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The Principles of Psychology II

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... Zihinsel süreçlerin bilinçli ve bilinçdışı boyutları, insanlık tarihi boyunca önemli bir konu olmuş ve hem antik çağlarda hem de modern psikoloji döneminde araştırmaların merkezinde yer almıştır (Boring, 1953;James, 1890). Modern psikoloji, bilinçli ve bilinçdışı süreçlerin karmaşık doğasını inceleyerek bireylerin düşünce, duygu ve davranışlarını nasıl etkilediğini ortaya koymaya çalışmaktadır (Greenwald ve Banaji, 1995;Posner ve Raichle, 1994). ...
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... We chose this specific paradigm for two reasons: First, we prefer to criticize (and potentially deconstruct) our own previous work rather than the work of others. Second, and more importantly, this area of research has its historical origin in theories of motor control (Harleß, 1862;Herbart, 1825;James, 1890; for historical comments, see Pfister & Janczyk, 2012;Stock & Stock, 2004), not in theories of decision making. As a result, investigators utilized mouse-tracking to derive conclusions about action execution rather than decision making. ...
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Mouse-tracking is regarded as a powerful technique to investigate latent cognitive and emotional states. However, drawing inferences from this manifold data source carries the risk of several pitfalls, especially when using aggregated data rather than single-trial trajectories. Researchers might reach wrong conclusions because averages lump together two distinct contributions that speak towards fundamentally different mechanisms underlying between-condition differences: influences from online-processing during action execution and influences from incomplete decision processes. Here, we propose a simple method to assess these factors, thus allowing us to probe whether process-pure interpretations are appropriate. By applying this method to data from 12 published experiments on ideomotor action control, we show that the interpretation of previous results changes when dissociating online processing from decision and initiation errors. Researchers using mouse-tracking to investigate cognition and emotion are therefore well advised to conduct detailed trial-by-trial analyses, particularly when they test for direct leakage of ongoing processing into movement trajectories.
... Curriculum is more understandable when related to real world scenarios but, even more so, if those scenarios are relatable and specifically contextualized within the experiences of the people involved. James (1890James ( , 2007 maintained that thinking is a process emergent from and continuously engaged by certain non-cognitive levels of experience. James identified them as emotion, inspiration, intuition, imagination, and habit. ...
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Narrative is a foundational element to understanding human learning. Our inherent capacity to tell and process stories allows us to communicate and remember complex information to improve and adapt to our environments. This paper presents stories of experience as a pedagogical approach that can enliven curriculum in an age of technological dominance by providing a theoretical foundation of experience, narrative, and autobiography. Together with pedagogies of listening, storytelling, and care, they suggest an alternative transformative engagement with learning.
... Unlike structuralism, which emphasizes elements of consciousness, functionalism places more emphasis on the role that behavior and consciousness play in environmental adaptation. James' concept of the "stream of consciousness," as he called it, is a continuous flow of awareness, as opposed to the fragmented approach of structuralism (James, 1890). James developed the pragmatist thesis in his philosophical writings, which states that the utility and practical consequences of a concept or claim determine its truth (James, 1907). ...
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The well-known psychologist William James made significant contributions to educational theory that significantly affected how teachers imparted knowledge. William James was a prominent psychologist in the late 19th and early 20th century who made substantial contributions to education. Theory and practice in education have been greatly influenced by his knowledge of human consciousness, emotion, and behavior. This review of the literature aims to find out how James' psychological theories have influenced contemporary teaching methods. This review attempts to provide educators with useful guidance for enhancing student growth and learning, with an emphasis on James' theories and their relevance to modern classrooms. The significance of the study is to know about James’ psychological theories that influence modern teaching pedagogies and learning and by studying this study educators can find guidance for improving and enhancing student learning and growth. The conclusion of the study shows that modern teaching methods are highly influenced by James’ ideas like habit formation, students’ attention and engagement, and the nature of awareness moreover, implementation of James’ ideas may help teachers improve the students’ results and performance as these provide more interesting, engaging, and effective learning environments. James’ philosophies are useful for the implication of modern educational trends like active learning techniques, the creation of mindful activities, social and emotional learning, and student-centered learning.
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There is a long history of investment in solidaristic stories in the face of social upheaval, threat or conflict, and this was especially evident in relation to Covid-19. This article examines the way that one such narrative – the idea of kindness – was drawn on by Twitter users during the pandemic. Setting it in the context of a wider cultural preoccupation with kindness that both predates and continues beyond the pandemic, we draw on empirical research to develop the concept of the ‘good story’: a compelling collective narrative about goodness that carries with it anxieties about authenticity and dupery. We argue that ambivalences are inherent in the good story but are especially prominent in an age of social upheaval, polarisation, digital interaction and uncertainty. Such ambivalences cannot be wished away but need to be worked with, theoretically and practically. The good story is one tool for beginning to do this.
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In the boxplot, the box always represents – regardless of its area – the middle half of the data and thus a measure of variability (interquartile range). However, when students first learn about boxplots, they are usual already familiar with other forms of statistical representations (e.g., bar or circle graphs) in which a larger area represents a higher frequency of observations. If students erroneously apply this well-established area-represents-frequency schema to boxplots, it results in a systematic error which we describe as the consequence of an incomplete conceptual change. We empirically validated difficulty-generating characteristics that allow the differentiation between item types with varying complexity (item level) and aimed to identify profiles (person level) that differ depending on which schema was used in which item type. For this purpose, we conducted two cross-sectional studies with N = 100 university students (study 1) and N = 297 participants who finished secondary school or higher (study 2) and used generalized linear mixed models (item level) and k-means clustering with predefined cluster centers (person level) to test our hypotheses. We could replicate the systematic error that was described in previous research and found new difficulty-generating characteristics in boxplot items. Our results support the notion of different profiles potentially emerging based on varying degrees of conceptual change. From an instructional perspective, information about individual progress in conceptual change could be considered for tailoring individualized interventions.
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We differentiate between “founder involvement,” “founding family involvement,” and the absence of such involvement in a firm. We maintain that family owners and chief executive officers (CEOs) assume a “familial” identity given family relations within the firm, whereas mere founders, influenced by arms-length relations to commercial stakeholders, embrace the opportunity-seeking “entrepreneurial” identity of an independent maker. We theorize and show how founder and founding family involvement shape the turnaround strategy and performance of firms divergently—from each other and from cases without such involvement—and explicate how the respective effects are moderated by crisis severity and firm age.
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Stereotypes about aging and aging anxieties are common and when internalized are related to poor physical and psychological outcomes. As a result, older adults may view themselves as having their best years behind them. The present study investigates ageism and aging anxiety as barriers to positive self-development. Participants ( n = 360) between ages of 19 and 77 years old ( M = 39, SD = 15.9) were recruited using Amazon Mechanical Turk (MTurk) and completed measures of Ageism, Aging Anxiety, and were asked to identify when they have been or will be their Best Self. With increasing age, adults with more internalized ageism and more aging anxiety, specifically physical appearance and fear of loss, identified their Best Self with a time in the past. These findings support the idea that internalization of ageism and aging anxiety can be counterproductive for expectations for growth as one ages.
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The relationship between the cognitive and affective dimensions of understanding has remained unexplored due to the lack of reliable methods for measuring emotions and feelings during learning. Focusing on five phases of understanding—nascent understanding, misunderstanding, confusion, emergent understanding, and deep understanding—this study introduces an AI-driven solution to measure subjective understanding by analyzing physiological activity manifested in facial expressions. To investigate these phases, 103 participants remotely worked on 15 riddles while their facial expressions were video recorded. Action units (AUs) for each phase instance were measured using AFFDEX software. AU patterns associated with each phase were then identified through the application of six supervised machine learning algorithms. Distinct AU patterns were found for all five phases, with gradient boosting machine and random forest models achieving the highest predictive accuracy. These findings suggest that physiological activity can be leveraged to reliably measure understanding. Further, they advance a novel approach for measuring and fostering understanding in educational settings, as well as developing adaptive learning technologies and personalized educational interventions. Future studies should explore how physiological signatures of understanding phases both reflect and influence their associated cognitive processes, as well as the generalizability of this study’s findings across diverse populations and learning contexts (A suite of AI tools was employed in the development of this paper: (1) ChatGPT4o (for writing clarity and reference checking), (2) Grammarly (for grammar and editorial corrections), and (3) ResearchRabbit (reference management)).
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In recent years, the symptom of akinesia in parkinsonism has provided a valuable window into the physiological substrate of voluntary movement in man, particularly the role of the basal ganglia and the influence of dopamine. In a similar way, the study of individual nonmotor symptoms in parkinsonism can provide insights into the subsystems underlying discrete aspects of human cognition, emotion, and motivation. Even more importantly perhaps, their study in parkinsonism encourages us to examine the ways in which such diverse functions are integrated and influence broader categories of action and behavior (see Chapter 8 in the volume). In doing so, we are led to question whether the term “movement disorder” is the most appropriate term to apply to diseases such as parkinsonism.
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Consciousness has been defined as an awareness of oneself and one’s environment (1). This simple definition fails to account for the many discrete yet interrelated components of conscious awareness. We still do not have a complete understanding of how these components are integrated to produce conscious awareness, partly because consciousness is such a subjective, ephemeral subject. Nonetheless, considerable gains have been made in revealing details of the components and their interaction, e.g., alertness, attention, sensory processing and perception, memory mechanisms and executive functions. Neurophysiological techniques and functional neuro-imaging have helped understand the normal brain. Disease states and the differential effects of drugs (including anesthetics) have also provided insights into components of consciousness and how these elements contribute to integrated brain function.
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Objectif Même si l’estime de soi est un concept relativement récent, développé d’abord dans le domaine de la psychologie sociale, elle a pris de plus en plus d’importance en psychiatrie, en particulier en tant que critères diagnostiques. Cependant, elle est peu évaluée en pratique clinique. L’absence d’instrument en permettant une évaluation globale aisée en est peut-être la raison. Il s’agit donc de valider en langue francophone une échelle brève, unidimensionnelle, d’Estime de Soi (ESD), autorisant éventuellement un suivi évolutif par autocorrection. Méthode L’étude a porté sur 106 patients présentant différents troubles psychiatriques, à l’exception de trouble psychotique, stabilisés ou de niveau de gravité variable. La création de l’outil initial comprenait 10 items. Il a été soumis à la sélection d’items suivie d’une analyse factorielle exploratoire. La corrélation entre les items ainsi que la mesure de la cohérence et de la validité convergente ont été ensuite réalisées. Résultats L’évaluation de l’acceptabilité et de la distribution des résultats a conduit à la sélection de 6 items. L’analyse factorielle exploratoire révèle une dimension unique et une bonne fiabilité (Tucker-Lewis Index =0.89). Aucun item n’affiche des corrélations avec un score total inférieur à 0.50 et la notion du construit est cohérente. On note également une bonne consistance interne ce qui confirme que la version ESD à 6 items est optimale. Conclusion Cette nouvelle échelle validée pourra permettre aux thérapeutes d’investiguer de façon plus précise la notion d’estime de soi en clinique ou dans un cadre de recherche.
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Purpose: People with post-stroke aphasia experience relationship changes which can lead to an altered relational self. The aim of this research was to explore the experiences of a group of people with post-stroke aphasia regarding changes to the relational self. Method: A constructivist grounded theory approach was used. Ten people with post-stroke aphasia were interviewed on two occasions. Participants were 34-74 years old, with aphasia ranging from mild to severe. Data was coded and categorised to identify themes and sub themes. Results: We identified three overarching themes and related subthemes on the development of the relational self. The first was "developing self-knowledge" and involved building knowledge around communication difficulties and needs, personal attributes and life roles. The second theme was "relationship specific experiences impacting the self" which described experiences specific to significant others. The final theme, the "Who am I with Aphasia?" comprised aspects of a generalised relational self, conceptualisations of a life with aphasia and the continuity of the self. Conclusion: The relational self changes over time and is multifaceted. People with post stroke aphasia need to redevelop a relational self and supporting a positive relational self could be the focus of therapeutic interventions.
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People visiting different destinations around the world demand that tourist attractions be showcased before being visited. This drives us to study which types of adventure tourist attractions arouse greater interest among potential visitors, with the aim of optimizing communication in the city of Baños de Agua Santa in Ecuador. An eye-tracking-based design was used with 42 male and female participants, who were shown adventure images according to visual path-oriented pairings. Among all fixations, it is men who prevail in visual scanning, focusing on action elements, while women contribute with greater peripheral fluency in visual elements and their processing. There is a marked coincidence in the visual attraction of rafting between both sexes, as a group activity within the set of sports considered adventure sports. Thus, the data set shows a certain dominance by the male target in fixations on adventure images, probably rooted in competitive culture, defined by the covert action around the practice of these sports, which involves adventure and nature.
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Dünya hızla değişmeye devam ederken, merak, başarı için giderek daha önemli bir beceri haline geliyor. Merak; yeniliği, yaratıcılığı ve problem çözmeyi beslediğinden, öğrencilerin geliştirmesi gereken temel bir beceri olması gerekiyor. Bu nedenle, eğitim sistemleri, öğretmenler öğrencilerde merak duygusunu beslemeye öncelik vermelidir, özellikle de keşfetme ve araştırma için sonsuz fırsatların olduğu teknoloji odaklı bir dünyada. Bu makalede, merakın ne olduğu, neden önemli olduğu, meraka dair bilinmeyenler, merak türleri, sinirbilim açısından merak ayrıca eğitim, öğrenme ve merak ilişkisi irdelenecektir. Umulur ki bu çalışma gerekli ilgiyi uyandırır ve merak konusunda yapılacak çalışmalara ilham kaynağı olur.
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Mead (1934) claims that early selfhood is developed through a reflexive process of self-consciousness positioning self as both subject and object to itself, which is accomplished through social engagement with generalised others. In a reflexive process, the self is intrinsically interconnected to society and the social influences that act upon the self, which includes role-taking activities. For Mead, selfhood is not an accomplished structure, but rather developed through processual means (Blumer, 1969). “Play and Game” are early developmental stages in the processual occurrence. In play, children imitate adults, temporarily taking on roles, through which they begin to develop an organisation and structure in selfhood by conducting dialogues and behaviors made up of the reproduction of adult activities in their social sphere. In game, selfhood continues to be developed through role-taking, creating relationships with generalised others, and an understanding of norms and expectations. Sexual selfhood, in accordance with socio-sexual scripts, is developed through this process. Sexual histories obtained from research participants illustrate, through personal narrative, sexual self-development consistent with Mead’s notion of play and game. This project examines participants’ narratives from their first noted exposure to sexuality, through sexual role-taking activities, to consideration of how those moments of early development aided in the production of their current sexuality.
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This chapter is about the wide variety of priming encountered in cognitive and social psychology. In cognitive psychology, the priming paradigm is mainly used to study memory phenomena or the pre-activation of concepts and motor reactions by related stimuli. In social psychology, the term priming is used for a broader range of phenomena in which an event triggers a subsequent behavior. In this chapter, some definitions of priming and the origin of the term's use in psychology are presented. Then, the chapter examines different types and variants of priming as well as their features and principal elements, using seven organizing principles. After this methodical and empirical classification, some important theories of response priming, semantic priming, affective/evaluative priming, negative priming, and macro-level priming are summarized. Last but not least, some general questions and problems in priming research are outlined and a brief outlook is given.
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While attention has long been a concern in western philosophy and eastern spirituality, technologies (e.g., social media, gaming) and pathologies (e.g., attention deficit disorders) have recently foregrounded the issue specifically in education. Issues of student absorption and diversion have been widely discussed; but comparatively less has been said about on teachers and their attending, particularly the kind of attention that the individuality of each of their students claims. This paper begins by reconstructing the kind of awareness and attention that are implied in Kant’s account of logical tact and Herbart’s lecture on specifically pedagogical tact. Potentially tactful forms of awareness are then explored and delineated in phenomenological, Gestaltist terms – as well as through reference to Freud’s notion of ‘free-floating attention.’ The paper concludes by outlining characteristics of awareness that appear requisite to the demands of tactful decision and action, an attention at once receptive to the world outside yet also modulated by the one attending.
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Although there is an upward trend in people who self-identify as "spiritual but not religious" (SBNR), they largely remain understudied in psychology. Multiculturally and ethically, it is important for psychologists to possess informed knowledge to work with individuals with religious and spiritual backgrounds. Guided by the Tripartite Model of Meaning in Life and conceptualizing beliefs in free will and determinism as meaning frameworks, this study examined the associations among meaning frameworks, meaning dimensions (i.e., comprehension, purpose, and mattering), and meaning judgment among SBNRs. Results indicated that belief in free will was positively associated with all three meaning dimensions but not meaning judgment. Belief in free will positively predicted all three meaning dimensions and meaning judgment. Mediation analyses revealed that belief in free will was indirectly associated with meaning judgment through its positive relation with comprehension. Belief in determinism was not associated with any study variables; purpose and mattering did not mediate the relation between meaning frameworks and meaning judgment. These findings provide important implications for psychologists who work with SBNRs regarding their culturally distinct experiences of existential meaning. The strengths and limitations of the current study as well as future research directions are discussed.
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Boredom is a negative emotion that most people experience on occasion. However, boredom is also present on a trait level. People high in trait boredom experience boredom more frequently or have difficulty tolerating it. Individuals high in trait boredom are more likely to experience depression or anxiety or engage in risk behaviors. Little is known about the development of trait boredom. We propose a bioecological model of the development of trait boredom in which it originates from early individual differences in temperament and executive control. Trait boredom is shaped over time through interactions between the child and their developmental context, such as parents, teachers, and neighborhoods. Boredom can also spur creativity. Capitalizing on the creative side of boredom may help promote low levels of trait boredom and healthy coping. We provide a roadmap to study the development of trait boredom to advance our understanding of how it emerges and develops.
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This case study reflects on the use of improvisation and songwriting to support a patient with significantly impaired short-term memory and long-term memory interference as a result of acquired brain injury. Memory has long been associated with personal identity, linking the past with the present, and enabling us to project into the future. This continuity of consciousness helps us to learn from, and make sense of our experiences, strengthening our internal representation of self. Disruption to short-term memory can significantly impact decision making, planning and initiation, all of which are key components of personal identity and self-expression. Supporting patient autonomy and self-expression through improvisation, and crafting lyrical content around personal preferences and events, sessions were designed to bolster his internalised sense of self through both revisiting old memories and facilitating new memory formation within the present. While short-term memory has been considered a conduit to long-term memory consolidation, and integral to the individual’s self-expression, this case study implies short-term memory was neither the gatekeeper to formation of long-term memories, nor critical to maintaining a sense of self, and reflects on how music helped the client create and access new learning beyond procedural memories, anchoring the self in newly internalised self-expression.
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As an exercise in autoethnographic fieldwork, resolving to sit in meditation practice (zazen) in the middle of a road traffic island, flanked by the concrete expanse of an expressway flyover, one’s presence partly concealed by vegetation, does seem a rather pointless endeavour. And insofar as it does lack an obvious rationale, its ‘purpose’ becomes that of an exercise in futility predicated on the phenomenology of both emptiness and nothingness. Emptiness here is invoked with reference to the Mahayana Buddhist concept of sunyata, which prompts awareness of, and philosophical reflection on, the constitutive entanglements of form and emptiness. Nothingness, for its part, is oriented towards observation of what Georges Perec calls the ‘infraordinary’, a process of seeing and writing ‘flatly’ that is ‘barely indicative of a method’. Taking this method-that-is-not-a-method as its performative starting point, this paper sets out some tentative thoughts towards a spatial anthropology of futility that is centred around a futile fieldwork experiment in methodological nothingness. In keeping with the subject matter under discussion, the paper is written ‘on the go’ in the sense of starting from nothing and foregoing a purposeful direction of travel other than that which is tactically premised on the methodological elicitation of something from nothing.
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