting professionals and proposes avenues to strengthen its competitiveness. Among these recommendations are the adoption of advanced digital technologies, continuous professional development, and the reinforcement of collaboration between different actors in the sector to promote innovation and sustainable growth.
... It is a product of centuries of thought, action, convention, custom, and habit» [15]. That is, why such sources as A History of Financial Accounting [12]; The History of Accounting: An International Encyclopedia [9]; A History of Accountancy in the United States: The Cultural Significance of Accounting [18]; A History of Accounting and Accountants [7]; ...
This paper provides commentary on the two-volume Encyclopedia of Accounting and Finance (hereinafter Encyclopedia) composed by the authors and published in Estonia. The Encyclopedia presents information about accounting and finance in Estonia as well as in other countries, in context of historical and contemporary developments in the global business environment.
... The first example of AIS can be traced back to ancient Jericho around 8000 BC where merchants kept track of their inventories and transactions using tokens (Anandarajan et al. 2004). For 5,000 years, there were just small improvements until the advent of the abacus (Brown, 2014). Originally invented in China, the abacus made its way to western civilisation and became a valuable tool for accounting calculations. ...
In recent years, the increasing adoption of digital technologies have dramatically accelerated the speed of change in the accounting information systems (AIS) domain. However, AIS go back centuries. This chapter provides a brief summary on evolution of AIS, from when the first rudimentary versions of AIS were adopted to the information age with the adoption of mainframes and ERP systems to the present with the increasing adoption of business intelligence and data analytics capabilities. The technological development of AIS is also discussed in relation to how the role of accountants has changed over time.
... As mentioned in the introduction, this volume does not attempt to offer a comprehensive history of accounting (for a couple of notable attempts, see Brown, 1905;Vangermeersch & Chatfield, 1996;Previts & Merino, 1998). Instead, it attempts to pick up on various "vagrant" and understudied threads of intellectual developments in accounting practice and research over a timeperiod of several hundred years. ...
This latest volume of Studies in the Development of Accounting Thought, edited by Martin E. Persson, contains ten manuscripts, seven being previously unpublished, authored by C. Richard Baker during an academic career that spans four decades. Historical Developments in the Accountancy Profession, Financial Reporting, and Accounting Theory is divided into two thematic sections. The first covers developments in accounting thought on financial reporting and the accountancy profession, whereas the second section covers developments related to accounting measurements and theory. The historical examination of the development of accounting thought serves as a unifying theme throughout this edited volume, which attempts to pick up on various understudied threads of academic and professional initiatives over the past several hundred years. The material is of value to anyone interested in the intellectual history of the accounting discipline.
... Economic Sciences TOM XXX, 1 st Issue, July 2021 ________________________________________________________________________________ 157 harmonize the accounting practices with the EU Directives and the IAS. Accounting-sources can be drawn to earliest times and are directly associated to the development of numeration and counting(Brown, 2006). With the development of trade and the founding of states, some form of organization and keeping accounts has emerged. ...
This study analyses existing literature review studies on banking sector performance. Specially, this research aim is to identify topics of interest and development niche for this vast field. The paper presents a content analyses of 14 literature review on banking sector performance studies, selected using clear and transparency methodology. The content analysis of the papers identified that themes are diverse: banking performance and efficiency analysed using the DEA (Data Envelope Analysis) method, banking efficiency and risk, banking efficiency and competition, mobile banking and bank profitability. Based on selected papers this study identified that in recent years number of systematic literature revie studies increase, in the same time traditional literature review are decreasing.
... Dando un gran salto al siglo XIX, se pudo ver que en este periodo de tiempo, fue tal vez uno de los de mayor influencia en el crecimiento y desarrollo de la contabilidad a nivel global; cabe destacar que en los países más desarrollados de la época, se crearon instituciones dedicadas más formalmente al estudio y cuidado de la contabilidad, entre las que se destaca Francia, Italia, Escocia, Holanda, Alemania, Inglaterra, Estados Unidos y Austria; donde se fundaron instituciones dedicadas exclusivamente al tema contable, entre las que cabe mencionar el instituto de contadores públicos de Inglaterra y Gales (The Institute of Chartered Accountants of England and Wales en 1.880), entidad que aglutino a quienes ejercían la contabilidad a nivel profesional, especialmente en Inglaterra (Brown, 2004). ...
... In the United States, the accounting profession assumed the mantle of "protectorate of society" in the 1930s when the profession took on an auditing function to review and ensure that business corporate bookkeeping was accurate and verifiable (Brown, 2002). Gendron et al. (2015) found that accountants manifest a high commitment to independence, which correlates with ethical behavior and integrity. ...
Values research generally confirms that personally held values influence an individual's decision processes and behavior. Yet this academic research often is limited to the individual or organizational level of analysis. This study utilizes social identity and personal values theories to search for the presence of superordinate identities emerging at the meso level from six different industries. The six selected industries—accounting, banking, construction, education, energy, and manufacturing—represent a mix of highly respected and disrespected industries, as well as industries that have an ethical professional association and those that do not. Results provide evidence of meso‐level superordinate identities, distinguishing managers' personal value orientations from a generalized population, and across the six selected industries. Implications emanating from this research for the human resource practitioners and academic scholars are discussed.
... L'anglais Edward Thomas Jones (1767-1833) fait partie de ces combattants de la dernière heure. Il était l'un des 25 comptables publics de Bristol (Brown, 1905) et il connut la célébrité grâce à un ouvrage publié en 1796, consacré à la partie simple, pour lutter contre la comptabilité en partie double qu'il considérait comme compliquée, obscure et mystérieuse et faite pour dissimuler les plus noirs desseins de ses pratiquants. Dans l'idéal, son « English system of bookkeeping by Single or Double Entry » voudrait être un système hybride combinant la simplicité de la partie simple aux enregistrements limités et la fiabilité de la partie double, gé- (Hausforfer, 1986, pp. ...
Mise en ligne intégrale de la revue avec l'accord de son rédacteur en chef, le professeur Luc Marco.
... The need to prevent abuse, mismanagement and corruption of public funds has brought the demand for internal and external auditing. According to Brown (1905) the origin of auditing goes back to times scarcely less remote than that of accounting. Whenever the advance of civilization brought about the necessity of one man being entrusted to some extent with the property of another, the advisability of some kind of check upon the fidelity of the former would become apparent. ...
Auditing in the public sector has evolved over the years to meet the needs of a business
environment that is constantly changing. In an effort to help organizations achieve an accurate assessment of risk and business development, internal audit plays a particularly important role. Although internal audit has existed since the beginning of human civilization, in Albania it developed much later. The economic and financial development of Albania over the last decades, in the context of economic globalization, has had a significant impact on auditing institutions, that have to do their best to measure the efficiency of public fund usage. This paper aims to analyze the historical development of auditing in the public sector, and measure by quantification the performance of the institutions that have been responsible for organizing auditing in the public sector in Albania, as well as identifying the national and international policies that have brought about the introduction and evolution of the audit concept. Recognizing the genesis of the
public sector audit activity and the progress of the responsible institutions, we can understand the current situation and the needs for change that would increase the efficiency of work in those institutions.
... Значимым компонентом института учета в целом являются профессиональные объединения -ассоциации бухгалтеров, аудиторов, оценщиков и др., играющие сейчас важную роль в формировании мирового финансового порядка 4 -на международном уровне и на национальных рынках развитых стран. Сообщества бухгалтеров, наряду с юристами и врачами, самые институциализированные, а профессиональные ассоциации в развитых странах имеют полуторасотлетнюю историю [68]. Особенно заметна роль профессиональных объединений в странах с давними традициями саморегулирования на финансовых рынках, которые характерны для стран с прецедентным правом, в первую очередь США и Великобритании. ...
The issues of institutionalization and demarcation of the boundaries of academic disciplines in recent years have received a significant interest, within the framework of new waves of epistemological and institutional research and interdisciplinarity. The aim of this work is to model the process of academic discipline’s institutionalization and the structure of its institutions by the case of accounting discipline, in the international and Russian context. Due to the specific nature of the subject, we will use the institutional approach as well as the associated social network approach within which discipline is viewed as the result of the interaction of individual actors, their groups and networks in the subject discourse. The paper identifies the reasons for interest in demarcating the boundaries of academic disciplines in general, and accounting in particular. The institutional structure of accounting is defined as a set of institutions of accounting practices (techniques and professions) and accounting knowledge (science and the dissemination of knowledge (education and professional communication)). The stages of development of all these institutions are structured; special attention is paid to the institutions of accounting knowledge. It is shown that today accounting, institutionally, is a mature academic discipline, a separate part of economic science and practice. The main features of accountants’ academic community network organization are revealed: its tightness facilitates the exchange of knowledge within the community, but also hinders the search for new objects and methods of research and interdisciplinarity. The features of the development of accounting institutions in the Russian academic environment are discussed. The importance of the results is due to the possibilities of social construction in society and in markets that are provided by all economic disciplines, including accounting. The model of the structure of institutions and networks presented in this work can be extended to other disciplines that will help overcome the existing gap between the content of domestic and foreign ideas about their institutional nature and subject fields, as well as the revision of Russian national educational and research classifications, the content of training programs in economic disciplines, including accounting.
... Значимым компонентом института учета в целом являются профессиональные объединения -ассоциации бухгалтеров, аудиторов, оценщиков и др., играющие сейчас важную роль в формировании мирового финансового порядка 4 -на международном уровне и на национальных рынках развитых стран. Сообщества бухгалтеров, наряду с юристами и врачами, самые институциализированные, а профессиональные ассоциации в развитых странах имеют полуторасотлетнюю историю [68]. Особенно заметна роль профессиональных объединений в странах с давними традициями саморегулирования на финансовых рынках, которые характерны для стран с прецедентным правом, в первую очередь США и Великобритании. ...
Abstract. The issues of institutionalization and demarcation of the boundaries of academic disciplines in recent years have received a significant interest, within the framework of new waves of epistemological and institutional research and interdisciplinarity. The aim of this work is to model the process of academic discipline’s institutionalization and the structure of its institutions by the case of accounting discipline, in the international and Russian context. Due to the specifics of the subject, we will use the institutional approach, as well as the social-network approach, close to it, within which discipline is viewed as the result of the interaction of individual actors, their groups and networks in the subject discourse. The paper identifies the reasons for interest in demarcating the boundaries of academic disciplines in general, and accounting in particular. The institutional structure of accounting is defined as a set of institutes of accounting practices (techniques and professions) and accounting knowledge (science and the dissemination of knowledge (education and professional communication)). The stages of development of all these institutions are structured; special attention is paid to the institutions of accounting knowledge. It is shown that today accounting, institutionally, is a mature academic discipline, a separate part of economic science and practice. The main features of the accountants’ academic community network organization are revealed: its tightness facilitates the exchange of knowledge within the community, but it hinders the search for new objects and methods of research and interdisciplinarity. The features of the development of accounting institutions in the Russian academic environment are discussed. The importance of the results is due to the possibilities of social construction in society and in markets that are given by all economic disciplines, including accounting. The model of the structure of institutions and networks presented in this work can be extended to other disciplines that will help overcome the existing gap between the content of domestic and foreign ideas about their institutional nature and subject fields, as well as the revision of Russian national educational and research classifications, the content of training programs in economic disciplines, including accounting.
... For Richard Brown (1905), whenever the advance of civilization brought about the necessity of one man being entrusted to some extent with the property of another, the advisability of some kind of check upon the fidelity of the former would become apparent. Hence, BC can be presented as "a novel solution to the age-old human problem of trust" (Voshmgir, 2017 B;p.1). ...
Created in 2008, Blockchain is a novel solution to the problem of trust (Voshmgir 2017) by the fact that the continuously growing distributed database are hardened against tampering and revision (Fanning and Centers 2016). For Voshmgir (2017), blockchain could disrupt traditional governance structures by reducing bureaucracy through lower transaction costs, solving principal-agent issues and moral hazard; thus, the impact of blockchain on the Audit function through the principal-agent problem. This article is a contribution to the little research made in this field; it will provide insight into how “Blockchains” work while exploring the common ground with the audit function through a principal-agent approach. By doing so, we aim to initiate a scholar curiosity of the potential of blockchain in audit by introducing new characteristics’ typology and a proposed model for blockchain and audit.
... Accounting is the process of identifying, measuring and communicating economic information to permit informed judgments and decisions by users of the information (Wood, 1996). Its practice is as old as civilization (Brown, 1968). Ancient bookkeeping originated in Venice as a result of increase in economic activities following the establishment of joint ventures and partnership businesses. ...
This paper empirically investigated the influence of Information and Communication Technology (ICT) on accounting practical (AP). Data were drawn from accountants in accounting firms and the private and public sectors using questionnaire. Analyses were performed by means of descriptive statistics, Pearson's product moment coefficient of correlation and multiple regression with the statistical packages for social sciences (SPSS). Findings indicate a statistically significantly strong positive relationship between ICT and AP. Results of descriptive statistics indicate that power constrains this relationship by 66.73%. Similarly, financial accounting has a greater percentage (48.1%) of ICT usage than auditing and taxation. ICT is a prime factor for improved AP. Investment in power is a prerequisite for organizations to take full benefit of ICT, particularly, in AP.
... The first section is addressed to princesses, which may have been a polite protocol since the original manuscript of The Treasure is dedicated to a princess. There is evidence of princesses taking an active role in household management and the keeping of financial accounts [Brown, 1905, Heal, 2008 but Christine de Pizan may have had another motivation for offering financial advice to princesses. King Charles VI had periods of insanity which made him incapable of managing royal finances. ...
This research discusses The Treasure of the City of Ladies, a manuscript written by Christine de Pizan in France during the early 15th century to give guidance on account keeping and budgeting. Christine de Pizan was born in Italy but raised in the French royal court. Her manuscript gives the keeping of accounts and budget management a religious imperative. She describes them as functions where the three divine virtues of reason, rectitude, and justice are applied. Christine de Pizan describes how demonstrating these virtues through the proper keeping of accounts and budgets is a way to demonstrate love of God. Although historical accounting records show how accounting was done, this manuscript explains why it was done. In giving a rationale for single-entry bookkeeping and budgeting, the manuscript provides a source that prevents present-mindedness when attempting to undertake contemporary analyses of accounting records from this historical period.
... Every culture has relied upon some type of economic and financial reporting system, and precursors of modern accounting systems began to emerge over half a millennium ago (see Brown (2014) for an extensive review of accounting history). The ancient societies of Rome and Babylon used primitive accounting systems to assess taxation and facilitate economic trade. ...
Rapid advances in technology within accounting information systems (AIS) accompanied by an increase in information accessibility render organizations vulnerable to the misuse of confidential data. AIS professionals are uniquely equipped and positioned to address these information security risks and to strengthen the trust stakeholders and the public place in the AIS function. We contend that reforms to control and protect intelligence with improved systemic controls must be complemented with reforms to control and protect professional integrity. We propose a Systems Trust Model that elevates professional virtue as a fundamental and necessary control element that complements IT governance and systemic controls. We then analyze the necessity and sufficiency of the trust model elements for creating and protecting system trust-regardless of additional opportunities and incentives present in new and evolving technologies in AIS. Implications for future research, AIS curriculum, and the AIS profession ...
... Below is a line graph which shows the development financial accounting from about 5000 BC to 2005AD, when the International Financial Reporting Standards (IFRS) were launched. The Code of Hammurabi (named after the King of the first dynasty of Babylonia from 2285- 2242 BC) is considered to be one of the first attempts to standardise the financial reporting process (Brown, 1968; Cronjé, 2007). The code required an agent selling goods for a merchant to surrender to the principal a sealed memorandum quoting the prices (Edwards, 2014). ...
... Discussions about the subject matter of commercial education and commercial professions were led at the meetings of Russian specialists on engineering and vocational education as well as at the conferences of the leaders and representatives of the boards of trustees of commercial educational institutions, frequently convened since the 1890s. Periodicals were also actively involved in the debates, among them such journals as Vestnik Vospitaniya (Education Bulletin), Russkaya Shkola (Russian School), Kommercheskoye Obrazovaniye (Commercial Education), Kommercheskaya Shkola i Zhizn (Commercial School and Life), Schetovodstvo (Accountancy), and others. 1 In the nineteenth century, there were three associations of chartered accountants functioning in Scotland (see Brown, 1905;ICAS, 1954): The Edinburgh Society of Accountants (registered in 1854), The Glasgow Institute of Accountants and Actuaries (registered in 1855), and The Aberdeen Society of Accountants (registered in 1867). 2 In the 1870s, five professional associations of accountants were formed in England (see Boys, 2004): The Incorporated Society of Liverpool Accountants (1870), The Institute of Accountants in London (1870), The Manchester Institute of Accountants (1871), The Society of Accountants in England (1872), and The Sheffield Institute of Accountants (1877). 3 Trade classes were organized for the employees of commercial and industrial firms who have reached the age of twelve. ...
In today's complex and rapidly evolving business landscape, a solid understanding of accounting and financial management is more crucial than ever. Whether you're an aspiring accountant, a business owner, a manager, or simply someone looking to enhance their financial acumen, this comprehensive guide is designed to equip you with the knowledge and tools necessary to navigate the intricate world of finance with confidence. "Comprehensive Guide to Accounting and Financial Management" is the culmination of years of experience in both academic and practical settings. It aims to bridge the gap between theoretical concepts and real-world applications, providing readers with a holistic view of financial practices that drive successful businesses. This book is structured to take you on a journey through the core principles of accounting and financial management, starting from the basics and progressively moving towards more advanced topics. Each chapter is crafted to build upon the previous one, ensuring a logical and coherent learning experience. Key features of this guide include: • Clear and concise explanations of complex financial concepts • Practical examples and case studies drawn from real business scenarios • Step-by-step guides for various accounting procedures and financial analyses • Insights into emerging trends and technologies shaping the future of finance • Exercises and problems to reinforce learning and develop critical thinking skills
Introdução Ao longo dos tempos ocorreram alterações nos sistemas contabilísticos a nível mundial, de cada país e a nível de cada entidade. As razões que estão subjacentes a estas mudanças têm sido estudadas por Potter (2005) e por Miller (1994), entre outros. Estes estudos são benéficos pois permitem compreender o estado atual da contabilidade, e como os sistemas contabilísticos são influenciados pelas políticas financeiras e económicas adotadas pelos diversos países. Em 1928, António de Oliveira Salazar foi convidado pelo Presidente da República Carmona para resolver os problemas orçamentais de défice que assolavam Portugal. Salazar foi nomeado Ministro das Finanças tendo estabelecido como princípio básico o equilíbrio orçamental (Caria e Rodrigues, 2014). Em 1932, Salazar era primeiro-ministro e funda o que designa como Estado Novo. A revisão da literatura indica-nos a existência de um Estado Novo que estabelece um regime de controlo direto sobre as finanças públicas. Salazar regulamenta e exige o cumprimento com rigor do equilíbrio orçamental, determinando que a Contabilidade Pública seja um instrumento decisório na moralização da política financeira do regime (Cochicho, 2011). De acordo com o Decreto nº 18.381, de 24 de Maio de 1930, deverá estabelecer-se a ordem, a disciplina, o rigor e a moral na Contabilidade Pública e no País. Esse mesmo Estado impõe a obrigatoriedade do método de registo da partida simples na Contabilidade Pública, abandonando-se o método das partidas dobradas, retrocedendo e limitando, deste modo, toda a Contabilidade na Administração Pública. O contexto político, económico e social de Portugal (1928-1974) A constituição de 1933 nasceu da necessidade de estabilização e legitimação do regime nascido do golpe militar de 1926, que pôs fim à democracia parlamentar da I República. Na sequência desse golpe, as Forças Armadas tinham instaurado um regime autoritário, Resumo É indiscutível que o conhecimento do passado da Contabilidade contribui para a melhor percepção da Contabilidade de hoje e de amanhã. Este artigo tem como intuito último investigar a História da Contabilidade Pública portuguesa. É nesta procura pelo conhecimento passado, compreensão do presente e perspetivar do futuro a investigação pretende caminhar, até porque "uma compreensão do passado da Contabilidade pode contribuir para melhorar a nossa compreensão da natureza, papel, usos e impactos da Contabilidade de hoje e contribuir com informação que ajude no processo de tomada de decisões respeitantes aos desenvolvimentos contabilísticos de amanhã" (Carnegie, 2005, pp.15). As principais ilações a que se chega dão conta de que nos primórdios de Portugal a Contabilidade pública praticada era extremamente simples, notando-se que a sua principal preocupação era servir de base para a fiscalização das finanças públicas, sem esquecer, igualmente, que a contabilidade por partidas dobradas apenas foi introduzida no setor público em 1761, muito depois de este método ter sido difundido pela Europa. Palavras-chaves: História da Contabilidade. Contabilidade Pública. Portugal.
Professions represent social groups formed within a wider social context by skilled individuals around their common economic interests. In particular, the formation of these groups is directed by various factors which are subject to numerous enquiries of sociology.
This research note uses a city directory to identify and contextualize early practitioners in what later became the first organized professional community of public accountants in the English-speaking world. It comments more generally on the use of such a directory as an archival source for accounting history research.
In contrast to the conventional focus on recruits and members, this paper examines identity construction in professional organisations. It explores authenticity work – identification activity directed at external audiences to assert distinctiveness. The focus is on commemorative celebrations of the Institute of Chartered Accountants of Scotland (ICAS) and the Institute of Chartered Accountants in England and Wales (ICAEW) during the twentieth century. Evidence from archival and published documents demonstrates that the chartered bodies in Britain were anxious to assert their uniqueness in an increasingly congested professional field. The analysis shows that ICAS made authenticity claims based on its unique position as the first accountancy body in the modern world and emphasised its status as the originator of the institutions of the accountancy profession. The ICAEW, by contrast, initially stressed its alignment to progress and modernity and later emphasised its standing as the leading professional body located at the centre of economic and political power. It is suggested that comprehending the authenticity claims of these organisations is potentially significant to understanding the fragmentation of the chartered accountancy profession in Britain.
Osmanlı Devleti’nin toprak yapısı ve miri arazi rejimi devletin yönetimi ve gelişiminde önemli etkenlerden birisi olmuştur. 15. yüzyılda ilk defa sistematik olarak anlatılan çift taraflı kayıt yöntemi ise Avrupa devletlerinde kapitalizmin ve ekonomik gelişimin gelişiminin temel unsurlarından birisi olarak görülmektedir. Osmanlı Devleti’nde ise çift taraflı kayıt yöntemine dair ilk belgeler 19. yüzyılda ortaya çıkmaktadır. Bu gecikmenin birçok sebebi olduğu muhakkaktır.
Çalışmanın amacı, Osmanlı toprak düzeninde mülkiyet hakkının çift taraflı kayıt yöntemine geçişe olan etki düzeyini ve bu etkiyi ortaya çıkaran faktörleri tespit etmektir. Bu kapsamda Osmanlı Devleti’nin toprak düzeni, özel mülkiyet yapısı ve gelişimi incelenmiş, bu durumun çift taraflı kayıt yöntemine geçişe olan etkileri değerlendirilmiştir. Bu inceleme yapılırken, eski Türk devletlerindeki ve İslamiyet’teki mülkiyet yapısı analiz edilmiş, Osmanlı Devleti’nin kuruluşundan çift taraflı kayıt yöntemini kullanmaya başlamasına kadar olan yaklaşık dört asırlık süreyi kapsayan ekonomik, sosyo-kültürel, siyasal durumuna ilişkin literatür taraması yapılmıştır. Elde edilen bulgular çift taraflı kayıt yöntemi çerçevesinde değerlendirilmiştir. Sonuç olarak, Osmanlı Devleti’nde güçlü merkeziyetçi bir idarenin hâkim olması, miri arazi sisteminin uygulanması ve özel mülkiyetin gelişememesi durumlarının çift taraflı kayıt yöntemine geçişi geciktirdiği değerlendirilmiştir.
In this study I research external auditing and auditors liaiblity both to company and third party
This study is intended to increase knowledge and improve understanding of early public accountancy professionalisation in Scotland by applying the prosopographical research method to a community of practitioners in the capital city of Edinburgh in the early-nineteenth century. Using archival data, the study identifies the collective professional and social characteristics of 124 Edinburgh practitioners in 1834 by means of career-related analyses of their origin, education, training, and service-related signals of movement to occupational ascendency prior to the community’s later collective organisation. The study makes visible a structured and mature community operating in several occupational jurisdictions involving multi-disciplinary knowledge; maintaining a subordinate but mutually-dependent relationship with the legal profession; having a primary role in emerging insurance services; and achieving individual practitioner status recognition in a class-conscious city. Evidence of signals of movement to occupational ascendency adds to existing knowledge and understanding of the pre-collective organisation phase of public accountancy professionalisation in Scotland.
p>Estudos recentes indicam maior necessidade de qualificação dos profissionais contábeis brasileiros, principalmente acerca de suas soft skills . Para que os profissionais em formação (estudantes de ciências contábeis) possam atingir as expectativas dos recrutadores, é necessário, primeiramente, identificar o perfil traçado por aqueles profissionais no preenchimento das vagas demandadas pelo mercado. Diante desse cenário, o presente estudo objetivou identificar as principais competências e habilidades requisitadas aos profissionais contábeis vis-à-vis aquelas encontradas pelos recrutadores em geral, por meio de uma websurvey com profissionais de recrutamento e gerentes de recursos humanos, visando obter o perfil esperado dos profissionais formados em Contabilidade. O presente estudo contribui para a discussão das habilidades e competências dos profissionais de contabilidade, bem como apresenta potencial reflexivo para os coordenadores de curso que desejam aumentar seu nível de empregabilidade e diálogo com profissionais de recrutamento e seleção.</p
(Extended Abstract is at the end of the full paper) For centuries, accounting profession and accounting professionals who have managed to adapt to all changes are heavily influenced by digitization and developing entrepreneurship culture that has become the most fundamental reality of the century today. In order for professionals to have a say in the future of accountancy, it is necessary to adapt to this change and replace the role of the traditional CPA or accounting office owner with the role of technology-centric entrepreneur. The aim of this study is to determine the level of individual entrepreneurial orientation of accounting professionals in Turkey. According to the survey results of the 393 accounting professionals, the individual entrepreneurial orientation of the accountants in Turkey has been determined to be high. In addition, the individual entrepreneurial orientation level is measured as high in accountants with the intention of being an entrepreneur while individual entrepreneurial orientation level is measured low when the intention of accountant to be an entrepreneur is low. (Extended Abstract is at the end of the full paper)
This study looks at the relationship between accounting and legal practitioners in nineteenth-century England and Wales through the application of comparative, sociological occupational-status metrics to observe the changing relative social status positions of these disciplines from 1821 to 1911. The study uses an approach to attributing occupational status based on the methods developed by Nam and Powers utilising existing nineteenth-century datasets to assign status to a range of occupational groupings. The data generated measures of relative occupational status and the magnitude of the differences, along with the education and earnings status metrics, for the occupational groups labelled Accounting and Legal, both prior to and after the establishment of the Institute of Chartered Accountants in England and Wales. The measurements of relative status confirm the impact of changing legislation and a better-educated workforce on the status of the élite of accounting and the pressure they felt to professionalise their activities to differentiate their status from the burgeoning educated workforce attracted to accounting as an occupational discipline.
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Un breve recorrido sobre la historia y la economía política del dinero, sus mecanismos y usos, se argumentan posibilidades de democratizar el uso del dinero, en el contexto de las nuevas tecnlogías, mediante la puesta en práctica de acciones de política económica en beneficio de la sociedad y evitar que sigan siendo solo en beneficio de grandes corporaciones que concentran el conocimiento y uso del dinero en su exclusivo beneficio, y que han contribuido a generar crisis, haciéndolas mas profundas y nocivas.
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Our study examines assurance and attestation practices of the Charleston Orphan House from 1790 to 1825 and represents a response to Alchian and Demsetz’s (1972) call for research into the nature of stewardship and agency costs among nonprofits by providing evidence of the largely unexplored early American practices (Moussalli 2008; Sargiacomo and Gomes 2011). We document the origins of the assurance and attestation techniques used to legitimize the Charleston Orphan House and to minimize the agency costs faced by its public and private funders. We find that assurance and attestation practices were reflected in the routine publication of the Committee on Accounts reports that served as vital elements of a governance structure that enabled the municipality and philanthropists to monitor the financial condition of the institution. These oversight efforts helped minimize agency costs that naturally arose between the Orphan House and resource providers, making it possible for the City of Charleston and private funders to efficiently allocate limited resources to mitigate social costs of managing the post-revolutionary orphan problem. Our findings provide new insights into early assurance and attestation practices and support Alchian and Demsetz’s (1972) conjecture that nonprofits face similar economic motivations for utilizing financial reporting, auditing, and attestation as monitoring mechanisms as do their profit-seeking counterparts.
The purpose of this article is to provide a comprehensive survey of the history of publications in accounting history. The paper uses data prior to 1980 from the bibliographies by Parker (1980), together with a new searchable database (available from the author) of accounting history publications compiled from the accounting history publications listed annually in Accounting, Business and Financial History/Accounting History Review from 1989 to 2015. In contrast to previous surveys, the data cover the period from the start of the profession down to the present day and include all the leading journals and historians. The results measure and chart the explosion in output of accounting history in the 1980s and 1990s, which reached a peak in 2000, and the worrying leveling-off of subsequent publications. The decline of interest in early accounting and bookkeeping and the rise of issues driven by the so-called New Accounting History is traced and, in terms of output and personnel, the relative decline of the early leadership of the American historians and the rise of the British and Australians is identified.
Noch immer wird die Erwartung fortgeschrieben, die Rationalität des Entscheidens sei durch eine extensive und systematische Nutzung von Daten zu begründen; und dementsprechend durch Nutzung der Computermöglichkeiten auch zu erhöhen. Anhand einer empirischen Studie in einem weltweit operierenden Unternehmen wird gezeigt, dass die Computerisierung des Managements nicht einer Logik der Rationalität, sondern dem Bedarf an Kontrolle von Unsicherheit und Intransparenz folgt; ein Bedarf, den der Computergebrauch vermehren und nicht vermindern wird. Daten und Datenverarbeitung beheben nicht etwa die Unvollständigkeit der Marktinformationen oder der Informationen über das eigene Personal. Daten halten zum einen Resultate, also aktuell bereits Vergangenes fest, das sich durch Entscheidungen und Handlungen nicht mehr ändern lässt. Die Unbekanntheit der Zukunft, des künftigen Absatzes oder Personaleinsatzes, bleibt auch in einem datentechnisch hochgerüsteten Management ein Garant der Reproduktion von Unsicherheit und von Informierbarkeit durch den faktischen Lauf der Ereignisse. Zum anderen sind die Daten, die ein Unternehmen erfassen kann, ja keine Daten über »den« Markt oder über »das« Personal, sondern nur über den Anteil der eigenen Transaktionen auf diesem Markt oder der eigenen Aktionen mit ihrem Personal. Je differenzierter diese Transaktionen registriert und für eigene Produktions-, Marketing- und Personalentscheidungen ausgewertet werden, umso unbekannter werden die Konkurrenten füreinander, umso undurchsichtiger wird der Markt für alle Teilnehmer. Das gilt umso mehr, je mehr die Kunden nach eigenen Kriterien gruppiert und mit eigens zugeschnittenen Marketingstrategien umworben und mit Produktkomponenten versorgt werden. Am Ende mag sogar der Umsatz, den das eigene und den die anderen Unternehmen erzielen, kaum noch Aufschluss darüber erlauben, auf welchen (Personal-)Märkten man eigentlich miteinander konkurriert. Die Transparenz, die aus der Auswertung eigener Operationen am Markt gewonnen wird, erzeugt eigene Intransparenzen eben dieses Marktes und aller Vergleiche, die er erlaubt. **********************ENGLISH**************************************
The reasoning about the rationality of decision making still refers to an extensive and systematic use of data. Thus the expectation is upheld, an increased use of computer possibilities will enhance such rationality. The empirical study carried out in a globally operating company shows that the computerization of management does not follow a logic of rationality, but follows the need to control uncertainty and intransparency; a need that computer use will increase and not diminish. Data and data processing do not eliminate the incompleteness of market information or information about one's own personnel. Data records results, i. e. the completed past that cannot be changed by decisions and actions. The unknownness of the future, of future sales or personnel deployment, remains a guarantee for the reproduction of uncertainty and informability through the factual course of events, even in a management equipped with sophisticated data technology. On the other hand, the data that a company can collect are not data about "the" market or "the" personnel, but only on the share of its own transactions in this market or of its own actions with its personnel. The more differentiated these transactions are registered and evaluated for their own production, marketing and personnel decisions, the more unknown the competitors become to each other, the less transparent the market becomes for all participants. This is all the more true the more customers are grouped according to their own criteria and are solicited and supplied with product components using specially tailored marketing strategies. In the end, even the turnover generated by one's own company and that of the other companies may hardly allow to find out on which (personnel) markets the competitions actually take place. The transparency gained from the evaluation of own operations on the market generates its own intransparencies precisely about this market and of all derived comparisons.
Is there any point in researching accounting history? To answer this question, the first part of this article considers some epistemological ideas based on Popperian and pragmatist philosophies. Using the conceptual framework developed by the philosopher André Comte-Sponville, the article proposes a distinction between scientific knowledge, sophism, scholastics and pragmatism. By applying this framework to management research methods, it shows that hermeneutic-historical and research-action approaches have some legitimacy in opposition to those methods based on passing trends or that degenerate into scholasticism. The second part illustrates the conceptual framework based on the particular case of accounting history. Its intellectual value is underlined as well as its contribution to the creation of new systems and to denouncing those based on sophism. We then warn of the risks facing this discipline should it ever fall into introspection and neglect and the impact it should have on management practices. The authors present a series of proposals for avoiding yielding to scholastics.
History guides and shapes thinking in a particular phenomenon, evaluation of accounting thoughts has help in no small manner. Accounting theories which is the bed rock of accounting practice were also trace from the available works on history of accounting. This paper therefore seeks to review the history of accounting thoughts with respect to religion, numbers and economics using metal analysis methods. This study concluded that the place of numbers, religion and economics cannot be underestimated in functionality of accounting and accounting though. Higher institutions of learning, professional bodies and practicing accountants are encouraged to take the seriously the study of accounting history and development and the use of forensic accounting techniques is recommended for the prevention and detection of fraudulent accounting numbers.
Topicality of the studied problem is pre-determined by the purpose of formation of Russian law on audit activities, oriented at international standards of audit; at that, the issue of the extent to which national peculiarities of establishment of the audit institute in Russia allow for its realization remains open. The purpose of the paper is to determine and open general tendencies and peculiarities in establishment and development of the audit institute in Russia and a range of foreign countries. The leading approaches to study of this problem are historical and legal and comparative and legal, which allow for complex study of the process of formation of the institute of audit as an element of market relations and object of legal regulation. Results: the article presents historical stages of establishment of the institute of audit in some European countries and Russia, opens general tendencies and peculiarities of its formation, determines socio-economic preconditions of appearances of the institute of audit as an element of market relations and object of legal regulation. The materials of the paper pose practical significance for specialists in the sphere of audit and jurisprudence, persons who conduct scientific research in the sphere of legal regulation of audit activities, and persons who conduct legislative activities.
The intangible qualities of honesty and integrity are essential elements of the ethos of the accounting profession. This article reflects on the changing and continuous nature of questions of professional ethics within the Society of Accountants in Edinburgh. Using the Society’s archives, it presents a review of the questions which vexed early leaders of that body. A historical analysis of these issues helps place current concerns about professional conduct into an appropriate temporal perspective and demonstrates the deep-rooted nature of challenges in forming a notion of professional ethics. The article focusses on issues such as members committing criminal acts, problems with delineating the professional space, advertising and the quality of training of apprentice accountants. The article adds to our understanding of the creation of an ethical framework governing the behaviour of professional accountants in one jurisdiction during the first century of the existence of an organised profession. The presentation of individual cases provides a personal touch and adds depth to the analysis.
This contribution looks at the state of corporate financial reporting in the UK and the deliberate efforts that have been made and are being made to improve the level of reporting. Corporate financial reporting is an abstract concept which means a variety of things for a variety of users. In a competitive market, such as the business environment of the UK, customers, suppliers, employees, managers, investors, lenders and government (including tax authorities) need constant streams of information to assist them in their respective roles. In a regulated market, the regulator that serves as a surrogate for competition requires similar flows of information so as to regulate the market and stimulate customers, suppliers, employees, managers, investors and lenders to respond in that market in a way that is not dissimilar from a competitive market. Financial reporting is one constant stream of information available to these different constituencies.
The aim of this article is to show the contributions to the accounting history literature made by Italian scholars working in the second half of the nineteenth century. These scholars comprised the world’s first community of academics, practitioners, office bearers and historians dealing in a systematic way with accounting’s past. They invented the narrative of accounting history and their historical re-enactments on relevant topics have been the basis for further historical research for many years. The last decades of the nineteenth century saw great development in historical studies of accounting, both in and outside of the academies. These studies were mainly of three types: (a) general histories, which examined the evolution of accounting practices from antiquity to the late nineteenth century; (b) investigations of the origins of double-entry and Pacioli; and (c) research on the evolution of accounting practices. Some of the most prominent books and papers published in this period have become widely known abroad. This article contributes to knowledge of early international accounting historians and can be linked to the field of accounting history today. It also demonstrates the widespread dissemination of this early Italian literature around the world, thereby forming the first example of international accounting history.
In advanced capitalist societies, accounting plays an important role in the calculation, organisation and regulation of processes of production and exchange. In addition to supplying investors and creditors with data on corporate performance, technologies of accounting are used for purposes of taxation assessment and macro-economic planning (Burchell et al., 1980). Accounting is perceived to present information in a reliable and comparable form by quantifying and reporting the basic facts of economic life, thereby monitoring past performance and facilitating rational, efficient decision-making in respect of the generation and allocation of resources. In performing this role, accounting is widely understood to serve the public interest.
This thesis is historical in nature. It adopts a methodology that has recently taken the study of accounting history into the arena of the social; leaving behind traditional notions of accounting as being only what accountants do. The focus of the study is on the annual reporting of activity, in terms of both its financial and physical dimensions, in the history of the British voluntary hospital movement. The study is highly contextualised. By adopting this approach it has been possible to show how accounting reports initially enabled the managers of medical institutions to reverse the focus of accountability onto those charitable individuals that were providing the funding for the hospitals. This greatly strengthened the fundraising capacity of the hospital, while simultaneously deflecting attention away from the efficacy of the institution itself. Later, however, it is shown that after various abortive or only partially successful attempts, it was possible, through the medium of a uniform accounting system, to return the focus of accountability back onto the management of the hospitals. It is important to note that the success of this movement was contingent less on the quality or viability of the accounting system than the legitimacy of the organisation that published its results. Until this legitimacy was established in the minds of the users of the accounts the effects of the accounting was severely limited. Once it was firmly established the accounts became a powerful knowledge technology that enabled a substantial degree of control to be exercised over hospitals, such that a ‘quasi-system’ of hospitals was created.
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