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The Effects of Ingestion of Omega-3 Fatty Acids on Perceived Pain and External Symptoms of Delayed Onset Muscle Soreness in Untrained Men
Abstract
The purpose of this study was to examine the effect of ingestion of omega-3 on perceived pain and external symptoms of delayed onset muscle soreness after eccentric exercise in knee extensors.
A randomized, double-blinded, repeated measures design was used for this study.
The study was performed in the Exercise Physiology Laboratory at the Faculty of Humanities of Urmia University.
Twenty-seven men, who had not participated in any training program 60 days before their participation in this study, were recruited. All subjects finished the study.
Knee range of motion (ROM), perceived pain, and thigh circumference of the right leg were taken before, immediately, and after 24 and 48 hours after an eccentric exercise. Subjects were assigned to one of the experimental (1.8 g/d omega-3), placebo (R.P. Scherer), or control groups.
Subjects self-reported the perceived pain level of the lower limbs using the Talag mentally corrected scale. Thigh circumference was measured by using a Gulick anthropometric tape. Knee ROM was determined by using a Jamar goniometer.
No differences among treatments were observed for pain and ROM before, immediately, and 24 hours after the exercise. However, observed differences in perceived pain and ROM were obvious at 48 hours postexercise. In the case of thigh circumference, differences were at 24 and 48 hours postexercise, and there was no difference before and immediately after exercise.
Ingestion of omega-3 can be effective in ameliorating delayed onset muscle soreness induced by eccentric exercise.
... One of the connections between omega-3 PUFA and muscle inflammation is via down-regulation of pro-inflammatory cytokines, such as TNF-α and IL-6, reduced production of AA and Reactive Oxygen Species (ROS), consequently resulting in a decrease in the inflammatory response (17). Therefore, it is believed that consuming omega-3 fatty acids will result in an anti-inflammatory reaction to exercise, decreasing DOMS (18,19). Several studies reported the positive effect of omega-3 fatty acids on DOMS. ...
... Similar studies demonstrated that omega-3 fatty acid consumption reduced the symptoms of DOMS. There was a decrease in DOMS after eccentric exercise in a group of 27 males who consumed 1.8 g of omega-3 fatty acids (19). In addition, DOMS after eccentric exercise was significantly reduced in three males and eight females who consumed 3 g of omega-3 fatty acid for seven days (18). ...
... In support of our results, previous studies have suggested that muscle taurine levels play a role in muscle cramps and muscle soreness that occur during and after exercise (33), as Yoshihisa et al showed that maintaining taurine concentrations in skeletal muscle might play a role in improved maximal performance on exercise (38). Contrary to our results, the study by Tartibian et al indicated that ingestion of 1.8 g/ day omega-3 for 30 days before and after exercise significantly reduced muscle pain in untrained men (19). The pain assessment index in this study was different from ours, which could be a possible reason for the conflicting results. ...
Background: Eccentric exercise makes more tensions in active muscle fibers, resulting in muscle damage and delayed pain. Therefore, Delayed-Onset Muscle Soreness (DOMS) is a common result of severe eccentric contractions. This study aimed to clarify the combined effect of taurine and omega-3 supplementation on DOMS and muscle damage after high-intensity eccentric exercise in young untrained men. Methods: Forty-eight young untrained males were assigned to four groups (taurine+omega-3 [combined], taurine, omega-3, and one placebo group) and given 1,500 mg taurine and 1,500 mg omega-3 or 1,500 mg taurine or 1,500 mg omega-3 or placebo twice a day respectively. Each group received its supplements for twenty-eight days. DOMS and muscle damage in the lower body developed using a leg press with a weight equivalent to 70% of 1RM (One-Repetition Maximum). Lactate dehydrogenase (LDH), Creatine kinase (CK) and perceived muscle soreness measures were repeated before, immediately, 24, 48, and 72 hr after eccentric activity. p<0.05 was considered to be statistically significant. Results: In the combined group, there was no increase in CK and LDH in immediate time and 72 hr after the exercise, respectively, compared to the period before the workout. At 24 and 48 hr after the training, there was a significant decrease in muscle pain perception in all groups compared to placebo (p<0.05). Coclusion: A combination of 1500 mg taurine and 1500 mg omega-3, two times a day, for four weeks can reduce the levels of CK and LDH enzymes as some indicators of muscle damage. It also attenuates exercise-induced DOMS and muscle damage.
... A large portion of previous investigations on n-3 supplementation and EIMD have used untrained participants [7,[9][10][11][12][13][14][15]. The effect of n-3 supplementation on EIMD and muscle recovery in trained individuals is understudied, though they likely train at greater intensities and frequencies, and are more likely to perform eccentric training, all of which attribute to EIMD. ...
... However, VanDusseldorp et al., 2020 [8] showed ~7.5 weeks of 6 g of n-3 supplementation with an EPA to DHA ratio of 2:1 (400:300 mg per 1000 mg pill) attenuated plasma CK and lactate dehydrogenase (LDH) levels, mitigated perceived muscle soreness (PMS), and promoted vertical jump height (VJH) recovery in resistance-trained individuals within 72-hr post-eccentric resistance exercise compared to placebo, 2 g, and 4 g of n-3 supplementation [8]. Previous work in untrained individuals demonstrates ~4 weeks of n-3 supplementation (at lower doses) is capable of mitigating markers of EIMD [10,14,16]. This suggests higher doses (i.e., 6 g/d) of n-3 supplementation may be effective in attenuating EIMD and promoting muscle recovery in resistance-trained individuals following eccentric resistance exercise. ...
... These results are supported by Gray et al., 2014, DiLorenzo et al., 2014, and Jakeman et al., 2017 who found n-3 supplementation to be ineffective for reducing PMS after eccentric resistance exercise in physically active [11,27] and untrained males [10]. However, other studies have shown reductions in PMS with n-3 supplementation following muscle-damaging exercise in untrained individuals [7,9,12,[14][15][16], while VanDusseldorp et al., 2020 [9] reported reduced PMS in resistance-trained males. Variation in exercise protocols and more specifically, muscle groups utilized during exercise, as well as differences in methods of assessing muscle soreness may have produced these mixed results. ...
Background
Exercise-induced muscle damage (EIMD) commonly occurs following intense resistance exercise and is associated with decrements in exercise performance and delayed muscle recovery. Thus, practical methods to attenuate EIMD would prove useful to both training and athletic populations. Omega-3 (n-3) supplementation has been shown to mitigate EIMD with evidence of increasing efficacy at higher doses (up to 6 g/day). However, data of its efficacy in trained individuals is limited. Therefore, this study investigated the effects of six and 8 g of n-3 supplementation on markers of muscle damage and muscle recovery after eccentric resistance exercise in resistance-trained males.
Methods
Using a double-blind, randomized, placebo-controlled design, twenty-six resistance trained males (23 ± 4 years; 173.6 ± 20.5 cm; 81.9 ± 9.7 kg; 14.2 ± 3.7% body fat) supplemented with six (n=10) or 8 g (n=7) of n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids, or placebo (n=9) for 33 days. On day 30, participants performed a lower body muscle-damaging eccentric resistance exercise bout. Measures of muscle performance, soreness, and damage were taken pre-exercise on day 30 as well as on days 31–33, including vertical jump height (VJH), perceived muscle soreness (PMS), hip and knee range of motion (ROM), repetitions to fatigue (RTF) at 70% 1RM, and serum creatine kinase (CK) while participants continued to supplement until day 33.
Results
There were significant differences in VJH, PMS, and serum CK following the muscle-damaging exercise bout compared to pre-exercise (p<0.05). However, there were no significant (p>0.05) differences between supplementation groups (6 g, 8 g, and placebo) at any time point post-exercise (day 31–33). There were no changes in hip and knee ROM or RTF at any time point or between groups. Vertical jump height and PMS returned to baseline levels despite CK remaining elevated post-exercise.
Conclusions
Thirty-three days of six and 8 g of n-3 supplementation did not attenuate EIMD or enhance muscle recovery following muscle-damaging eccentric resistance exercise in resistance-trained males. Further research using various n-3 supplementation durations, doses, and eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) concentrations may be needed to establish its efficacy in attenuating EIMD, which may vary between trained and untrained individuals. Furthermore, while circulating CK is commonly used to assess muscle damage, elevated CK levels may not reflect muscle recovery status following muscle damaging exercise.
... These fatty acids have been shown to reduce inflammation through inhibition of proinflammatory mediators (Gopinath et al., 2011;Huang et al., 2011), while the incorporation of o-3 to the muscle cell membrane might contribute to muscle function through protective effects on the neuromuscular junction and post-synaptic electrical transition (Tsuchiya et al., 2016). Some human studies have found that supplementation of EPA and DHA for 7-30 days before resistance exercise was able to reduce some markers of EIMD (Corder et al., 2016;Jouris et al., 2011;Tartibian et al., 2009;Tsuchiya et al., 2016). However, the preventive strategy with o-3 supplementation has limited applicability in the real-life setting, since people would rarely supplement for weeks before performing the first session of a resistance training program (precisely the session that is usually followed by EIMD symptoms because the participant is still unaccustomed to resistance exercise). ...
... Interestingly, most studies have not reported any information about the participants' diet (DiLorenzo et al., 2014;Jakeman et al., 2017;Lenn et al., 2002;Tartibian et al., 2009;Tsuchiya et al., 2016) or simply instructed them to maintain their habitual diet without further control (Jouris et al., 2011). Given that a "proper nutrition" is a determinant factor on post-exercise recovery, studies in this field require a more rigorous dietary control. ...
... Previous studies offered o-3 supplementation over a longer time period (7-30 days) before the EIMD protocol and found DOMS reduction (Corder et al., 2016;Jouris et al., 2011;Ramos-Campo et al., 2020;Tartibian et al., 2009). The authors suggested that the positive effect on muscle soreness occurred due to less inflammation. ...
Background
Omega-3 is a nutritional strategie that have been used to recover muscles from exercise-induced muscle damage in a preventive perspective.
Aim
To verify whether omega-3 (ω-3) supplementation after a session of resistance exercise facilitates muscle recovery in women undergoing a balanced diet.
Methods
This clinical trial was registered under the number NCT02839525. Thirty healthy women (22.2 ± 3.3 years) participated in this double-blinded, placebo-controlled trial. They were randomly distributed into ω-3 ( n=15) and placebo ( n=15) groups. They ingested ω-3 fish oil (3200 mg/day) or placebo (olive oil) at the dinner after the exercise bout (10 sets of 10 unilateral eccentric contractions in a knee extension chair), as well as at lunch for the three subsequent days. In addition, both groups followed a balanced diet along the four days. Muscle soreness and maximal isometric and isokinetic voluntary contractions were assessed immediately before, and 24, 48, and 72 hours after the resistance exercise.
Main findings
There was no significant group-time interaction for any outcome. Participants presented increased levels of muscle soreness and reduced muscle strength capacity along the three days after exercise. There was no difference between placebo and ω-3 groups.
Conclusion
Supplementation of ω-3 fish oil for three days after resistance exercise provided no additional benefits compared to placebo supplementation on recovery of healthy young women following a balanced diet.
... Many studies have reported on the effects of n-3 PUFA intake combined with exercise on DOMS (Jouris, McDaniel, and Weiss 2011;Lembke et al. 2014;Tartibian, Maleki, and Abbasi 2009;Tinsley et al. 2017). Corder et al. (2016) observed a great effect of SUP when massage was carried out but no effect when measuring elbow extension soreness. ...
... Regarding the relationship between n-3 PUFA ingestion and muscle swelling, arm circumference (Corder et al. 2016;Jouris, McDaniel, and Weiss 2011;Ochi, Tsuchiya, and Yanagimoto 2017;Tinsley et al. 2017;Tsuchiya et al. 2016) and muscle thickness (Cornish and Chilibeck 2009) showed no changes between groups in several studies. However, Tartibian, Maleki, and Abbasi (2009) observed a great effect of SUP against PLA for arm circumference when administering 324 mg of EPA and 216 mg of DHA over 30 days combined with an eccentric exercise session consisting of 40 minutes of bench stepping; and Tsuchiya et al. (2019) also observed lower values in the SUP group than the PLA group for muscle echo intensity at 110 and 130 degrees but there were no changes between groups at 70 degrees. ...
... To reduce the inflammation produced by exercise it is important to reduce pro-inflammatory cytokines like TNF-a and some authors affirm that SUP can reduce TNF-a levels after exercise (Bloomer et al. 2009;Tartibian, Maleki, and Abbasi 2009). However, several studies analyzed (Cornish and Chilibeck 2009;Cornish et al. 2018;Boit et al. 2017;Lenn et al. 2002;Tsuchiya et al. 2016) showed no differences between groups for TNF-a, even one study showed higher levels in the SUP group compared with the PLA group When CK levels were compared between n-3 PUFA SUP and PLA we observed no effects between groups (DiLorenzo, Drager, and Rankin 2014;Jakeman et al. 2017;Tsuchiya et al. 2016;Bloomer et al. 2009;Gray et al. 2014;Phillips et al. 2003). ...
There is growing evidence that suggests that n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA) may improve physical performance when combined with proper training through modulation of muscle hypertrophy, muscle strength, and delayed onset muscle soreness (DOMS). This systematic review aims to examine the effect and optimal dosage of n-3 PUFA supplementation on muscle hypertrophy, muscle strength, and DOMS when combined with physical exercise. The PubMed, Web of Science, MEDLINE Complete, CINAHL and SPORTDiscus databases were searched following the PRISMA guidelines. Randomized controlled trials performed with healthy humans were considered. Fifteen studies with a total of 461 individuals were included in this systematic review. All of them measured muscle function (short physical performance test, range of motion (ROM), electromechanical delay (EMD), muscle echo intensity or muscle quality) and DOMS. Fourteen studies evaluated muscle strength and only six assessed muscle hypertrophy. Our results demonstrated that n-3 PUFA does not improve muscle hypertrophy, muscle strength or skeletal muscle biomarkers of inflammation and muscle damage beyond the benefits obtained by the training itself. Nevertheless, n-3 PUFA improves DOMS recovery and muscle function (measured by ROM, EMD and muscle quality).
... However, certain fatty acids have additional roles, such as precursors for the synthesis of bioactive lipid mediators, regulators of membrane and intracellular signaling processes including the activation of transcription factors and the modulation gene expressions [52,54]. Through these different actions, fatty acids are able to influence many key cellular functions including immune and inflammatory responses [55,56]. A huge mass of clinical and experimental evidence suggests that saturated and Ω-6 PUFA may promote inflammatory processes while Ω-3 PUFA eicosapentaenoic (EPA) and docosahexaenoic fatty acids (DHA) clearly exert anti-inflammatory activities [55,56]. ...
... Through these different actions, fatty acids are able to influence many key cellular functions including immune and inflammatory responses [55,56]. A huge mass of clinical and experimental evidence suggests that saturated and Ω-6 PUFA may promote inflammatory processes while Ω-3 PUFA eicosapentaenoic (EPA) and docosahexaenoic fatty acids (DHA) clearly exert anti-inflammatory activities [55,56]. EPA and DHA, independently have an anti-inflammatory effects [55], and has been shown a their counter-effects on classic inflammatory stimuli (endotoxin as well as saturated fatty acids and n-6 PUFAs) [56,57]. ...
... A huge mass of clinical and experimental evidence suggests that saturated and Ω-6 PUFA may promote inflammatory processes while Ω-3 PUFA eicosapentaenoic (EPA) and docosahexaenoic fatty acids (DHA) clearly exert anti-inflammatory activities [55,56]. EPA and DHA, independently have an anti-inflammatory effects [55], and has been shown a their counter-effects on classic inflammatory stimuli (endotoxin as well as saturated fatty acids and n-6 PUFAs) [56,57]. Both EPA and DHA became part of the cells' membranes, partly replacing arachidonic acid. ...
Immunity is the consequence of a complex interaction between organs and the environment. It is mediated the interaction of several genes, receptors, molecules, hormones, cytokines, antibodies, antigens, and inflammatory mediators which in turn relate and influence the psychological health. The immune system response of heavily trained athletes resembles an even more complex conditions being theorized to follow a J or S shape dynamics at times. High training loads modify the immune response elevating the biological markers of immunity and the body susceptibility to infections. Heavy training and/or training in a cold environment increase the athletes' risk to develop Upper Respiratory Tract Infections (URTIs). Therefore, athletes, who are considered healthier than the normal population, are in fact more prone to infections of the respiratory tract, due to lowering of the immune system in the time frames subsequent heavy training sessions. In this revision we will review the behavioral intervention, including nutritional approaches, useful to minimize the "open window" effect on infection and how to cope with stressors and boost the immune system in athletes.
... ECC-induced muscle damage is defined as morphological changes in the sarcomeres and endomysium and inflammatory responses in muscle fibers and connective tissues [8]. Previous studies have reported that EPA and DHA supplementation positively affect these symptoms of muscle damage [7,[9][10][11][12]. Consumed omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids are incorporated into phospholipid, a major component of the cell membrane, and have been reported to inhibit the effects of inflammation and reactive oxygen species [13]. ...
... Furthermore, other studies have reported that ingestion of 8-week EPA (600 mg/day) and DHA (260 mg/day) attenuates nerve dysfunction [9] and muscle stiffness [11] following 60 ECCs using a dumbbell at 100 % 1RM. However, the study that conducted these experiments in shorter periods (< 8 weeks) is controversial and insufficient [10,12,15]. Specifically, Tartibian et al. [10,12] examined the effects of 324 mg/day EPA and 216 mg/day DHA ingestion for 30 days on muscle damage after 40 min of bench stepping. ...
... However, the study that conducted these experiments in shorter periods (< 8 weeks) is controversial and insufficient [10,12,15]. Specifically, Tartibian et al. [10,12] examined the effects of 324 mg/day EPA and 216 mg/day DHA ingestion for 30 days on muscle damage after 40 min of bench stepping. As the results, development of DOMS, limited ROM, muscle swelling, and elevated of serum CK and IL-6 were inhibited by the ingestions. ...
Background:
We previously showed 8-week of fish oil supplementation attenuated muscle damage. However, the effect of a shorter period of fish oil supplementation is unclear. The present study investigated the effect of fish oil, eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA), for 4 weeks on muscular damage caused by eccentric contractions (ECCs) of the elbow flexors.
Methods:
Twenty-two untrained men were recruited in this double-blind, placebo-controlled, parallel design study and the subjects were randomly assigned to the EPA and DHA group (EPA and DHA, n = 11) and placebo group (PL, n = 11). They consumed either EPA 600 mg and DHA 260 mg per day or placebo supplement for 4 weeks prior to exercise. Subjects performed 60 ECCs at 100 % maximal voluntary contraction (MVC) using a dumbbell. Changes in MVC torque, range of motion (ROM), upper arm circumference, muscle soreness, echo intensity, muscle thickness, serum creatine kinase (CK), and interleukin-6 (IL-6) were assessed before exercise; immediately after exercise; and 1, 2, 3, and 5 days after exercise.
Results:
ROM was significantly higher in the EPA and DHA group than in the PL group immediately after performing ECCs (p < 0.05). No differences between groups were observed in terms of MVC torque, upper arm circumference, muscle soreness, echo intensity, and thickness. A significant difference was observed in serum CK 3 days after ECCs (p < 0.05).
Conclusions:
We concluded that shorter period EPA and DHA supplementation benefits joint flexibility and protection of muscle fiber following ECCs.
... He just wanted to put the competitions under a protective umbrella, "which could throw over them a hallow of greatness and glory: 'The patronage of Classical Antiquity'!" 59 In his memoirs, Coubertin wrote that his proposals had been accepted without opposition. 60 The minutes however, say something else. There was lively and serious discussion, and the 'manager' could notal ways prevail with his ideas. ...
... У своїх мемуарах Кубертен писав, що його пропозиції були прийняті без заперечень [60]. Однак протоколи свідчать про протилежне. ...
... В Австралії добре розуміли, що реальний людський і фінансовий потенціал країни в умовах постійно зростаючого суперництва на олімпійській арені вкрай ускладнюють не лише зміцнення, а й збереження позицій, досягнутих останніми роками. Щодо цього в Австралії, населення якої становить лише 23,3 млн чоловік, дуже важко конкурувати не тільки з Китаєм і США, а й з Великою Британією (її населення -62,8 млн), Німеччиною (80, 9), Росією (143,0), Францією (63,5), Італією (60,8), Бразилією (196), Японією (127,6) та іншими країнами, які відрізняються набагато більшими людськими ресурсами й сучасними цільовими комплексними програмами з розвитку спорту вищих досягнень і підготовки до Олімпійських ігор [12]. ...
Objective. The article is aimed to define the content and the components of e-learning system in Olympic education
based on the generalization of international experience of applying modern information and communication technologies
at the Centers for Olympic studies and education.
Methods: Theoretical analysis and analytical review of literature, materials of the Internet, web-sites of the Olympic study centers,
system analysis, questionnaires, SWOT-analysis, methods of mathematical statistics.
Results: The content, organizational structure and the impact of external and internal factors of the informational-educational
environment of the distance learning in the Olympic studies center were determined to reveal the effectiveness of the implementation
of distance learning technologies into the Olympic education system.
Conclusions. Results of the research showed that proposed module of distance education ‘Olympic Legacy’ in the International
centre for Olympic studies and education at the Olympic Educational and Scientific Institute of National University of Ukraine
on Physical Education and Sports should be considered as an instrument for raising the level of professional education in the
field of physical culture and sports.
Keywords: distance learning, Olympic education, center for Olympic research and education.
... Furthermore, other studies have reported that ingestion of 8-week EPA (600 mg/day) and DHA (260 mg/day) attenuates nerve dysfunction 9 and muscle stiffness 11 following 60 ECCs using a dumbbell at 100% 1RM. However, the study that conducted these experiments in shorter periods (< 8 weeks) is controversial and insu cient 10,12,13 . Elucidating the e cacy of shorter period of EPA and DHA supplementation is important for athletes and resistance training enthusiasts. ...
... As consumption of 2,400-mg/day omega-3 fatty acids (600-mg EPA and 260-mg DHA) was effective in this study, the dose, rather than the duration of administration, appears to be a more important factor determining the preventive effect on joint exibility. In addition, a study involving 24 healthy young men has reported that reduced ROM in the knee joint after loading ECCs of quadriceps through a 40-min bench stepping exercise was signi cantly reduced in those who consumed 324-mg/day EPA and 216-mg/day DHA for 30 days 10 . In that study, ingestion of lower EPA and DHA was effective presumably because the multi-joint movement in lower limbs for a long period of time was a relatively low-intensity exercise. ...
... Therefore, a possible reason why the exercise-induced CK elevation was mitigated herein is that omega-3 fatty acids were incorporated into and protected cell membrane in muscle ber. Similarly, Tartibian et al 10 have reported that consumption of EPA and DHA for 30 days reduced CK elevation after ECCs from 40 min of the bench stepping exercise. A different study has also showed that 2,000-mg/day DHA ingestion for 4 weeks reduced CK elevation after ECCs through elbow exions using dumbbells 19 . ...
Background
We previously showed that the 8-week supplementation of fish oil attenuates muscle damage. However, the effect of a shorter period of fish oil supplementation is unclear. The present study investigates the effect of supplementation of fish oil in eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) for 4 weeks on muscular damage caused by eccentric contractions (ECCs) of the elbow flexors.
Methods
Twenty-two untrained men were recruited in this double-blind, placebo-controlled, parallel design study and the subjects were randomly assigned to the EPA and DHA group (EPA, n = 11) and placebo group (PL, n = 11). They consumed either EPA 600 mg and DHA 260 mg per day or placebo supplement for 4 weeks prior to exercise. Subjects performed 60 ECCs at 100% maximal voluntary contraction (MVC) using a dumbbell. Changes in MVC torque, range of motion (ROM), upper arm circumference, muscle soreness, echo intensity, muscle thickness, serum creatine kinase (CK), and interleukin-6 (IL-6) were assessed before exercise; immediately after exercise; and 1, 2, 3, and 5 days after exercise.
Results
ROM was significantly higher in the EPA group than in the PL group immediately after performing ECCs (p < 0.05). No differences between groups were observed in terms of MVC torque, upper arm circumference, muscle soreness, echo intensity, and thickness. A significant difference was observed in serum CK 3 days after ECCs (p < 0.05).
Conclusion
We concluded that shorter period EPA and DHA supplementation benefits joint flexibility and protection of muscle fiber following ECCs.
... The main characteristics of the 18 included studies are reported in Tables 2-4. [40][41][42][43][44][45][46][47][48][49][50][51][52][53][54][55][56][57] The 18 studies were published between 1997 and 2019 and involved a total of 455 healthy, young adults (57.6% male; 28.6% female; 13.8% unspecified). ...
... 17,19,21,[58][59][60] Of the 18 trials,5 reported outcomes on LBM, 41,44,47,49,53 14 trials reported on strength or power, 40,42,43,[45][46][47][48][50][51][52][53][54]56,57 and 13 trials reported on recovery from muscular stress. 40,43,[45][46][47][48][50][51][52][54][55][56][57] Supplementation protocol compliance was measured by blood or phospholipid n-3 PUFA content in 13 trials (72%) and by compliance forms, capsule or bottle count, and drink count in 5 trials (28%). ...
... The effect of FO n-3 PUFA supplementation on recovery from muscle damage or immobilization was assessed in 13 studies (Table 4). 40,43,[45][46][47][48][50][51][52][54][55][56][57] The studies tended to have small sample sizes, ranging from 16 to 63 participants, and totaled 315 participants (64.8% men; 15.2% women; and 20% unspecified). Six trials had a low risk of bias 43,47,50,51,56,57 and 7 displayed some concerns for bias. ...
Context:
Military personnel are subjected to physiologically stressful environments during combat and its associated training. Evidence suggests that fish oil-derived n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids (FO n-3 PUFAs) may affect military personnel's performance by promoting or preserving lean body mass, strength, and power, while enhancing recovery from training-associated muscle damage.
Objective:
Following PRISMA guidelines, this systematic review assessed the evidence for FO n-3 PUFA supplementation across various military-relevant outcomes related to physical performance in healthy adult populations.
Data sources:
The PubMed, Embase, and the CINAHL databases were searched along with references lists of selected articles and reviews.
Data extraction:
Eighteen trials were assessed for bias, and descriptive data were extracted.
Data analysis:
Of the 18 studies included, 12 trials favored FO n-3 PUFA supplementation in ≥ 1 of the performance outcomes.
Conclusion:
Overall, FO n-3 PUFA supplementation likely preserves strength and very likely enhances recovery from physiological stress in young, healthy adults. However, FO n-3 PUFAs' role in promoting or preserving lean body mass or promoting strength is unclear and warrants additional investigation.
Systematic review registration:
PROSPERO registration no. CRD42020152786.
... After screening the titles and abstracts of the remaining 31 citations, 15 studies were selected and retrieved for full-text assessment based on the predetermined inclusion criteria, among which 3 were excluded with reasons, 2 were unrelated, and 1 contained duplicate data. Finally, a total of 12 RCTs [57][58][59][60][61][62][63][64][65][66][67][68] were considered eligible for inclusion and went into qualitative and quantitative syntheses. The literature screening process is presented in Figure 1. ...
... RCTs. 145 experimental subjects as well as 156 controls, covering Caucasian and Asian ethnic groups, regardless of genders, were included in this study. Of the 12 included trials, 5 were from USA [57,58,62,64,66], 3 were from UK [59][60][61], 2 were from Japan [65,68], 1 was from Germany [67], and 1 was from Iran [63]. All trial results were published between 2002 and 2017, with individual sample sizes ranging from 14 to 41. Participants included were mostly young adults with ages ranging from 18.2 to 33.5 years old. ...
... Both Phillips et al. [66] and Tsuchiya et al. [68] reported that serum IL-6 reached the peak at 3 d postexercise. Four out of 7 studies found a significant decrement in the n-3 PUFA groups compared to the placebo groups [58,[66][67][68], while others exhibited no differences [61,62] or even an upregulated IL-6 level [60]. Data on TNF-alpha level was presented in 3 studies, 2 of which indicated no effect of n-3 PUFA on blood TNF-alpha level [62,68], while 1 exhibited a significantly lower level in an experimental group after 2 h postexercise [64]. ...
Purpose. This systematic review and meta-analysis was performed to determine the effectiveness of Omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acid ( PUFA) supplement on muscle soreness after eccentric exercise. Methods. PubMed, EMBASE, CENTRAL, and ISI Web of Science were searched to identify randomized controlled trials (RCTs) that assessed the efficacy of PUFA on muscle soreness after eccentric exercise. Mean difference (MD) and the associated 95% confidence interval (95% CI) were calculated by RevMan 5.3 to indicate delayed onset muscle soreness (DOMS) that measured two days after eccentric trainings. Subgroup analyses according to duration and daily dosage of PUFA supplements before eccentric exercises were performed to determine whether these factors will influence the overall effect size. The Grading of Recommendations, Assessment, Development, and Evaluation (GRADE) approach was used to evaluate the certainty of evidence. The protocol of this systematic review and meta-analysis was registered at PROSPERO (CRD42018085869). Results. 12 RCTs containing 145 subjects and 156 controls were included in this study. Meta-analysis revealed a significantly decreased DOMS (MD -0.93; 95% CI -1.44, -0.42; ) in PUFA supplement groups, while no significant differences in isometric muscle strength and range of motion (ROM) were detected. However, the pooled effect size for DOMS was lower than the minimal clinically important difference (MCID) of 1.4 on the 10-unit VAS, suggesting that the effect size of less muscle soreness with PUFA supplements did not appear to be clinically relevant. Conclusion. There is low-quality evidence that PUFA supplementation does not result in a clinically important reduction of muscle soreness after eccentric exercise. Isometric muscle soreness and range of motion were not improved by PUFA supplementation either (low-quality evidence). To further elucidate the overall role of PUFA on muscle damage in this area, large-scale RCTs are still needed.
1. Introduction
Omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids ( PUFAs) are essential fatty acids rich in fish oils. The predominant components of PUFA including eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA), docosahexaenoic acid (DHA), and alpha-linolenic acid (ALA), which can reduce the production and release of arachidonic acid and proinflammatory prostaglandins (PGs), are believed to have potent anti-inflammatory effects. Nutritional intervention with PUFA is widely believed to have the potential to alter the trajectory of a wide range of diseases including autoimmune diseases such as rheumatoid arthritis [1], inflammatory bowel diseases [2–5], and lupus nephritis [6], as well as cancer [7–10], cardiovascular diseases [11–14], metabolic disorders [15], and even neuropsychiatric decrements [16–18]. As for healthy individuals, current literatures focus on its implicit roles in metabolism [19] as well as skeletal muscle functions [20, 21], among which a number of researches have also revealed its temporal effects in skeletal muscle, and even implied that it may play a role in delayed onset muscle soreness (DOMS) after eccentric exercise.
DOMS is recognized as a kind of common muscle discomfort occurring after unfamiliar exercises especially when a person is repeatedly exposed to high eccentric muscle contractions or unaccustomed exercise [22]. It increases within the first 24 h postexercise, and rises to peak between 24 to 48 hours [23–26] or 48 to 72 hours [23, 27] according to different studies, then subsides and eventually disappears in 5 to 7 days [23, 28]. Similar to acute muscle soreness, it presents with muscle stiffness, aching pain, and/or muscular tenderness [28–30]. Though the exact physiological mechanism of DOMS remains equivocal, researches have revealed its relations with damage of sarcomeres, ensuing swelling of damaged muscle fibers, and subsequent initiation of an inflammatory response [31–34]. So far, physical therapies, including postexercise massage [35, 36], cryotherapy [37], low-level phototherapy [38], and vibration therapy [39, 40], as well as the application of pharmacologic nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) [41–46], are the predominant means employed to alleviate DOMS. Actually, since DOMS is widely accepted as a common self-treated condition, current studies have been turning to dietary interference, such as caffeine [47], ginger [48, 49], and taurine [50, 51], and some studies also revealed PUFA as a potential therapeutic agent to blunt DOMS. Despite the fact that majority of these studies are randomized controlled trials (RCTs), their sample sizes are relatively small, which though seems to be a common fault of trials in sports medicine, could not afford adequate statistical power. Therefore, to further elucidate the gainful benefit of PUFA in this field, we conducted a systematic review and meta-analysis based on the variable outcomes from current evidences.
2. Methods
This systematic review and meta-analysis was performed and reported following the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) guideline [52]. The protocol for this study was registered with PROSPERO (CRD42018085869).
2.1. Literature Search Strategy
A thorough literature search was conducted by searching PubMed, EMBASE, CENTRAL, and ISI Web of Science to identify potentially eligible articles about PUFA supplementation and muscle soreness after eccentric exercises. Four electronic databases were searched from their inception date to the latest issue (June, 2018) without language restriction. A combination of medical subject headings (MeSHs) and free terms were used based on the specifications of each database. An example of literature search strategy for PubMed was as follows: (“Fatty Acids, Omega-3”[MeSH] or omega-3 or polyunsaturated fatty acid or PUFA or “Eicosapentaenoic Acid”[MeSH] or Eicosapentaenoic Acid or EPA or “alpha-Linolenic Acid”[MeSH] or alpha-Linolenic Acid or Linolenic acid or “Docosahexaenoic Acids”[MeSH] or Docosahexaenoic Acids or DHA or “Fish Oils”[MeSH] or fish oil or fish oils) and (randomized controlled trial or random or randomly or placebo or controlled trial) and (eccentric contraction or eccentric training or eccentric exercise). The bibliographies of related systematic reviews were also searched. In addition, the reference section for each included study was also manually searched for inclusion of further eligible studies.
2.2. Inclusion and Exclusion Criteria
2.2.1. Types of Participants
Subjects enrolled in our systematic review were required to be adults that undertook eccentric exercise to induce muscle soreness. No restrictions on race, gender, and specific type of eccentric exercise were imposed. Volunteers were excluded if they consumed any kind of PUFA supplementation within the last 6 months. Participants were also excluded if they had engaged in specific upper limb or lower limb eccentric training or other kinds of resistance training in the previous 6 months.
2.2.2. Types of Intervention
Participants were required to take PUFA supplements before and/or after a bout of eccentric exercise. The main components of supplements consumed should be PUFA (i.e., EPA, DHA, or linolenic acid), and a combination of EPA, DHA, and linolenic acid was deemed eligible for inclusion in our study.
2.2.3. Types of Control
Participants in control groups were required to take placebo capsules that did not containPUFA. The main component of placebo capsules could be sunflower oil, corn oil, rice powder, and so forth. Both PUFA capsules and placebo capsules ought to be identical in appearance.
2.2.4. Types of Outcome
The primary outcome of our study was DOMS after eccentric exercises, measured using the VAS; secondary outcomes included joint range of motion (ROM), isometric muscle strength, MVC, upper arm/thigh circumferences, skin temperature, jump performance, and M-wave latency as well as blood markers such as serum CK, CRP, IL-6, TNF-alpha, IL-1ra, cortisol, iron, and LDH measured after eccentric trainings. Considering DOMS and inflammatory reaction in response to muscle damage training peak within 1 to 2 days or 2 to 3 days postexercise, according to different studies, we combined the data measured two days after the exercises.
2.2.5. Types of Studies
Only RCTs that assessed the efficacy of PUFA on muscle soreness after eccentric exercises were included. Non-RCTs such as case reports, case series, book chapters, and editorials were excluded.
2.3. Risk of Bias Assessment
In order to assess the risk of bias among our included studies, the Cochrane Collaboration’s tool is utilized, which is based on seven items: random sequence generation, allocation concealment, blinding of participants and personnel, blinding of outcome assessment, incomplete outcome data, selective reporting, and other sources of bias. Two reviewers (ZL and JZ) judged the risk of bias among studies independently, and the results were compared afterwards. In case of disagreements regarding the risk of bias judgment, discussion was conducted until a consensus was reached. Only data from studies with low or unclear risk of bias can be included in the analysis.
2.4. Data Extraction
Two investigators (ZL and JZ) screened each article independently and were blinded to the findings of the other reviewer. Following the prespecified inclusion criteria, two reviewers performed a rigorous screening to identify eligible articles. Data were collected from these selected articles using a predetermined standardized data collection sheet, which included first author, year of the publication, country, sample size, demographic characteristics of participants in different groups, details of PUFA supplementation and control, detailed protocol of eccentric exercise, and main outcomes.
Discrepancies between two reviewers were resolved through discussion until a general consensus could be reached. The third review author (WZ) was sought for opinions if a consensus could not be reached.
2.5. Data Synthesis
For DOMS and other continuous variables measured two days after eccentric trainings, mean difference (MD) and the associated 95% confidence interval (95% CI) were calculated using the Rev Man 5.3 (Copenhagen: The Nordic Cochrane Centre, The Cochrane Collaboration, 2014). Standard mean difference (SMD) and the associated 95% CI were calculated for continuous variables using the same methodology if the outcomes were measured using different ways. The chi-squared test and the Higgins test were used to assess the heterogeneity among studies ( and indicate acceptable heterogeneity) prior to the combination of data from an individual study [53]. Regardless of the between-study heterogeneity detected, the random-effect model was selected for statistical analysis because of the variety of types of eccentric exercises and dosage of PUFA supplements among the included studies; the random-effect model is preferable in the presence or anticipation of interstudy variances [54].
Power analysis of our meta-analysis was performed using the Power and Sample Size Calculation (PS) program (https://biostat.mc.vanderbilt.edu/wiki/Main/PowerSampleSize) to evaluate whether our current study could offer adequate power to detect the beneficial effect of PUFA on DOMS at a level of significance of 0.05. Subgroup analyses according to duration and daily dosage of PUFA supplements before eccentric exercises were performed to determine whether these factors will influence the overall effect size. The leave-one-out sensitivity analysis was conducted by removing each included study in turn and reevaluating the resulting effect on pooled results to test the robustness of the summary estimate. Begg’s rank correlation test and Egger’s linear regression test as well as funnel plots using Stata version 12.0 (StataCorp LP, USA) were used to assess the publication bias [55].
2.6. GRADE Approach
The Grading of Recommendations, Assessment, Development, and Evaluation (GRADE) approach was used to evaluate the certainty of evidence for each outcome measurement [56]. In this approach, evidence from RCTs was initially regarded as “high quality” but could be downgraded to “moderate quality,” “low quality,” or “very low quality” depending on the presence and seriousness of five categories of limitations: limitations in the study design and implementation (risk of bias), indirectness of evidence, high and unexplained heterogeneity of results, imprecision of results, and high probability of publication bias. Two independent reviewers (ZL and JZ) finished the evaluation independently. Any discrepancy was resolved through discussion until a common consensus was reached. Otherwise, the third reviewer (WZ) was consulted for help. A table for the summary of findings was generated to explain the final results.
3. Results
3.1. Literature Search
An initial search yielded 58 potential citations, among which 16 were from PubMed, 5 were from EMBASE, 24 were from ISI Web of Science, and 13 were from CENTRAL. 27 citations were deleted because they were duplicates. After screening the titles and abstracts of the remaining 31 citations, 15 studies were selected and retrieved for full-text assessment based on the predetermined inclusion criteria, among which 3 were excluded with reasons, 2 were unrelated, and 1 contained duplicate data. Finally, a total of 12 RCTs [57–68] were considered eligible for inclusion and went into qualitative and quantitative syntheses. The literature screening process is presented in Figure 1.
... Preliminary evidence suggests that Ω3-PUFA ingestion may improve indices of muscle recovery, including the attenuation of muscle damage (DiLorenzo et al., 2014), inflammation (Tsuchiya et al., 2019), oxidative stress (Gray et al., 2014), and soreness (Tartibian et al., 2009) following EIMD. This improvement in muscle recovery was shown to be associated with the better maintenance of mobility (improved range of motion) (Tsuchiya et al., 2016), and muscle function (Jakeman et al., 2017). ...
... This response initiates an increased production of specialised proresolving mediators that exhibit lower inflammatory potential. Consistent with previous studies (Jouris et al., 2011;Tartibian et al., 2009), in the present study we report no effect of FO supplementation on systemic inflammation, as assessed by the indirect measurement of thigh volume during exercise recovery. Interestingly, Mickleborough et al. (2015) observed no effect of marine-oil lipid supplementation on limb girth, however serum TNF-α concentrations were attenuated for 92 h following EIMD. ...
We aimed to investigate the influence of 4-wk of fish oil (FO) supplementation on markers of muscle damage, inflammation, muscle soreness, and muscle function during acute recovery from eccentric exercise in moderately trained males.
Sixteen moderately-trained males ingested 5 g/d of FO (n = 8) or soybean oil (placebo) capsules (n = 8) for 4-wk prior to- and 3-d following an acute eccentric exercise bout. Eccentric exercise consisted of 12 sets of isokinetic knee extension and knee flexion. Indices of muscle damage, soreness, function and inflammation were measured at baseline and during exercise recovery.
Eccentric exercise elicited an increase in muscle soreness (p < 0.010) and thigh volume (p < 0.001), and reduced peak isometric torque by 31.7 ± 6.9%, (p < 0.05, 95% CI 10.6—52.8) during 3-d of recovery. Blood omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acid concentration was 14.9 ± 2.4% higher in FO than PLA (p < 0.01, 95% CI 9.8—20.1). However, FO did not ameliorate the cumulative creatine kinase response (expressed as AUC; p = 0.368), inflammation (p = 0.400), muscle soreness (p > 0.140), or muscle function (p > 0.249) following eccentric exercise.
FO supplementation confers no clear benefit in terms of ameliorating the degree of muscle damage, or facilitating the muscle repair process, during acute eccentric exercise recovery. These data suggest that FO supplementation does not provide an effective nutritional strategy to promote exercise recovery, at least in moderately-trained young men.
... Further, and importantly, previous research on FO dosages less than 6G has also yielded positive outcomes on the perception of soreness. An investigation of untrained men consuming 1.8G FO for 30 days demonstrated significant decreases in delayed onset muscle soreness at 48 h post-eccentric exercise (bench stepping) [57]. Similar results have also been noted by Jouris et al. [32] and Lembke and colleagues [35], who found 3G FO for 7 days and 2.7G FO for 30 days, respectively, resulted in significant decreases in perceived soreness. ...
... Similar results have also been noted by Jouris et al. [32] and Lembke and colleagues [35], who found 3G FO for 7 days and 2.7G FO for 30 days, respectively, resulted in significant decreases in perceived soreness. Overall, the majority of the literature to date tends to support supplementation with FO from low (1.8G) to higher (6G) dosages per day to decrease perceived soreness [32,33,35,38,53,54,56,57], though conflicting data do exist [34,41]. ...
Fish oils (FOs) are rich in omega-3 long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids, which have been purported to enhance recovery of muscular performance and reduce soreness post-exercise. However, the most effective FO dose for optimizing recovery remains unclear. The purpose of this investigation was to examine the effect of FO supplementation dosing on the recovery of measures of muscular performance, perceived soreness, and markers of muscle damage following a rigorous bout of eccentric exercise. Thirty-two college-aged resistance-trained males (~23.6 years, 71.6 kg, 172.1 cm) were supplemented with 2, 4, 6 g/day (G) FO or placebo (PL) for ~7.5 weeks. Following 7 weeks of supplementation, pre-exercise (PRE) performance assessments of vertical jump (VJ), knee extensor strength, 40-yard sprint, T-test agility, and perceived soreness were completed prior to a bout of muscle-damaging exercise and were repeated immediately post (IP), 1-, 2-, 4-, 24-, 48-, and 72-h (H) post-exercise. Repeated measures analysis of variance indicated a treatment × time interaction (p < 0.001) for VJ and perceived soreness, but no group differences were observed at any time point. VJ returned to PRE (54.8 ± 7.9 cm) by 1H (51.8 ± 6.5 cm, p = 0.112) for 6G, while no other groups returned to baseline until 48H. Lower soreness scores were observed in 6G compared to PL at 2H (mean difference [MD] = 2.74, p = 0.046), at 24H (MD: 3.45, p < 0.001), at 48H (MD = 4.45, p < 0.001), and at 72H (MD = 3.00, p = 0.003). Supplementation with 6G of FO optimized the recovery of jump performance and muscle soreness following a damaging bout of exercise.
... Moreover, EPA and DHA have been shown to play a role in the regulation of skeletal muscle protein synthesis and immune function (Heaton et al. 2017). Many studies have highlighted that intake of omega-3 PUFA could modulate EIMD outcomes, though results are generally equivocal because of high variability in study designs, participants, dosing and timing protocol exists in the literature (Tartibian et al. 2009;Philpott et al. 2018;Tsuchiya et al. 2016). For example, some studies have reported attenuated the increase in plasma IL-6 up to 72 h after strenuous exercise (DiLorenzo et al. 2014;Phillips et al. 2003;Tartibian et al. 2011) and others have not (Lenn et al. 2002;Nieman et al. 2009). ...
... Similarly, others (Bloomer et al. 2009) found no effect of 6 weeks of omega-3 PUFA (2224 mg EPA and 2208 mg DHA per day) on attenuation of oxidative stress and inflammation induced by a 60-min treadmill climb, in 15 well-trained participants. In contrast, Tartibian et al. (2009) showed a beneficial treatment effect of omega-3 (32 days of 1.8 g of EPA and DHA per day versus a placebo) on perceived pain and a minor decrement of range of motion 48 h after damaging exercise (40 min of bench stepping exercise) in 27 healthy untrained males. In a subsequent randomized, double-blinded study (Tartibian et al. 2011), 45 healthy untrained men completed an eccentric exercise program (40 min of bench stepping) following 30 days' supplementation (324 mg of EPA and 216 mg of DHA per day, which continued 48 h after exercise. ...
PurposeThis review provides an overview of the current knowledge of the nutritional strategies to treat the signs and symptoms related to EIMD. These strategies have been organized into the following sections based upon the quality and quantity of the scientific support available: (1) interventions with a good level of evidence; (2) interventions with some evidence and require more research; and (3) potential nutritional interventions with little to-no-evidence to support efficacy.Method
Pubmed, EMBASE, Scopus and Web of Science were used. The search terms ‘EIMD’ and ‘exercise-induced muscle damage’ were individually concatenated with ‘supplementation’, ‘athletes’, ‘recovery’, ‘adaptation’, ‘nutritional strategies’, hormesis’.ResultSupplementation with tart cherries, beetroot, pomegranate, creatine monohydrate and vitamin D appear to provide a prophylactic effect in reducing EIMD. β-hydroxy β-methylbutyrate, and the ingestion of protein, BCAA and milk could represent promising strategies to manage EIMD. Other nutritional interventions were identified but offered limited effect in the treatment of EIMD; however, inconsistencies in the dose and frequency of interventions might account for the lack of consensus regarding their efficacy.Conclusion
There are clearly varying levels of evidence and practitioners should be mindful to refer to this evidence-base when prescribing to clients and athletes. One concern is the potential for these interventions to interfere with the exercise-recovery-adaptation continuum. Whilst there is no evidence that these interventions will blunt adaptation, it seems pragmatic to use a periodised approach to administering these strategies until data are in place to provide and evidence base on any interference effect on adaptation.
... Furthermore, some studies have shown that aspartate aminotransferase (AST) and alanine aminotransferase (ALT) as the liver function parameters are increased for at least 7 days after the exercise (Pettersson et al., 2008). However, various methods are available to prevent or attenuate DOMS symptoms including massage therapy, cutaneous nerve stimulation, heat and cold therapy, use of stretching, use of nonsteroidal antiinflammatory drugs (NSAIDs), and antioxidant supplements including herbal antioxidants (Barlas et al., 2000;Denegar, Perrin, Rogol, & Rutt, 1989;Howatson, Gaze, & van Someren, 2005;Tartibian, Maleki, & Abbasi, 2009;Tokmakidis, Kokkinidis, Smilios, & Douda, 2003;Zainuddin, Newton, Sacco, & Nosaka, 2005). NSAIDs are routinely prescribed post-exercise to alleviate symptoms of DOMS and restore normal physical function (Baldwin, Stevenson, & Dudley, 2001). ...
... Thigh circumference, Sargent jump test, and knee range of motion Thigh circumference (TC) in the dominant leg was measured at the midpoint of the femur (midpoint of greater trochanter and the lateral femoral epicondyle). The circumference was measured at the marked midpoint with the measuring tape placed horizontally (Tartibian et al., 2009). Thigh circumference was measured once. ...
Delayed-onset muscle soreness (DOMS) occurs after intense eccentric contractions or after performing unaccustomed exercise. Chamomile and ibuprofen may prevent or attenuate DOMS symptoms. The aim of this study was to investigate the effects of simultaneous intake of chamomile and ibuprofen on markers of muscle damage, pain, and inflammation after exhaustive eccentric exercise in young men. In a double blind randomized clinical trial, 40 young men participated voluntarily in the study and were randomly and equally assigned to groups including chamomile (Cham; 1600 mg/day), ibuprofen (IBP; 1600 mg/day), chamomile + ibuprofen (Cham-IBP; 800 mg/day ibuprofen and 800 mg/day chamomile), and placebo. Participants performed a bout of exhaustive eccentric exercise following a week of supplementation. Blood samples were collected before the start of supplementation, before the eccentric exercise, 24, 48, and 72 h after the eccentric exercise and aspartate aminotransferase (AST), alanine aminotransferase (ALT), alkaline phosphatase (ALP), and creatine kinase (CK) were measured in the plasma. In addition, muscle soreness, Sargent jump test (SJ), and knee range of motion (ROM) as functional capacity were measured. The results showed that ROM significantly improved 48 h post exercise in all three treatment groups (p ≤ 0.05). Also, chamomile supplementation significantly improved MS, SJ, AST, and ALT more than ibuprofen, and chamomile + ibuprofen compared to the placebo group (p ≤ 0.05). In conclusion, chamomile is more effective than ibuprofen or combination of chamomile and ibuprofen in attenuating muscle soreness after intense muscle-damaging exercise.
... Although the mechanism is unclear, EPA and DHA supplementation from fish oil may inhibit muscle damage after exercise by protecting the muscle cell membrane and promoting an anti-inflammatory response. Previous studies have shown that EPA and DHA supplementation inhibited muscle damage after eccentric contractions (ECCs) [2][3][4][5]. A recent study also confirmed that the intake of EPA and DHA inhibited the loss of muscle strength, limited range of motion (ROM), development of DOMS, and increase in serum interleukin (IL)-6 levels after 30 maximal ECCs of elbow flexors [5]. ...
... Based on previous studies [2,3,5] and considering the safety factor [14], the EPA group consumed eight 300-mg EPA-rich fish oil softgel capsules (Nippon Suisan Kaisha Ltd., Tokyo, Japan) per day, and the total consumption was 2400 mg per day (600-mg EPA and 260-mg DHA). The PL group consumed eight 300-mg corn oil softgel capsules per day (without EPA and DHA), and the total consumption was 2400 mg. ...
Background
This study aimed to investigate the effect of supplementation of fish oil rich in eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) on the damage of the biceps brachii after eccentric contractions (ECCs) of the elbow flexors, particularly focusing on muscle stiffness.
Methods
Sixteen men were included in this double-blind, placebo-controlled, parallel design study and the participants were randomly assigned to the EPA and DHA supplement group (EPA, n = 8) and placebo group (PL, n = 8). They consumed either EPA 600 mg and DHA 260 mg per day or placebo supplement for 8 weeks prior to exercise. Moreover, they performed six sets of 10 ECCs at 100% maximal voluntary contraction (MVC) using a dumbbell. Changes in MVC torque, range of motion (ROM), upper arm circumference, muscle soreness, muscle echo intensity, and muscle stiffness were assessed before exercise; immediately after exercise; and 1, 2, and 5 days after exercise.
Results
MVC torque and ROM were significantly higher in the EPA group than in the PL group after ECCs (p < 0.05). Muscle soreness, upper arm circumference, and muscle echo intensity were significantly higher in the PL group than in the EPA group after ECCs (p < 0.05). In addition, muscle stiffness at 150° was significantly higher in the PL group than in the EPA group immediately after ECCs (p < 0.05).
Conclusion
The present study showed that EPA and DHA supplementation has a positive role in inhibiting muscle stiffness after ECCs.
Trial registration
This trial (UMIN000028165) was registered on 10th/July/2017.
... n-3 PUFAs such as eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) have been shown to modulate inflammation and immune function, and have been suggested to play a role in the regulation of skeletal muscle protein synthesis [119]. Several studies have reported beneficial effects of prophylactic n-3 PUFA consumption on post-exercise soreness in males [128][129][130], females [131,132], and in mixed-gender cohorts [133,134] at dosages that generally have ranged from 0.54 to 3 g/day for 7-60 days. Tartibian et al. [128] first reported that consumption of 324 mg EPA and 216 mg DHA per day for 32 days reduced perceived pain and range of motion decrements 48 h after exercise (40 min of bench stepping exercise using a 50-cm step) performed after 30 days of supplementation in healthy males. ...
... Several studies have reported beneficial effects of prophylactic n-3 PUFA consumption on post-exercise soreness in males [128][129][130], females [131,132], and in mixed-gender cohorts [133,134] at dosages that generally have ranged from 0.54 to 3 g/day for 7-60 days. Tartibian et al. [128] first reported that consumption of 324 mg EPA and 216 mg DHA per day for 32 days reduced perceived pain and range of motion decrements 48 h after exercise (40 min of bench stepping exercise using a 50-cm step) performed after 30 days of supplementation in healthy males. Similarly, Tsuchiya and colleagues [130] noted that healthy males who consumed 600 mg EPA and 260 mg DHA per day for 8 weeks prior to and 5 days after unilateral isokinetic elbow flexor exercise (5 × 6, MVC, 90°/s) experienced less soreness after 2 days of recovery and displayed improved muscle function relative to placebo during days 2-5 of the recovery period. ...
Exercise-induced muscle damage (EIMD) is typically caused by unaccustomed exercise and results in pain, soreness, inflammation, and reduced muscle function. These negative outcomes may cause discomfort and impair subsequent athletic performance or training quality, particularly in individuals who have limited time to recover between training sessions or competitions. In recent years, a multitude of techniques including massage, cryotherapy, and stretching have been employed to combat the signs and symptoms of EIMD, with mixed results. Likewise, many varied nutritional and supplementation interventions intended to treat EIMD-related outcomes have gained prominence in the literature. To date, several review articles have been published that explore the many recovery strategies purported to minimize indirect markers of muscle damage. However, these articles are very limited from a nutritional standpoint. Thus, the purpose of this review is to briefly and comprehensively summarize many of these strategies that have been shown to positively influence the recovery process after damaging exercise. These strategies have been organized into the following sections based on nutrient source: fruits and fruit-derived supplements, vegetables and plant-derived supplements, herbs and herbal supplements, amino acid and protein supplements, vitamin supplements, and other supplements.
... Interestingly, the majority have been performed in healthy young to middle-aged males and have used a wide range of supplementation doses (< 1 g up to 6 g/day) and supplementation times (from days to 8 weeks). Despite this, most of the studies have shown that n-3 PUFAs induce slightly faster recovery of muscle function and muscle soreness after EIMD [63,[93][94][95][96][97][98][99][100][101]. For instance, Kyriakidou et al. [102] showed that 4 weeks of n-3 PUFA supplementation successfully attenuated minor aspects of EIMD, although it did not improve performance. ...
Skeletal muscle is the largest tissue in the human body, comprising approximately 40% of body mass. After damage or injury, a healthy skeletal muscle is often fully regenerated; however, with aging and chronic diseases, the regeneration process is usually incomplete, resulting in the formation of fibrotic tissue, infiltration of intermuscular adipose tissue, and loss of muscle mass and strength, leading to a reduction in functional performance and quality of life. Accumulating evidence has shown that omega-3 (n-3) polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs) and their lipid mediators (i.e., oxylipins and endocannabinoids) have the potential to enhance muscle regeneration by positively modulating the local and systemic inflammatory response to muscle injury. This review explores the process of muscle regeneration and how it is affected by acute and chronic inflammatory conditions, focusing on the potential role of n-3 PUFAs and their derivatives as positive modulators of skeletal muscle healing and regeneration.
... Previous studies suggest that fish oil, a TAG type n-3 PUFA supplementation, can alleviate EIMD; for example, 4-week fish oil supplementation may successfully attenuate multiple aspects of EIMD by improving joint flexibility and protecting muscle fibers micro-damage [18] [29]. Supplementation of DHA and EPA (for 7, 21, 26, and 30 days) has also shown a varying degree effectiveness on slowing down EIMD [30][31][32][33]. Additionally, an acute dose of fish oil supplementation immediately postexercise has been shown to ease the impairment of functional exercise performance following EIMD [19]. ...
Background
Antarctic krill oil (KO) is a natural source of n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids (n-3 PUFAs), and is rich in phospholipids, Eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA), Docosahexaenoic acid (DHA), astaxanthin, flavonoids, vitamins, trace elements, and other bioactive substances. KO has been confirmed to have anti-inflammatory and immunomodulatory effects. n-3 PUFAs also have been purported to improve the recovery of muscular performance. Moreover, the phospholipids present in KO can enhance n-3 PUFA bioavailability because of its higher absorption rate in plasma compared to fish oil. Astaxanthin, found in Antarctic KO, is a red carotenoid and powerful antioxidant that inhibits oxidative stress after intense exercise. Hence, we examined the effect of KO supplementation on the recovery of exercise by measuring muscular performance, oxidant/antioxidant and anti-inflammatory activity, and the markers of muscle damage following a rigorous bout of resistance exercise.Methods30 college-aged resistance-trained males (20.4 ± 0.92 years, 74.09 ± 7.23 kg, 180.13 ± 4.72 cm) were randomly supplemented with 3 g/d KO or placebo (PL) for 3 days and continued to consume after resistance exercise for 3 days until the experiment finished. Before supplementation, pre-exercise performance assessments of knee isokinetic strength, 20 m sprint, hexagon test, and blood serum creatine kinase (CK), lactate dehydrogenase (LDH), superoxide dismutase (SOD), total antioxidant capacity (T-AOC), reactive oxygen species (ROS), malondialdehyde (MDA), interleukin-2 (IL-2), interleukin-6 (IL-6), and tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α) were completed. Then after 3 days of supplementation, participants completed a bout of muscle-damaging exercise, and subsequently, they performed and repeated the exercise performance assessments and blood-related indicators tests immediately (0 h), as well as at 6, 24, 48, and 72 h post-muscle-damaging exercise.ResultsCompared to the PL group, the serum CK of KO group was significantly lower at 24 h and 48 h post-exercise; the hexagon test time of the KO group was significantly lower than that of the PL group at 6 h and 24 h post-exercise; the KO group’s isokinetic muscle strength showed different degrees of recovery than that of the PL group at 24 h and 48 h, and even over-recovery at 72 h post-exercise; the SOD level of the KO group was significantly higher than that of the PL group at 0, 6, and 24 h after exercise; the T-AOC level of the KO group was significantly higher than that of the PL group at 0, 6, and 72 h after exercise; the MDA level of the KO group was significantly lower than that of the PL group at 6 h; and there was no significant difference in serum IL-2, IL-6, and TNF-α between the two groups.Conclusion
Our results demonstrated that 3 g/d KO supplementation and continued supplementation after exercise can alleviate exercise-induced muscle damage (EIMD) and promote post-exercise recovery.
... Previous studies have revealed that fish oil (FO) including eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) positively affected the symptoms of muscle damage [9,10]. Our previous research found that 8-week FO supplementation attenuates reductions in muscle strength and ROM and increases in muscle soreness, CK, and muscle stiffness following exercise involving ECCs [11,12]. ...
Background
This study investigated the combined effect of branched-chain amino acids (BCAA) and fish oil (FO) on muscle damage caused by eccentric contractions (ECCs) of the elbow flexors, with a special focus on muscular function.
Methods
Twenty-nine untrained male participants were enrolled in this double-blind, placebo-controlled, parallel study. The participants were randomly assigned to the placebo (PL) group (n = 9), BCAA supplement group (n = 10), and BCAA+FO supplement group (n = 10). The BCAA+FO group consumed eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) 600 mg and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) 260 mg per day for 8 weeks, while the BCAA and BCAA+FO groups consumed 9.6 g per day for 3 days prior to and until 5 days after ECCs. Participants performed six sets of 10 ECCs at 100% maximal voluntary contraction (MVC) using dumbbells. Changes in MVC torque, range of motion (ROM), muscle soreness using visual analog scales, upper circumference, muscle thickness, echo intensity, and serum creatine kinase (CK) were assessed before, immediately after, and 1, 2, 3, and 5 days after ECCs.
Results
The MVC torque was significantly higher in the BCAA+FO group than in the PL group immediately after ECCs (p < 0.05) but not in the BCAA group. Both BCAA and BCAA+FO groups showed greater ROM and lower muscle soreness than the PL group (p < 0.05). CK was significantly lower in the BCAA group than in the PL group at 5 days after ECCs (p < 0.05).
Conclusions
This study reveals that supplementation with BCAA and FO may favorably impact immediate recovery of peak torque production. Alternatively, in comparison to PL group, BCAA supplementation favorably reduces creatine kinase.
... 8 Of the previous studies, we focused on the report of Cornelli et al 4 and observed changes in oxidative stress due to menstrual cycles in female athletes. Thus, we focused on eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA), a fish oil component, as it was found to be associated with the suppression of oxidative stress, inflammation, postexercise test inflammation, and antioxidant potential in athletes, [9][10][11] and examined the effects of EPA-rich fish oil supplements on the suppression of oxidative stress. This study examined the redox reaction during menstrual cycle and the effect of EPA intake on the redox reaction for each menstrual cycle in female athletes. ...
Background:
This study examines the effect of the supplements on the redox reaction in menstrual cycle. Participants took eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA)-rich fish oil supplements over two menstrual cycles.
Materials and methods:
For this randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial, 21 female members of a university basketball team were selected. Participants were allocated into the EPA/docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) group (EG, n = 11) and control group (CG, n = 10) through stratified randomization. The EG and CG took 3600 mg fish oil (containing 900 mg EPA and 403 mg DHA) and 3600 mg corn oil (without EPA and DHA), respectively, every day for two menstrual cycles. The redox reaction was measured four times: the menstrual and follicular phases in two menstrual cycles.
Results:
There was a significant difference in reactive oxygen metabolites (d-ROMs) and potential antioxidant capacity during the menstrual phase by the main effect of time (before and after intake) in EG and CG (p < 0.01). In a subsequent test, d-ROMs were significantly lower after intake in EG and CG (p < 0.05); however, no significant difference in potential antioxidant capacity was found. A significant difference was noted in d-ROMs and potential antioxidant capacity during the follicular phase by the effect of time (before and after intake) only in EG (p < 0.01). Significant decreases in d-ROMs and increases in potential antioxidant capacities were observed after intake (p < 0.05).
Conclusion:
EPA-rich fish oil supplementation over two menstrual cycles demonstrated active involvement in the antioxidant function during menstrual and follicular phases.The protocol was registered at the University Hospital Medical Information Network Clinical Trial Registry (registration no. UMIN000028795).
... In addition, exercises are among the most effective means to alleviate pain in DOMS; however, the analgesic effect is temporary [13] . Non-Steroidal Anti-Inflammatory Drugs (NSAIDs) have demonstrated dosage-dependent effects that may also be influenced by the time of administration [14] . Apart from medical drugs, various food supplementations are widely used including cratin [15] , anti-oxidants [16,17] ,and protein or carbohydrate beverages [18] which were found to have some positive effects as well. ...
... Many studies have investigated the effects of ω-3 PUFA supplementation on the loss of muscle function and inflammation following exercise-induced muscle damage (Mickleborough, Sinex, Platt, Chapman, & Hirt, 2015;Ochi & Tsuchiya, 2018). For example, EPA and DHA reduce inflammation, muscle soreness, and the perception of pain from exercise (Corder, Newsham, McDaniel, Ezekiel, & Weiss, 2016;Jouris, McDaniel, & Weiss, 2011;Tartibian, Maleki, & Abbasi, 2009). A recent clinical trial revealed that higher levels of EPA are important to promote muscle strength and preserve strength loss after exercise (Ochi, Yanagimoto, & Tsuchiya, 2021). ...
The aim of this study was to examine the association between polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA) biomarkers, such as omega-3 (ω-3) index and arachidonic acid (AA; 20:4 ω-6)/eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA; 20:5ω-3) ratio (AA/EPA), and the prevalence of running-related injuries (RRI) in a cohort of recreational runners. We performed a retrospective, observational study of 275 non-elite runners (mean age: 41.20 ± 12.47 years) who were not supplemented with ω-3 fatty acids. The training characteristics and RRI were recorded over a period of 12 months through a self-reported questionnaire. Using whole blood samples collected by finger prick, PUFA were quantified by gas chromatography and ω-3 index and AA/EPA ratio measured. A total of 191 RRI cases were reported, with an injury prevalence rate of 50.9% in the overall population. The injured runners ran a significantly greater weekly distance than uninjured subjects (53.54 ± 25.27 km/week; p = 0.007). In a multivariate regression analysis, the lowest number of RRI was associated with higher values of ω-3 index (β = − 0.237; 95% CI – 0.308 to – 0.164; R² = 0.172; p < 0.0001), while a higher AA/EPA ratio was correlated with higher number of RRI (β = 0.019; 95% CI 0.007 to 0.031; R² = 0.038; p = 0.003). This study identifies ω-3 index and AA/EPA ratio as potential parameters associated with the risk of RRI. Future research is needed to confirm these results and apply specific nutritional strategies to successfully modify these biochemical variables.
Trial registration: ISRCTN.org identifier: ISRCTN12847156..
... Although animal studies have shown mixed results when evaluating the efficacy of n-3 supplementation on muscle damage, exercise metabolism and exercise performance; human studies have demonstrated that physiological parameters that are linked to improved physical performance and oxygen utilisation, such as blood flow during exercise, can be augmented by dietary n-3 PUFA [11,14]. Tarbinian et al. [15], Jouris et al. [16] and Jakeman et al. [17] have shown a pain reduction following EIMD with n-3 supplementation. A recent meta-analysis [18] also concluded that n-3 supplementation could alleviate DOMS after eccentric exercise. ...
Background
Exercise-induced muscle damage (EIMD) results in transient muscle inflammation, strength loss, muscle soreness and may cause subsequent exercise avoidance. Omega-3 (n-3) supplementation may minimise EIMD via its anti-inflammatory properties, however, its efficacy remains unclear.
Methods
Healthy males ( n = 14, 25.07 ± 4.05 years) were randomised to 3 g/day n-3 supplementation (N-3, n = 7) or placebo (PLA, n = 7). Following 4 weeks supplementation, a downhill running protocol (60 min, 65% V̇O 2 max, − 10% gradient) was performed. Creatine kinase (CK), interleukin (IL)-6 and tumour necrosis factor (TNF)-α, perceived muscle soreness, maximal voluntary isometric contraction (MVIC) and peak power were quantified pre, post, and 24, 48 and 72 h post-EIMD.
Results
Muscle soreness was significantly lower in N-3 vs PLA group at 24 h post-EIMD ( p = 0.034). IL-6 was increased in PLA ( p = 0.009) but not in N-3 ( p = 0.434) following EIMD, however, no significant differences were noted between groups. Peak power was significantly suppressed in PLA relative to pre-EIMD but not in N-3 group at 24 h post-EIMD. However, no significant difference in peak power output was observed between groups. MVIC, CK and TNF-α were altered by EIMD but did not differ between groups.
Conclusion
N-3 supplementation for 4 weeks may successfully attenuate minor aspects of EIMD. Whilst not improving performance, these findings may have relevance to soreness-associated exercise avoidance.
... Furthermore, delayed onset of muscle soreness was also reported after 8 weeks of 0.6 g EPA and 0.26 g DHA [33], or 4 weeks of 2.7 g of fish oil [39]. An intervention study in 27 amateur males showed no e↵ect of 1.8 g/d omega-3 fatty acids on knee ROM, perceived pain, and thigh circumference when measured immediately, and after 24 h of eccentric exercise [58]. However, perceived pain and ROM were improved at 48 h post-exercise. ...
Omega-3 fatty acids, specifically eicosapentanoic acid (EPA, 20:5n-3) and docosahexanoic acid (DHA, 22:6n-3) are receiving increasing attention in sports nutrition. While the usual focus is that of athletes, questions remain if the different training status between athletes and amateurs influences the response to EPA/DHA, and as to whether amateurs would benefit from EPA/DHA supplementation. We critically examine the efficacy of EPA/DHA on performance, recovery and injury/reduced risk of illness in athletes as well as amateurs. Relevant studies conducted in amateurs will not only broaden the body of evidence but shed more light on the effects of EPA/DHA in professionally trained vs. amateur populations. Overall, studies of EPA/DHA supplementation in sport performance are few and research designs rather diverse. Several studies suggest a potentially beneficial effect of EPA/DHA on performance by improved endurance capacity and delayed onset of muscle soreness, as well as on markers related to enhanced recovery and immune modulation. The majority of these studies are conducted in amateurs. While the evidence seems to broadly support beneficial effects of EPA/DHA supplementation for athletes and more so in amateurs, strong conclusions and clear recommendations about the use of EPA/DHA supplementation are currently hampered by inconsistent translation into clinical endpoints.
... No known cases of fish oil-induced myopathy have been reported. 3 Our case of fish oilinduced myopathy was confirmed by repeated symptomatology and elevation in creatine kinase with reintroduction of fish oil supplement for hypertriglyceridemia treatment. ...
... Nutritional interventions with oils or fatty acids, such as argan oil [9], olive oil capsules rich in polyphenols [17], and fish oil rich in omega-3, have been associated with a significant reduction in pain in individuals with knee osteoarthritis [13,15,16]. Studies on exercise-induced pain investigated the effects of supplementation with omega-3 derived from fish oil [60][61][62] and found a significant reduction of musculoskeletal pain after the consumption of fish oil. Two meta-analyses indicated that the consumption of omega-3 is possibly an adjuvant treatment in joint pain associated with rheumatoid arthritis, significantly reducing the administration of nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs in patients with joint pain [63,64]. ...
Food consumption has significant positive effects on an individual's health status, including the reduction of symptoms associated with musculoskeletal pain. However, specific food groups indicated for the treatment of pain are not yet determined. Hence, this review aimed to analyze the effects of nutritional interventions with specific diets, oils and/or fatty acids, and foodstuffs in natura in the reduction of musculoskeletal pain. An integrative review was conducted in the following databases: Embase, PubMed, LILACS, and Google Scholar. Clinical trials written in English, Spanish, and Portuguese and published between 2000 and March 2020 were included in this review. Seventeen studies were included. Among these, a reduction of musculoskeletal pain with different types of nutritional interventions, such as vegan and Mediterranean diets and the consumption of blueberry, strawberry, passion fruit peel extract, argan oil, fish oil (omega-3), olive oil, and undenatured type II collagen and vitamin D gel capsules, was observed in 14 studies. Eight studies evaluated the profiles of several inflammatory markers, and of these, decreased interleukin (IL)-6, IL-1β, and tumor necrosis factor-α levels were observed in two studies. This review suggests that different nutritional interventions with specific diets, oils and/or fatty acids, and foodstuffs in natura reduce musculoskeletal pain, specifically in adults with osteoarthritis. Besides pain improvement, nutritional interventions, including the consumption of strawberry and vitamin D gel capsules, decrease the levels of several inflammatory markers.
... The fish oil group (n = 10) consumed 2,400-mg fish oil softgel capsules (Nippon Suisan Kai-sha Ltd., Tokyo, Japan) per day, containing 600-mg EPA and 260-mg DHA. Previous works have demonstrated that more than 400 mg/day EPA and 200 mg/day DHA is necessary to attenuate muscle damage after exercise (DiLorenzo, Drager, & Rankin, 2014;Houghton & Onambele, 2012;Jouris, McDaniel, & Weiss, 2011;Tartibian, Maleki, & Abbasi, 2009Tsuchiya, Yanagimoto, Nakazato, Hayamizu, & Ochi, 2016). Due to possible adverse side effects, we limited the amount of EPA and DHA to 3,000 mg per day that was based on the natural medicine comprehensive database (Administration, 2000). ...
Background:
It has been well known that exercise training improves muscular endurance; however, whether nutritional strategies can be used to enhance muscular endurance remains unclear. Herein, we tested the hypothesis that 8 weeks of eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) supplementation, known to promote oxygen availability and lipid metabolism, would attenuate muscular fatigue caused by numerous muscle contractions.
Methods:
Nineteen healthy men were randomly assigned to a placebo group (n = 9) and fish oil group (n = 10) in a double-blind fashion. The fish oil group consumed EPA-rich fish oil that contains 600-mg EPA and 260-mg DHA per day for 8 weeks. The placebo group received matching capsules for the same duration of time. After the 8-week intervention, subjects performed muscular endurance test that was repeated knee extensions with weights equal to 40% of the subject's body weight.
Results:
Maximal repetitions to exhaustion were recorded. In addition, maximum isometric voluntary muscle contraction (MVC), muscle metabolism using near-infrared spectroscopy, and blood lactate were measured during the test. Subjects in both groups reached exhaustion after the muscular endurance test, while the maximal repetitions did not differ between the groups. Similarly, there is no significant difference in oxygen saturation in muscle tissue (StO2), an index of muscle oxygen availability, between the groups. Also, MVC and blood lactate did not change between groups.
Conclusion:
In conclusion, the present study provided evidence that muscle fatigue caused by knee extensions cannot be attenuated by EPA and DHA supplementation in healthy subjects.
... Following EIMD, decreasing ROM at the affected joint is said to be caused by the increase in passive muscle stiffness resulted by muscle swelling as well as disruption of myofibrils (Chleboun et al., 1998).In the previous study by Chapman et al. (2007), which had used higher intensity exercise protocol (elbow flexor model) to induce muscle damage, they reported the highest reduction in ROM was seen at three days postexercise. Meanwhile, Tartibian et al. (2009) who had used moderate intensity exercise protocol (knee extensor model) documented that the highest reduction in ROM is occurred at two days post-exercise. In another study which had also used moderate intensity exercise protocol (DHR model) by Nunan et al. (2010), there was no changes in ROM in a drug treatment group. ...
Introduction Nigella sativa (NS) is widely known to have anti-inflammatory effects on various inflammation models; however, there are no known NS studies that include EIMD as a model of inflammation. This study aimed to investigate the effects of NS on EIMD as a model of inflammation. Material and Methods A total of 33 youth football athletes were assigned to three groups (i.e., NS3000, NS1500, and the control). All groups performed 10 sets of 10 repetitions of CMJ (with a 30-s intermittent rest between sets) by adopting a squat stance in starting and landing positions to induce muscle damage. Immediately after the exercise, they were administered a single dose of either 3000 mg or 1500 mg of NS or a placebo. A set of tests was conducted to measure muscular power, soreness, tenderness, thigh circumference, ROM, serum CK, and LDH at pre-exercise, 30 min, 1 d, 2 d, 3 d, and 4 d post-exercise. Results Changes in these variables over time were compared by a mixed factorial ANOVA. As expected, exercise decreased muscular power and ROM (30 min to 1 d post-exercise) (P < 0.05) and increased soreness, tenderness, thigh circumference, CK, and LDH (30 min to 1 d post-exercise) (P < 0.05). However, no significant interaction was observed between all measured parameters in three different groups for the measurement sessions (P > 0.05). Discussions and Conclusion The obtained results suggested that the CMJ protocol used in this study was sufficient to induce muscle damage. Thus,EIMD can be used as a model of inflammation; however, a single one-off intake of NS does not attenuate the indirect markers of EIMD. The effective dosage of NS to increase the recovery speed was not determined.
... Vibration therapy, micronutrients supplementation, herbal plants, and some drugs are popular among people to reduce DOMS. For example, caffeine, omega-3 fatty acids, taurine, polyphenols, vitamin E, and vitamin C can reduce DOMS (da Silva et al., 2014;Hurley et al., 2013;Ranchordas et al., 2018;Tartibian et al., 2009;Trombold et al., 2011). Vitamin D is a micronutrient that may affect the antioxidant enzymes. ...
Delayed onset muscle soreness (DOMS) appears after unaccustomed exercise and peaks 24-48 h after exercise. Vitamin D micronutrient and vibration therapy may have an effect on DOMS. The present study investigated the effects of vitamin D micronutrient and vibration therapy on DOMS. Sixty female students were randomly assigned to one of the four groups (n=15 in each group): vitamin D, vibration therapy, vitamin D + vibration therapy, and control. The participants of vitamin D groups received vitamin D (3,800 IU, 1 session daily for 7 days), while the participants of the control groups received placebo. The participants of vibration therapy groups received vibration therapy (50 Hz; 3 sets of 1 min, 1 session daily for 7 days). One day later, the participants performed eccentric exercise (a quadriceps leg extension exercise). Immediately after this exercise protocol, the participants received vitamin D or vibration therapy on basis of their groups. Pain perception, creatine kinase (CK), interleukin (IL)-6, superoxide dismutase and malondialdehyde (MDA) concentration were measured at baseline (before 7 days of intervention), after 7 days of intervention (before eccentric exercise) and 24, 48 and 72 h after eccentric exercise. Statistical analysis was employed and P≤0.05 was considered as the significant level. CK and IL-6 concentrations, as well as pain perception, were significantly lower in the vibration therapy and vitamin D groups compared to the control group 24 to 48 h after eccentric exercise. MDA concentration was significantly lower in the vibration therapy and vitamin D groups compared to the control group 48 to 72 h after eccentric exercise. In conclusion, the present study suggests that vibration therapy and vitamin D supplement may have effects against eccentric exercise-induced delayed onset muscle soreness in female students.
... Substantial evidence from epidemiological and human interventional studies links the long-chain omega-3 fatty acids docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) and eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) to anti-inflammatory actions (Calder 2006;2015b) and improved cell-mediated immune function (Calder 2008). Several studies have reported improved recovery with reduced muscle soreness following DHA/EPA supplementation in untrained athletes, although this is following eccentric exercise (Tartibian et al. 2009;Jouris et al. 2011). Interestingly, lowered intakes of preformed DHA and EPA are consumed in vegetarian-based eating patterns with lower omega-3 indexes observed in these groups compared to omnivorous populations who consume fish and animal products (Craddock et al. 2017). ...
Plant‐based dietary patterns are associated with reduced risk of many chronic diseases. Athletes have increasingly been adopting plant‐based diets not only for the related health benefits but for perceived improvements in endurance performance. Several theoretical mechanistic underpinnings have been described as to why a plant‐based dietary pattern may improve endurance performance. This review focuses on plant‐based dietary patterns and their hypothesised ability to modulate endurance performance specifically from an antioxidant, inflammatory and immunological perspective. Studies quantifying the function of plant‐based dietary patterns on endurance performance are scarce; however, research exploring physiological changes in immune, oxidative and inflammatory systems with the adoption of a plant‐based dietary pattern appears to be favourable. Overall, research suggests that the consumption of a plant‐based diet may result in improvements in C‐reactive protein, interleukin‐6, fibrinogen and leukocyte concentrations, while some studies report improved lymphocyte responsiveness and improved natural killer cell functionality. These changes may be the result of an optimised intake of phytochemicals (particularly polyphenols), unrefined carbohydrates and saturated fat which could theoretically translate into small improvements to endurance performance. It is important to note that any improvement to endurance performance via these systems would likely be minor and difficult to quantify; nevertheless, the findings of the current body of evidence highlight the need for further research in this area.
... These include circulating medium-chain FAs that get oxidized while entering the liver, leading to energy generation. Some of these also exhibit an antiinflammatory effect such as eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA), which helps in exercise recovery (Bloomer et al., 2009;Jouris et al., 2011;Tartibian et al., 2009) as well as improving neuromuscular function (Stiefel et al., 1999). ...
Proteomics and metabolomics research offers a quantitative measurement of metabolic profiles associated with exercise and identifies metabolic signatures of athletes from different sporting disciplines. Molecular biomarkers include peptides, proteins, amino acids, carbohydrates, lipids, and xenobiotics. Collectively, these metabolites capture the molecular pathways underlying whole body physiology including nutrition, energy generation, oxidative stress scavenging mechanisms, and hormonal balance. This chapter aims to review the recent literature investigating potential proteomic and metabolomic biomarkers associated with exercise, endurance, and power sports and discuss their functional relevance in relation to athletes’ performance, training, recovery from injury and overall health.
... The consumption of compounds rich in omega-3 PUFA may be associated with decrease of muscle damage indirect markers [9][10][11][18][19][20]. Knowledge about these benefits is important for athletes, who are constantly subjected to muscular damage, especially when they perform high-intensity eccentric exercises. ...
AIMSː To investigate the effects of resistance exercise and fish oil intake on muscle morphology in Wistar rats. METHODSː Forty-eight animals that performed resistance exercise were initially divided into two groups. One group did not take fish oil and the other group took fish oil. The animals of the second group underwent training and took fish oil for eight weeks. At the end of the last resistance exercise session, the 48 rats were organized into six subgroups of eight each, according to the time gap (12, 24 or 48 hours) elapsed until the gastrocnemius muscle withdrawal procedure. At each established time after the last resistance exercise session, the gastrocnemius muscle was removed for morphological analysis.RESULTSː Skeletal muscle cells of the animals that did not receive fish oil presented higher scores of edema, especially those from the groups that had their muscles withdrawn at 24 and 48 hours of time gap. As for the group that took fish oil, we observed a smaller amount of inflammatory infiltrate and reduced areas of necrosis compared to animals that exercised without the use of fish oil, at all post-exercise time gaps. CONCLUSIONSː Fish oil intake attenuated morphological changes in muscle tissue after high-intensity exercises.
... The EPA and DHA group (EPA group) ingested eight 300mg EPA-rich fish oil softgel capsules (Nippon Suisan Kaisha Ltd., Tokyo, Japan) per day, amounting to 2400 mg per day, containing 600 mg EPA and 260 mg DHA. Several studies have reported that more than 400 mg/d EPA and 200 mg/d DHA may be required for beneficial effect on exerciseinduced muscle damage (8)(9)(10)(17)(18)(19). With regard to the negative side effects, the amount of EPA and DHA is limited to 3000 mg per day for safety in humans by natural medicine comprehensive database (20). ...
Objective: The aim of this study was to test the hypothesis that 8-week eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) supplementation improves peripheral muscle performance by concentric contractions (CONs) of elbow flexors in humans.
Methods: Sixteen healthy men were randomly administered with EPA and DHA supplement (EPA, n = 8) or placebo (PL, n = 8) by a double-blind method. The EPA group was administered EPA-rich fish oil, containing 600 mg EPA and 260 mg DHA per day for 8 weeks. The subjects performed 5 sets of 6 maximal CONs of elbow flexors. The work output and peak torque were assessed during exercise. Changes in the maximal voluntary isometric contraction torque, range of motion (ROM), upper arm circumference, muscle fatigue by rating of perceived exertion, transverse relaxation time, cross-sectional area (CSA), and lactate in blood were also assessed before, immediately after, and 1 day after exercise.
Results: The work output during CONs in the EPA group was greater than that in the placebo group at the fifth set (EPA group; 94.0 ± 11.7%, placebo group; 82.5 ± 11.7%, p < 0.05). In addition, ROM in the EPA group was significantly greater than that in the placebo group immediately after exercise (p < 0.05). The increase of CSA in the EPA group was significantly smaller than that in the placebo group immediately after exercise (p < 0.05).
Conclusions: The present study suggests that the reduction of muscle work output caused by 30 CONs can be attenuated by an 8-week EPA and DHA supplementation. In addition, EPA and DHA supplementation can cause inhibition for reduction of ROM and increase of CSA after CONs.
... Existen estudios que demuestran que los ácidos grasos Omega 3 disminuyen el DMT, conclusiones a las que llegaron luego de observar este fenómeno en el grupo que consumió este suplemento, además de mejorar el rango de movimiento y disminuir la circunferencia de la extremidad ejercitada (Tartibian, Maleki, & Abbasi, 2009). Otro reporte que tuvo como objetivo evaluar si los sujetos que consumieron altos niveles de Omega 3 mostraban diferencias en el DMT, biomarcadores de la inflamación y calidad de vida, después de haber realizado un ejercicio vigoroso, concluyeron que una dieta rica en ácidos grasos Omega Tabla 2. Resumen de los estudios donde se usaron suplementos con ácidos grasos para contrarrestar el DMT DHA 27 mujeres 4 series curl de bíceps 3000 mg/día Rigidez, hinchazón y temp. ...
Resumen. El dolor muscular tardío (DMT) es uno de los indicadores del daño muscular y regularmente está asociado con la realización de una actividad física desacostumbrada. A través de los años se han buscado diversas formas de contrarrestarlo, entre ellas se encuentra el uso los suplementos nutricionales. Objetivo: Determinar la efectividad de los suplementos nutricionales en la prevención y tratamiento del DMT. Método: Se llevó a cabo una revisión sistemática en las bases de datos PubMeb, Scopus, SportDiscus y Web of Science, las palabras utilizadas para la búsqueda fueron delayed onset muscle soreness y exercise induced muscle damage combinadas con prevention y/o treatment. Resultados: Se identificaron 1257 estudios de los cuales 43 cumplieron con los criterios establecidos para ser incluidos en la revisión. Los principales suplementos usados son la leche, los ácidos grasos Omega 3 y la curcumina. Del total de estudios analizados, en el 46% hubo una disminución del DMT con el uso del suplemento. Conclusión: lo suplementos nutricionales analizados no tienen efectividad en la prevención y tratamiento de DMT. Abstract. Delayed Onset Muscle Soreness (DOMS) is one of the indicators of muscle damage regularly associated with performance in individuals not used to physical activity. Several strategies to counteract DOMS appeared over the years, including the use of nutritional supplements. Objective: to determine the effectiveness of nutritional supplements in the prevention and treatment of DOMS. Method: a systematic review was carried out in the PubMed, Scopus, Sport Discuss, and Web of Science databases. Words used for the search were «delayed onset muscle soreness» and «exercise induced muscle damage» combined with «prevention» and/or «treatment». Results: we identified 1,257 studies, 43 of which met the criteria established to be included in the review. The main supplements used are milk, omega-3 fatty acids, and curcumin. In 46% of the studies analyzed, a decrease in DOMS was shown after using a supplement. Conclusion: the nutritional supplements analyzed have no effectiveness in the prevention and treatment of DOMS. Introducción Independiente de que una persona sea sedentaria o deportista, cualquiera de ellos puede experimentar alteraciones importantes en su rendimiento como deshidratación (Calvo, Fernandes, Aznar & García, 2018), o el dolor muscular tardío (DMT) (Seidel et al., 2012). Este es el dolor que aparece entre 12 y 24 horas después de realizar un ejercicio desacostumbrado, dicho dolor se caracteriza por un incremento en su intensidad, alcanzando el dolor pico a las 48 horas, para ir descendiendo en los siguientes días (Smith, 1992). Dicho dolor es mayor si en la actividad física están involucradas principalmente acciones excéntricas (Raya-González, Piqueras, & Sánchez-Sánchez, 2018), como bajar por una escalera, bajar algún peso, entre otros (Bubbico & Kravitz, 2010). A pesar de que ya han pasado más de 115 años desde que se reportó por primera vez este tipo de dolor (Hough, 1900), aún no se sabe con certeza cómo se origina por lo que a través de los años han surgido diversas teorías que han tratado de descifrar su etiopatogenia. Dentro de las teorías que han existido han sido descartadas tanto la del ácido láctico como la de los espasmos musculares (Sayers & Dannecker, 2004). Las teorías restantes por separado son insuficientes para dar res-puesta a la duda, por lo que se ha hecho una mezcla de ellas, presentando un modelo que trata de explicar el mecanismo de producción en donde se menciona que el ejercicio produce ruptura de las fibras musculares debilitando las líneas Z, con el daño del sarcolema resulta una acumula-ción de calcio, lo que inhibe la respiración celular, esto a su vez eleva la circulación de neutrófilos permitiendo que algunos componentes y marcadores del daño muscular difundan al plasma e intersticio, entre los marcadores destacan la hidroxiprolina y la creatíquinasa. Dentro de unas horas hay una elevación importante de neutrófilos en el sitio lesionado. La relación monocitos/macrófagos alcanzan su pico 48 horas después de haberse producido el daño muscular. Los macrófagos pro-ducen prostaglandinas (PGE 2) III y IV en las terminales nerviosas sensibles a estímulos mecánicos, químicos y térmicos. La acumulación 2019, Retos, 35, xxx-xxx © Copyright: Federación Española de Asociaciones de Docentes de Educación Física (FEADEF) ISSN: Edición impresa: 1579-1726. Edición Web: 1988-2041 (www.retos.org) de histamina, potasio y quininas producto de la actividad fagocitaria y necrosis celular, además de una elevada presión del edema tisular y la elevación de la temperatura, pudieran activar los nocioceptores dentro la fibra y tendón muscular, lo que conduciría a la sensación del DMT (Cheung, Hume, & Maxwell, 2003). Muchas veces el DMT es asociado con el abandono de la práctica de la actividad física por parte de personas que inician un programa de entrenamiento, en deportistas dicho dolor ha sido relacionado con dis-minución del rendimiento deportivo, por lo que a través de los años han surgido diversas estrategias que han tenido como objetivo prevenir o tratar el DMT, entre las que
Pain can become a chronic and deliberating experience with a significant burden. In preclinical and clinical studies, Saffron (Crocus sativus L.) has shown analgesic activities. Considering the unsatisfactory results of current therapeutic management for chronic pain conditions, we aimed to review saffron's analgesic activity and underlying mechanisms. Saffron showed antinociceptive activities in formalin-, carrageenan-, and capsaicin-induced experimental pain models. Saffron analgesic activities affected several targets, including ion channels of nociceptors; the adrenergic system and central histaminic system; inhibition of inflammatory pathways, apoptotic pathways, and oxidative stress; regulation of NO pathway, and the endocannabinoid system. Clinical studies showed analgesia of Saffron in rheumatoid arthritis, after-pain following childbirth, dysmenorrhea, and fibromyalgia. Our literature review showed that saffron can be beneficial as an adjunct therapy to commonly used analgesics in practice, particularly in chronic pain conditions.
Delayed post-exercise muscle pain is a type of pain that is felt within the first 24 hours after exercise, peaks between 1 and 3 days, compared to acute muscle pain, and its effect decreases completely after 5-7 days. There is increasing interest and research into delayed muscle pain. Although there are different formation mecha- nisms on delayed muscle pain, the formation mechanisms have not been fully exp- lained. Nutritional interventions are one of the preventive and/or therapeutic ways to reduce delayed muscle soreness. Studies have reported that nutritional interven- tions can reduce delayed muscle soreness. Many studies have reported the effect of caffeine, omega-3 fatty acids, taurine, polyphenols, and curcumin on delayed muscle soreness. Consistent data have not been reported from minor interventions with supplements such as antioxidants, L-carnitine, BCAA, allicin. Delayed musc- le soreness is an area that needs more study in athletes. There is a need for more studies examining these factors by considering more factors such as the severity of the damage, individual response, the dose-response relationship used, the duration of intake and the markers they are affected by. The aim of this review is to address nutritional interventions that are thought to be effective in the treatment and pre- vention of delayed muscle pain and to discuss the relationship between delayed muscle pain and nutrition.
Keywords: Nutrition, doms, delayed muscle soreness
Akut veya kronik olarak gerçekleştirilen fiziksel egzersizler bağışıklık sistemini ve
fonksiyonlarını etkilemektedir. Bağışıklık ile ilgili tüm bileşenler veya fonksiyonlar
sistemik, lokal veya mukozal olarak, doğumsal veya kazanılmış şekilde, hücresel veya
sitokinler ile pozitif veya negatif olarak yapılan egzersiz ile ilişkili olmaktadır. Benzer
şekilde diyetin içerdiği makro ve mikro besin öğeleri ile besin öğesi olmayan maddelerin de bağışıklık sistemini ve işlevlerini etkilediği bilinmektedir. Bu bileşenlerin hem alınan
miktarlarının hem de kalitelerinin bağışıklık fonksiyonlarını artırıcı veya baskılayıcı etkileri
olmaktadır. Bunların yanında posanın da bağırsak mikrobiyotasında özellikle kolonik
fermentasyon sırasında ortaya çıkan kısa zincirli yağ asitleri türü ve miktarı üzerindeki
düzenleyici etkileri de dolaylı olarak immün sistemi etkilemektedir. ...
Egzersiz sonrası gecikmiş kas ağrısı, akut kas ağrısına nazaran egzersizden sonraki ilk 24 saat içinde hissedilen, 1 ve 3 gün arasında pik yapan etkisi 5-7 gün sonra tamamen azalan bir ağrı türüdür. Gecikmiş kas ağrısına yönelik ilgi ve araştırmalar giderek artmaktadır. Gecikmiş kas ağrısı üzerinde farklı oluşum mekanizmaları bulunmakla birlikte oluşum mekanizmaları tam olarak açıklanamamıştır. Beslenme müdahaleleri gecikmiş kas ağrısını azaltmanın önleyici ve/veya tedavi edici yollarından biridir. Çalışmalar beslenme müdahalelerinin gecikmiş kas ağrısını azaltabileceğini bildirmiştir. Pek çok çalışma kafein, omega-3 yağ asitleri, taurin, polifenoller ve kurkuminin gecikmiş kas ağrısı üzerindeki etkisini bildirmiştir. Antioksidanlar, L-karnitin, BCAA, allisin gibi takviyeler ile yapılan küçük müdahalelerden ise tutarlı veriler bildirilmemiştir. Gecikmiş kas ağrısı sporcular üzerinde daha çok çalışmaya ihtiyaç duyulan bir alandır. Hasarın ciddiyeti, bireysel tepki,kullanılan doz- cevap ilişkisi, alım süresi ve etkilendikleri belirteçler gibi daha çok faktör dikkate alınarak bu faktörlerin incelendiği daha çok çalışmaya ihtiyaç vardır. Bu derlemenin amacı gecikmiş kas ağrısının tedavisi ve önlenmesinde etkili olabileceği düşünülen beslenme müdahalelerine değinmek ve gecikmiş kas ağrısı ile beslenme arasındaki ilişkiyi ele almaktır.
The aim of this study was to investigate the effects of oral administration of indomethacin on improving delayed onset muscle soreness) DOMS(. 20 healthy men were divided into two equal groups: experimental and control. The experimental group received 3 capsules of indomethacin (each capsule 25 mg) and control group received placebo daily. Before and 1, 24, 48 and 72 hours after the exercise protocol, the variables were measured. After the consumption of indomethacin or placebo capsules for 3 days, the exercise protocol was performed with 85% 1RM in four sets and every set until exhaustion. The analysis of variance with repeated measures was used to analyze the results. The results showed a significant reduction in CK and LDH enzyme concentration and pain and inflammation in the indomethacin group compared with the control group. Maximal isotonic force showed lower and significant reduction in the experimental group than the control group. Knee range of motion in the indomethacin group had less inflammation than the control group. It can be said that the consumption of indomethacin during recovery has beneficial effects on improving DOMS.
Sport nourishment is one of the most promptly and constantly evolving area, these dietary supplements are marketed for muscle building, recovery or to improve athletic performance. Consumers use nutraceuticals as fat burners and to find competitive edge in sports. These supplements may include plant extract, carbohydrates, proteins, etc. For elite sport person, energy expenditure during heavy drill may be enormous thus nutritive supplements or sports drink acts as an ergogenic aid in augmenting performance, recovery and improve rough training adaptations. Apart from regular consumption of nutraceuticals/drugs it is mandatory for a individual to maintain an energy balance through strategic food habit, prudent training and refueling. Apart from health benefits drugs can generate various side effects like hypertension, addiction, dependency on supplements, etc., so it is obligatory for the sport professionals to have through awareness of scientific value of articles and endorsements regarding nutraceuticals and workouts so as to keep themselves isolated from marketing puff.
Delayed onset muscle soreness (DOMS) following eccentric exercise is associated with increased inflammation which can be debilitating. Incorporation of long-chain omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids (LC n-3 PUFA), eicosapentaenoic acid, and docosahexaenoic acid into membrane phospholipids provides anti-inflammatory, proresolving, and analgesic effects. This systematic review aims to examine both the quality of studies and the evidence for LC n-3 PUFA in the attenuation of DOMS and inflammation following eccentric exercise, both which of course are empirically linked. The SCOPUS, Embase, and Web of Science electronic databases were searched to identify studies that supplemented fish oil for a duration of ≥7 days, which included DOMS outcomes following an eccentric exercise protocol. Fifteen (n = 15) studies met inclusion criteria. Eccentric exercise protocols varied from single to multijoint activities. Risk of bias, assessed using either the Cochrane Collaboration tool or the Risk of Bias in Nonrandomized Studies of Interventions tool, was judged as “unclear” or “medium,” respectively, for the majority
of outcomes. Furthermore, a custom 5-point quality assessment scale demonstrated that only one (n = 1) study satisfied current recommendations for investigating LC n-3 PUFA. In combination, this highlights widespread inappropriate design protocols among studies investigating the role of LC n-3 PUFA in eccentric exercise. Notwithstanding these issues, LC n-3 PUFA supplementation appears to have favorable effects on eccentric exercise-induced DOMS and inflammatory markers. However, the optimal LC n-3 PUFA supplemental dose, duration, and fatty acid composition will only become clear when study design issues are rectified and underpinned by appropriate hypotheses.
Nowadays, professional football players are generally expected to participate in more matches than before. Therefore, they may occasionally fail to show their best physical performance. Due to intense match schedules, appropriate recovery strategies are neccesitated to reduce post-match fatigue, to optimize the performance as quickly as possible and to minimize the risk of injury. Football requires some activities such as sprinting, changing direction, jumping, grabbing the ball as well as technical skills like dribbling, passing, shooting the ball. All of these activities lead to fatigue with risks of dehydration, drainage of glycogen storage, muscle injury and mental exhaustion. The amount of fatigue depends on many internal and /or external factors and influences recovery process. Recovery strategies are complex and many of the proposed methods are still controversial in football. Sleep, hydration, diet and cold water applications are the most evident strategies. Further studies are needed to clarify the factors those leading to and determining the level of fatigue to implement effective and individualized recovery strategies. ÖZ Profesyonel futbolda sporcuların günümüzde eskisine göre daha sık aralıklarla maça çıkması beklenmektedir. Bu nedenle fiziksel performanslarını tam olarak göstermekte zaman zaman başarısız olabilirler. Yoğun maç programları sırasında maç sonrası yorgunluğu hafifletmek, performansı en hızlı şekilde optimize etmek ve yaralanma riskini en aza indirmek için uygun toparlanma stratejilerine gereksinim vardır. Futbol sürat koşusu, yön değiştirme, zıplama, top kapma gibi aktivitelerin yanı sıra top sürme, pas verme, şut atma gibi teknik beceriler de gerektirir. Tüm bu aktiviteler dehidratasyon, glikojen depolarının boşalması, kas hasarları ve mental yorgunluk gibi riskler doğuran yorgunluğa neden olur. Futbol maçı sonrası yorgunluğun dozu içsel ve/veya dışsal birçok faktöre bağlıdır ve bu faktörler toparlanma süreci üzerinde etkilidir. Futbolda toparlanma stratejileri karmaşıktır ve önerilen yöntemlerin birçoğu halen tartışmalıdır. Uyku, hidrasyon, diyet ve soğuk su uygulaması etkinliği daha iyi gösterilmiş yöntemler arasında yer almaktadır. Etkin ve bireyselleştirilmiş toparlanma stratejileri geliştirmek için yorgunluk mekanizmasını ve düzeyini etkileyen diğer faktörleri belirlemek üzere daha fazla çalışmaya gerek duyulmaktadır.
Omega-3 fatty acids (ω-3 FA) are associated with cardiovascular health, brain function, reduction of inflammation, and several other physiological roles of importance to competitive athletes. The ω-3 FA status of National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA) Division I athletes has not been well-described. The purpose of this study was to evaluate the ω-3 FA status of NCAA Division I athletes using dietary and biological assessment methodology. Athletes from nine NCAA Division I institutions from throughout the U.S. (n = 1,528, 51% male, 34 sports represented, 19.9 ± 1.4 years of age) completed a food frequency questionnaire (FFQ) to assess ω-3 FA from diet and supplements. Omega-3 Index (O3i) was evaluated in a sub-set of these participants (n = 298, 55% male, 21 sports represented, 20.0 ± 1.3 years of age) using dried blood spot sampling. Only 6% (n = 93) of athletes achieved the Academy of Nutrition & Dietetics’ recommendation to consume 500 mg DHA+EPA per day. Use of ω-3 FA supplements was reported by 15% (n = 229) of participants. O3i was 4.33 ± 0.81%, with no participants meeting the O3i benchmark of 8% associated with the lowest risk of cardiovascular disease. Every additional weekly serving of fish or seafood was associated with an absolute O3i increase of 0.27%. Overall, sub-optimal ω-3 FA status was observed among a large, geographically diverse group of male and female NCAA Division I athletes. These findings may inform interventions aimed at improving ω-3 FA status of collegiate athletes. Further research on athlete-specific ω-3 FA requirements is needed.
Omega-3 fatty acids (ω-3 FA) play a number of important functions in health and human performance. While previous research has suggested that low ω-3 FA status is prevalent in the general population, little information about athletes' ω-3 FA status is available. The purpose of this study was to assess the omega-3 fatty acid (ω-3 FA) status of collegiate athletes. Dietary ω-3 FA intake was evaluated in athletes from nine NCAA Division I institutions (n=1,528, 51% male, 19.9 ± 1.4 years of age, 29 sports represented) via food frequency questionnaire. Omega-3 Index (O3i) was assessed using a dried blood spot sample in a subset of these athletes (n=228). Only 6% (n = 93) of athletes achieved the Academy of Nutrition & Dietetics' recommendation to consume 500 mg of the ω-3 FA's docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) and eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) per day. Use of ω-3 FA supplements was reported by 15% (n = 229) of participants. O3i was 4.33 ± 0.81%, with zero participants meeting the O3i benchmark of 8% associated with the lowest risk of cardiovascular disease. Every additional weekly serving of fish or seafood was associated with an absolute O3i increase of 0.27%. Overall, sub-optimal ω-3 FA status was observed among a large, geographically diverse group of male and female collegiate athletes. These findings may inform interventions aimed at improving ω-3 FA status of collegiate athletes. Further research on athlete-specific ω-3 FA requirements is needed.
ک مکمل غذایی است که آثار آنتی اکسیدانی و ضدالتهابی دارد. هدف از تحقیق حاضر تعیین (ALA) مقدمه و هدف: آلفا لیپوئیک اسید
قبل از یک جلسه فعالیت برونگراي شدید بر شاخص هاي منتخب مرتبط با کوفتگی تاخیري می باشد. ALA تاثیر مصرف هشت روزه
مواد و روش ها: ده مرد سالم جوان به صورت تصادفی، دوسویه کور و با گروه کنترل و با طرح متقاطع در این تحقیق شرکت کردند، تا
600 میلی گرم در روز) و یا دارونما ( 600 میلی گرم در روز گلوکز) متعاقب یک جلسه تمرین برونگراي غیر ) ALA تاثیر هشت روز مصرف
48 و 72 ساعت پس از فعالیت اخذ ، آشنا بررسی شود.نمونه هاي خونی در وضعیت پایه، هشت روز پس از مصرف مکمل، بلافاصله، 24
(ROM) ادم دور ران ها و دامنه حرکتی زانوها ،(VAS) شاخص درد بصري ،(CK) کراتین کیناز ،(TAC) گردید. ظرفیت آنتی اکسیدانی تام
در هر دو دوره مورد اندازه گیري قرار گرفتند.
شاخص آسیب عضلانی .(p= به طور معنی داري افزایش یافت ( 0.023 ALA در گروه TAC، یافته ها: هشت روز پس از مصرف مکمل
بلافاصله، 24 و 48 ساعت پس از فعالیت در هر دو گروه نسبت به قبل از فعالیت افزایش معنی دار نشان داد، اما 72 ساعت پس از ،(CK)
48 و 72 ساعت پس از فعالیت در گروه دارونما هم ،24،(VAS) درد عضلانی .(p< فعالیت فقط در گروه دارونما افزایش یافت ( 0.05
تغییر معنی دار درون گروهی یا بین گروهی .(p< افزایش معنی دار نشان داد ( 0.05 ALA نسبت به قبل از فعالیت و هم نسبت به گروه
.(p> مشاهده نشد ( 0.05 ROM در ارتباط با
قبل از فعالیت برونگرا توانسته است از طریق خواص آنتی ALA بحث و نتیجه گیري: به نظر می رسد مصرف هشت روزه مکمل
اکسیدانی و ضدالتهابی خود باعث کاهش درد، آسیب عضلانی و التهاب شود.
Exercise-induced muscle damage (EIMD) is characterized by symptoms that present both immediately and for up to 14 days after the initial exercise bout. The main consequence of EIMD for the athlete is the loss of skeletal muscle function and soreness. As such, numerous nutrients and functional foods have been examined for their potential to ameliorate the effects of EIMD and accelerate recovery, which is the purpose of many nutritional strategies for the athlete. However, the trade-off between recovery and adaptation is rarely considered. For example, many nutritional interventions described in this review target oxidative stress and inflammation, both thought to contribute to EIMD but are also crucial for the recovery and adaptation process. This calls into question whether long term administration of supplements and functional foods used to target EIMD is indeed best practice. This rapidly growing area of sports nutrition will benefit from careful consideration of the potential hormetic effect of long term use of nutritional aids that ameliorate muscle damage. This review provides a concise overview of what EIMD is, its causes and consequences and critically evaluates potential nutritional strategies to ameliorate EIMD. We present a pragmatic practical summary that can be adopted by practitioners and direct future research, with the purpose of pushing the field to better consider the fine balance between recovery and adaptation and the potential that nutritional interventions have in modulating this balance.
Delayed onset muscle soreness (DOMS) is a familiar experience for the elite or novice athlete. Symptoms can range from muscle tenderness to severe debilitating pain. The mechanisms, treatment strategies, and impact on athletic performance remain uncertain, despite the high incidence of DOMS. DOMS is most prevalent at the beginning of the sporting season when athletes are returning to training following a period of reduced activity. DOMS is also common when athletes are first introduced to certain types of activities regardless of the time of year. Eccentric activities induce micro-injury at a greater frequency and severity than other types of muscle actions. The intensity and duration of exercise are also important factors in DOMS onset. Up to six hypothesised theories have been proposed for the mechanism of DOMS, namely: lactic acid, muscle spasm, connective tissue damage, muscle damage, inflammation and the enzyme efflux theories. However, an integration of two or more theories is likely to explain muscle soreness. DOMS can affect athletic performance by causing a reduction in joint range of motion, shock attenuation and peak torque. Alterations in muscle sequencing and recruitment patterns may also occur, causing unaccustomed stress to be placed on muscle ligaments and tendons. These compensatory mechanisms may increase the risk of further injury if a premature return to sport is attempted.
A number of treatment strategies have been introduced to help alleviate the severity of DOMS and to restore the maximal function of the muscles as rapidly as possible. Nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs have demonstrated dosage-dependent effects that may also be influenced by the time of administration. Similarly, massage has shown varying results that may be attributed to the time of massage application and the type of massage technique used. Cryotherapy, stretching, homeopathy, ultrasound and electrical current modalities have demonstrated no effect on the alleviation of muscle soreness or other DOMS symptoms. Exercise is the most effective means of alleviating pain during DOMS, however the analgesic effect is also temporary. Athletes who must train on a daily basis should be encouraged to reduce the intensity and duration of exercise for 1–2 days following intense DOMS-inducing exercise. Alternatively, exercises targeting less affected body parts should be encouraged in order to allow the most affected muscle groups to recover. Eccentric exercises or novel activities should be introduced progressively over a period of 1 or 2 weeks at the beginning of, or during, the sporting season in order to reduce the level of physical impairment and/or training disruption. There are still many unanswered questions relating to DOMS, and many potential areas for future research.
It is well documented in both animal and human studies that unaccustomed, particularly eccentric, muscle exercise may cause damage of muscle fiber contractile and cytoskeletal components. These injuries typically include: Z-band streaming and dissolution, A-band disruption, disintegration of the intermediate filament system, and misalignment of the myofibrils. The mechanical basis for this damage is suggested to be due to the fiber strain magnitude rather than the absolute stress imposed on the fiber. We hypothesize that eccentric contraction-induced damage occurs early in the treatment period, i.e., within the first few minutes. The structural abnormalities predominate in the fast-twitch glycolytic fibers. In the final section of this paper, we hypothesize a damage scheme, based on the muscle fiber oxidative capacity as a determining factor.
Twenty untrained male volunteers were required to run downhill for 45 minutes on a motor driven treadmill to induce muscle soreness. The volunteers took diclofenac or placebo before and for 72 hours after two runs 10 weeks apart, in a randomised double blind crossover design. Subjective soreness was assessed before and at intervals up to 72 hours after each run; venous blood samples, collected at the same time intervals, were used to estimate serum activities of creatine kinase, lactate dehydrogenase and aspartate aminotransferase and serum concentrations of creatinine and urea. Subjective soreness and the biochemical parameters increased after both runs, although the serum enzyme response to the second run was reduced. Diclofenac had no influence on the serum biochemical response to downhill running. Although overall soreness was not affected by diclofenac, individual soreness measurements were reduced by diclofenac at the first period of the study. These results suggest that diclofenac does not influence muscle damage, but may slightly reduce the associated soreness.
Muscle ultrastructure and contractile properties were examined before and after a single bout of resistance exercise (8 sets of 8 repetitions at 80% of 1 repetition maximum). Eight untrained males performed the concentric (Con) phase of arm-curl exercise with one arm and the eccentric (Ecc) phase with the other arm. Needle biopsies were obtained from biceps brachii before exercise (Base), immediately postexercise from each arm (post-Con and post-Ecc), and 48 h postexercise from each arm (48 h-Con and 48 h-Ecc). Electron microscopy was used to quantify the presence of disrupted fibers in each sample. Analysis of variance revealed a greater (P < or = 0.05) proportion of disrupted fibers in post-Con, post-Ecc, 48 h-Con, and 48 h-Ecc samples compared with Base. Significantly more fibers were disrupted in post-Ecc (82%) and 48 h-Ecc (80%) samples compared with post-Con (33%) and 48 h-Con (37%), respectively. Voluntary and evoked strength measurements recovered to Base values within 24 h in the Con arm but remained depressed (P < or = 0.05) for 72-96 h in the Ecc arm. These data indicate that both the raising and lowering phases of weightlifting produced myofibrillar disruption, with the greatest disruption occurring during the lowering phase.
The aim of the present study was to investigate whether fish oil supplementation was able to modulate the acute-phase response to strenuous exercise. Twenty male runners were randomized to receive supplementation (n = 10) with 6.0 g fish oil daily, containing 3.6 g n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA), for 6 wk or to receive no supplementation (n = 10) before participating in The Copenhagen Marathon 1998. Blood samples were collected before the race, immediately after, and 1.5 and 3 h postexercise. The fatty acid composition in blood mononuclear cells (BMNC) differed between the fish oil-supplemented and the control group, showing incorporation of n-3 PUFA and less arachidonic acid in BMNC in the supplemented group. The plasma levels of tumor necrosis factor-alpha, interleukin-6, and transforming growth factor-beta(1) peaked immediately after the run, the increase being 3-, 92-, and 1.1-fold, respectively, compared with resting samples. The level of interleukin-1 receptor antagonist peaked 1.5 h after exercise, with the increase being 87-fold. However, the cytokine levels did not differ among the two groups. Furthermore, supplementation with fish oil did not influence exercise-induced increases in leucocytes and creatine kinase. In conclusion, 6 wk of fish oil supplementation had no influence on the acute-phase response to strenuous exercise.
The purpose of this study was to examine the effects of ibuprofen on delayed onset muscle soreness (DOMS), indirect markers of muscle damage and muscular performance. Nineteen subjects (their mean [+/- SD] age, height, and weight was 24.6 +/- 3.9 years, 176.2 +/- 11.1 cm, 77.3 +/- 18.7 kg) performed the eccentric leg curl exercise to induce muscle soreness in the hamstrings. Nine subjects took an ibuprofen pill of 400 mg every 8 hours within a period of 48 hours, whereas 10 subjects received a placebo randomly (double blind). White blood cells (WBCs) and creatine kinase (CK) were measured at pre-exercise, 4-6, 24, and 48 hours after exercise and maximal strength (1 repetition maximum). Vertical jump performance and knee flexion range of motion (ROM) were measured at pre-exercise, 24 and 48 hours after exercise. Muscle soreness increased (p < 0.05) in both groups after 24 and 48 hours, although the ibuprofen group yielded a significantly lower value (p < 0.05) after 24 hours. The WBC levels were significantly (p < 0.05) increased 4-6 hours postexercise in both groups with no significant difference (p > 0.05) between the 2 groups. The CK values increased (p < 0.05) in the placebo group at 24 and 48 hours postexercise, whereas no significant differences (p > 0.05) were observed in the ibuprofen group. The CK values of the ibuprofen group were lower (p < 0.05) after 48 hours compared with the placebo group. Maximal strength, vertical jump performance, and knee ROM decreased significantly (p < 0.05) after exercise and at 24 and 48 hours postexercise in both the placebo and the ibuprofen groups with no differences being observed (p > 0.05) between the 2 groups. The results of this study reveal that intake of ibuprofen can decrease muscle soreness induced after eccentric exercise but cannot assist in restoring muscle function.
We examined the influence of ibuprofen and acetaminophen on muscle neutrophil and macrophage concentrations after novel eccentric contractions.
Twenty-four males (25 +/- 3 yr) were divided into three groups that received the maximal over-the-counter dose of either ibuprofen (1200 mg x d-1), acetaminophen (4000 mg x d-1), or a placebo after eccentric contractions of the knee extensors. Biopsies from the vastus lateralis were taken before and 24 h after exercise. Inflammatory cells were quantified in muscle cross-sections using immunohistochemistry.
Macrophage concentrations were elevated by 1.5- to 2.5-fold (P < 0.05) at 24 h postexercise relative to preexercise concentrations, whereas neutrophil concentrations were not significantly elevated. Muscle inflammatory cell concentrations were unaffected by treatment with ibuprofen or acetaminophen when compared with placebo.
Maximal over-the-counter doses of ibuprofen or acetaminophen, when administered therapeutically, do not affect muscle concentrations of neutrophils or macrophages 24 h after a novel bout of eccentric contractions.
Delayed onset muscle soreness (DOMS) is a familiar experience for the elite or novice athlete. Symptoms can range from muscle tenderness to severe debilitating pain. The mechanisms, treatment strategies, and impact on athletic performance remain uncertain, despite the high incidence of DOMS. DOMS is most prevalent at the beginning of the sporting season when athletes are returning to training following a period of reduced activity. DOMS is also common when athletes are first introduced to certain types of activities regardless of the time of year. Eccentric activities induce micro-injury at a greater frequency and severity than other types of muscle actions. The intensity and duration of exercise are also important factors in DOMS onset. Up to six hypothesised theories have been proposed for the mechanism of DOMS, namely: lactic acid, muscle spasm, connective tissue damage, muscle damage, inflammation and the enzyme efflux theories. However, an integration of two or more theories is likely to explain muscle soreness. DOMS can affect athletic performance by causing a reduction in joint range of motion, shock attenuation and peak torque. Alterations in muscle sequencing and recruitment patterns may also occur, causing unaccustomed stress to be placed on muscle ligaments and tendons. These compensatory mechanisms may increase the risk of further injury if a premature return to sport is attempted.A number of treatment strategies have been introduced to help alleviate the severity of DOMS and to restore the maximal function of the muscles as rapidly as possible. Nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs have demonstrated dosage-dependent effects that may also be influenced by the time of administration. Similarly, massage has shown varying results that may be attributed to the time of massage application and the type of massage technique used. Cryotherapy, stretching, homeopathy, ultrasound and electrical current modalities have demonstrated no effect on the alleviation of muscle soreness or other DOMS symptoms. Exercise is the most effective means of alleviating pain during DOMS, however the analgesic effect is also temporary. Athletes who must train on a daily basis should be encouraged to reduce the intensity and duration of exercise for 1-2 days following intense DOMS-inducing exercise. Alternatively, exercises targeting less affected body parts should be encouraged in order to allow the most affected muscle groups to recover. Eccentric exercises or novel activities should be introduced progressively over a period of 1 or 2 weeks at the beginning of, or during, the sporting season in order to reduce the level of physical impairment and/or training disruption. There are still many unanswered questions relating to DOMS, and many potential areas for future research.
Despite progress that has been made in the treatment of asthma, the prevalence and burden of this disease has continued to increase. While pharmacological treatment of asthma is usually highly effective, medications may have significant side effects or exhibit tachyphylaxis. Alternative therapies for treatment that reduce the dose requirements of pharmacological interventions would be beneficial, and could potentially reduce the public health burden of this disease. Ecological and temporal data suggest that dietary factors may have a role in recent increases in the prevalence of asthma. A possible contributing factor to the increased incidence of asthma in Western societies may be the consumption of a proinflammatory diet. In the typical Western diet, 20- to 25-fold more omega (n)-6 polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA) than n-3 PUFA are consumed, which promotes the release of proinflammatory arachidonic acid metabolites (leukotrienes and prostanoids). This review will analyze the evidence for the health effects of n-3 PUFA in asthma- and exercise-induced bronchoconstriction (EIB). While clinical data evaluating the effect of omega-3 fatty acid supplementation in asthma has been equivocal, it has recently been shown that fish oil supplementation, rich in n-3 PUFA, reduces airway narrowing, medication use, and proinflammatory mediator generation in nonatopic elite athletes with EIB. These findings are provocative and suggest that dietary fish oil supplementation may be a viable treatment modality and/or adjunct therapy in asthma and EIB.
Eccentric activities are an important component of physical conditioning and everyday activities. Delayed onset muscle soreness (DOMS) can result from strenuous eccentric tasks and can be a limiting factor in motor performance for several days after exercise. An efficacious method of treatment for DOMS would enhance athletic performance and hasten the return to activities of daily living. The purpose of this study was to identify a treatment method which could assist in the recovery of DOMS. In the selection of treatment methods, emphasis was directed toward treatments that could be rendered independently by an individual, therefore making the treatment valuable to an athletic trainer in team setting. DOMS was induced in 70 untrained volunteers via 15 sets of 15 eccentric contractions of the forearm extensor muscles on a Lido isokinetic dynamometer. All subjects performed a pilot exercise bout for a minimum of 9 weeks before data collection to assure that DOMS would be produced. Data were collected on 15 dependent variables: active and passive wrist flexion and extension, forearm girth, limb volume, visual analogue pain scale, muscle soreness index, isometric strength, concentric and eccentric wrist total work, concentric and eccentric angle of peak torque. Data were collected on six occasions: pre- and post-induced DOMS, 20 minutes after treatment, and 24, 48, and 72 hours after treatment. Subjects were randomly assigned to 1 of 7 groups (6 treatment and 1 control). Treatments included a nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drug, high velocity concentric muscle contractions on an upper extremity ergometer, ice massage, 10-minute static stretching, topical Amica montana ointment, and sublingual A. montana pellets. A 7 x 6 ANOVA with repeated measures on time was performed on the delta values of each of the 15 dependent variables. Significant main effects (p < .05) were found for all of the dependent variables on time only. There were no significant differences between treatments. Therefore, we conclude that none of the treatments were effective in abating the signs and symptoms of DOMS. In fact, the NSAID and A. montana treatments appeared to impede recovery of muscle function.
To determine if there is a correlation between the degree of delayed increase in signal intensity (SI) of muscle after exercise on magnetic resonance (MR) images and the amount of ultrastructural (ULS) injury and delayed-onset muscle soreness (DOMS), MR imaging-guided muscle biopsy was performed to obtain tissue from the legs of nine sedentary subjects 48 hours after downhill running on a treadmill. The degree of soreness was subjectively graded. T1-weighted, spin-density, T2-weighted, and short inversion time inversion-recovery images were obtained before and after biopsy, at 48 and 96 hours after exercise, respectively. The delayed SI increase of muscle on images obtained before biopsy was subjectively graded and measured. The degree of ULS injury was determined with electron micrographs. Serum creatine kinase levels were obtained before and up to 144 hours after exercise at 24-hour intervals. The measured SI, SI grades, and DOMS grades were correlated with the degree of ULS injury. Linear regression analysis revealed poor correlation between the DOMS grades and the degree of ULS injury and good correlation between the SI grade and the degree of ULS injury.
It is well documented in animal and human research that unaccustomed eccentric muscle action of sufficient intensity and/or duration causes disruption of connective and/or contractile tissue. In humans, this appears to be associated with the sensation of delayed onset muscle soreness (DOMS). During the late 1970's, it was proposed that this sensation of soreness might be associated with the acute inflammatory response. However, subsequent research failed to substantiate this theory. The present article suggests that the results of much of the research concerning DOMS reflect events typically seen in acute inflammation. Similarities between the two events include: the cardinal symptoms of pain, swelling, and loss of function; evidence of cellular infiltrates, especially the macrophage; biochemical markers such as increased lysosomal activity and increased circulating levels of some of the acute phase proteins; and histological changes during the initial 72 h. In the final section of this paper, a theoretical sequence of events is proposed, based on research involving acute inflammation and DOMS.
Immediately following unaccustomed exercise, particularly that with eccentric contractions, there is evidence of injury to skeletal muscle fibers: a) disruption of the normal myofilament structures in some sarcomeres, observable with both light and electron microscope and b) loss of intramuscular proteins (e.g., creatine kinase enzymes) into the plasma, indicating damage to sarcolemma. This pathology is probably responsible for the temporary reductions in muscle force and delayed-onset soreness that can occur following eccentric exercise. The mechanisms underlying this injury are not known, although loss of intracellular Ca2+ homeostasis could play a primary role. In other experimental muscle injury models, elevated [Ca2+]i appears to cause release of muscle enzymes through activation of phospholipase A2, which in turn could induce injury to sarcolemma through production of leukotrienes and prostaglandins, through free O2 radical formation (in the subsequent lipoxygenase and cyclooxygenase reactions), and/or through release of detergent lysophospholipids. On the other hand, the mechanism responsible for the rapid damage to myofibrils caused by increased [Ca2+]i is unknown. Regardless of the cause(s), the initial and early events in the injury process are autogenetic; i.e., they are indigenous to the muscle cells and occur before phagocytic cells enter the injury site.
Since the time sequence of exercise-induced muscle soreness corresponds well with the time sequence of exercise-induced morphological changes in animal skeletal muscle, it has been suggested that muscle soreness is related to an inflammatory response. Prostaglandins are assumed to play a role in the inflammatory process. The influence of a cyclo-oxygenase-inhibiting drug (flurbiprofen) on the subjective symptoms of soreness and eventual structural changes was investigated in six male subjects. The subjects performed one concentric and two eccentric work bouts of 30 min at 80% of the individual maximal work load on the bicycle ergometer. Muscle biopsies taken before, immediately after, and 24 h after work were used to examine structural, ultrastructural changes as well as for assessment of glycogen content. Plasma levels of muscle enzymes and subjective soreness were determined at regular intervals. Eccentric work elicited muscle soreness in all subjects: however, the soreness was consistently less in the second eccentric trial. No significant enzyme release was noticed in any of the subjects, whereas ultrastructural changes were restricted to the mitochondria. No influence of flurbiprofen on subjective soreness was noticed. After both eccentric trials muscle glycogen was lower 24 h after work compared to the content immediately after work. The results suggest that eccentric exercise interferes with glycogen synthesis and that prostaglandins do not play a major role in exercise-induced muscle soreness.
In 11 untrained subjects (mean age = 22.5 yr) serum creatine kinase (CK) was measured before and after two types of knee extension exercise regimens. One regimen consisted of 35 10-s maximal isometric contractions separated by a 20-s rest (10:20). This regimen provided adequate recovery time between trials so that strength loss amounted to only 23.4% over the 35 contractions. The other exercise regimen consisted of the same 35 maximal isometric contractions but separated by 5 s between trials (10:5), resulting in a 54.6% strength loss. Muscle fiber type was also determined to assess the relationship of fiber type with serum CK and strength loss. The fast-twitch (FT)/slow-twitch (ST) area ratio correlated with resting CK. Baseline strength correlated with strength loss over the 10:5 condition but not with strength loss over the 10:20 condition suggesting different mechanisms responsible for strength decline for the two exercise conditions. Although a greater strength loss was found for the 10:5 condition, serum CK levels were significantly higher following the 10:20 exercise. An analysis of covariance showed that the mean strength level over the 35 contractions was significantly related to CK increase in the two exercise conditions. Results suggest that mechanical factors associated with high tension levels may be responsible for CK efflux following isometric exercise.
The consequences of a single bout of heavy eccentric exercise with and without repeated concentric exercises on MRI images, serum CK levels and markers of inflammation were studied. Two groups (ECC and ECCON), each consisting of 18 male volunteers, performed 70 eccentic contractions of the quadriceps femoris muscle. The study group (ECCON) performed additional concentric contractions on a dynamometer (Cybex II+) one day before and two hours, 1, 2, 3, 6 and 9 days after eccentric loading. Serum levels of creatine kinase (CK) were examined as a function of time, and correlated with measurements of magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) of the involved muscle groups. T2-weighted images of the thigh muscles were studied. Serum C-reactive protein, complement factors C3c and C4, haptoglobin and transferrin were measured as markers of inflammation. Additional concentric contractions (ECCON group) significantly increased CK, compared to the ECC group. However, it has no apparent effect on MRI signal intensity changes, which were of equal magnitude in the loaded vastus intermedius and deep parts of the vastus lateralis in both groups. Likewise, the serum markers of inflammation of the exercised muscles appeared to be absent. Based on MRI-images, additional concentric contractions had no statistically significant effect on muscle damage and breakdown of connective tissue. The five-fold increase in CK in the ECCON group could be a reflection of "massaging out" of the CK from the muscles into the circulation by additional concentric exercises. However, it could also be an indication for a superior sensitivity of assessing muscle fiber damage in comparison to the MRI.
1. In order to study injury-related changes in muscle stiffness, injury to the elbow flexors of thirteen human subjects was induced by a regimen of eccentric exercise. 2. Passive stiffness over an intermediate range of elbow angles was measured with a device which held the relaxed arm of the subject in the horizontal plane and stepped it through the range of elbow angles from 90 deg to near full extension at 180 deg. The relation between static torque and elbow angle was quite linear over the first 50 deg and was taken as stiffness. 3. Stiffness over this range of angles more than doubled immediately after exercise and remained elevated for about 4 days, and may result from low level myofibrillar activation induced by muscle stretch. 4. Arm swelling was biphasic; arm circumference increased by about 3% immediately after exercise, fell back toward normal, then increased by as much as 9% and remained elevated for as long as 9 days. 5. Ultrasound imaging showed most of the swelling immediately following the exercise to be localized to the flexor muscle compartment; subsequent swelling involved other tissue compartments as well. 6. Muscle strength declined by almost 40% after the exercise and recovery was only slight 10 days later; the half-time of recovery appeared to be as long as 5-6 weeks.
Twenty subjects were randomly assigned to: 1) prophylactic ibuprofen (N = 5) [400 mg TID initiated 4 h before collection of baseline data and strenuous eccentric exercise bout], 2) therapeutic ibuprofen (N = 5) [400 mg TID initiated 24 h after baseline], 3) placebo (N = 5), or 4) control (N = 5). Muscle soreness perception, plasma creatine kinase, knee extensor torque, and EMG of the quadriceps were evaluated at baseline, 24, and 48 h. The prophylactic ibuprofen group had between 40 and 50% less muscle soreness perception and significantly less decline in isometric, concentric, and eccentric torque at 24 h compared with the other three groups (P < 0.05). At 48 h both prophylactic and therapeutic ibuprofen had significantly less muscle soreness perception and decline in torque than the placebo and control groups (P < 0.05). There was no difference between the amount of muscle damage between the four groups at 24 and 48 h. Vastus medialis and lateralis EMG magnitude decreased across time. Vastus lateralis EMG magnitude had significantly less decline from baseline for prophylactic ibuprofen compared with the other three treatments at 24 h, while both prophylactic and therapeutic ibuprofen had significantly less decline at 48 h. These data indicate that a prophylactic dosage of ibuprofen does not prevent CK release from muscle, but does decrease muscle soreness perception and may assist in restoring muscle function.
There is a large inter-subject variability in serum creatine kinase (CK) response after eccentric exercise. This study examined and compared the variability of CK activity, other serum protein increases (aspartate aminotransferase, alanine aminotransferase, lactate dehydrogenase, aldolase, myoglobin),changes in muscle damage indicators (maximal isometric force: MIF, relaxed and flexed elbow joint angle: RANG and FANG, circumference: CIR, and muscle soreness level: SOR), and changes in magnetic resonance (MR) images. Ten male subjects (21.7 +/- 1.6 yrs) performed 24 maximal eccentric actions of the elbow flexors, and measurements except MR images were taken immediately before and after, and for 10 days after exercise. MR images were taken 7 days after exercise. A large variability in peak CK response (236 - 25,244 IU.I(-1) was found among subjects. Spearman rank-order correlation coefficients (r) revealed significant correlations of peak CK with peak serum protein levels (r = 0.79-0.95), peak changes in MIF (r = 0.73-0.79), RANG (r = 0.69), and CIR (r = 0.91). The higher the peak CK levels, the more profound the abnormality in the MR images and the larger the changes in MR signal intensity (r = 0.90-0.94). It is concluded that the large variability in CK response after exercise seems to be related to the variability in exercise-induced muscle damage.
To examine the efficacy of naproxen sodium for exercise-induced dysfunction, muscle injury, and soreness.
Double-blind crossover.
Community.
Eight young adult, healthy males.
Ten sets of seven to 10 eccentric actions with each quadriceps femoris with a load equal to 85% of the eccentric one repetition maximum (1RM) followed by 10 days of naproxen sodium or placebo.
Concentric 1RM; cross-sectional area (CSA) and spin-spin relaxation time (T2) of quadriceps femoris, and subjective rating of thigh soreness pre- and 1, 4, and 10 days postexercise; subjective rating of ability to sleep or perform morning activities daily during recovery.
Concentric 1RM was reduced by (p = 0.0001) 41% day 1 of recovery; by day 4 of recovery, it had increased (p = 0.0145) to 24% below baseline in the drug trial, but did not change for the placebo trial. By day 10 of recovery, concentric 1RM was 16 and 26% below (p = 0.0001) baseline for the drug and placebo trials, respectively. Quadriceps femoris CSA and T2 were increased (p < or = 0.0250) after exercise, with the greatest (p = 0.0008) responses evident on day 4 of recovery. At this time, each variable showed greater increases (p < or = 0.0129) for the placebo than for the drug trial 8 vs. 5 and 26 vs. 15%, respectively). The CSA of the quadriceps femoris showing an elevated T2 was 27 and 37% greater (p < or = 0.0085) for the placebo than for the drug trial on days 1 and 4 of recovery, respectively. The percentage of quadriceps femoris CSA with an elevated T2 (40%) was 1/3 greater (p < or = 0.0138) for the placebo than for the drug trial on these days. Thigh soreness was lower (day 4, p = 0.0087) and the ability to sleep or perform morning activities was less (p < or = 0.0030) compromised (days 3 and 4) during recovery in the drug trial.
The results suggest that naproxen sodium improved recovery after eccentrically biased exercise, probably by attenuating expression of the inflammatory response to muscle injury.
The time courses of muscle compartmental swelling and passive stiffness change were measured to determine whether muscle compartmental swelling accounted for increased stiffness.
Eleven untrained female college students exercised eccentrically by lowering a weight with their elbow flexors. Measurements of muscle compartment volume, stiffness, relaxed elbow angle, circumference, and pain were recorded before exercise, immediately after exercise, and 1-5, 7, 9, and 11 d after exercise. Muscle compartment volume was calculated from cross-sectional ultrasound images taken along the upper arm. Stiffness was measured using a device that extended the elbow and recorded the torque required to hold the forearm at successive angles.
Elbow flexor volume increased gradually to peak on the fourth day (26.1 +/- 4.3%, P < 0.05) and then decreased to baseline values over days 7-11. Stiffness increased immediately after exercise (59.9 +/- 14.1%, P < 0.05) and remained at or above this level until decreasing to pre-exercise levels over days 7-11.
This suggests that muscle swelling does not account for the sudden increase in stiffness of the elbow flexor muscles within the first 48 h after exercise but may play a role in the subsequent time course of stiffness.
Unaccustomed exercise is associated with an elevated plasma creatine kinase (CK), myofibrillar inflammation, and delayed onset muscle soreness (DOMS). Nonsteroidal antiinflammatory drugs (NSAID) may attenuate DOMS and indirect indices of inflammation in humans.
We studied the effects of an NSAID (naproxen sodium (500 mg, 2 times a day for 48 h)) taken before and after resistance exercise in eight healthy, moderately trained men in a randomized, double-blind trial. The exercise consisted of unilateral knee concentric/eccentric weight lifting with 6 sets x 10 repetitions at 80-85% of the 1 repetition maximal contraction. Muscle biopsies of each vastus lateralis (EX = exercised/REST = control) were taken 24 h after exercise for immunohistochemical staining of inflammatory cells (leukocyte common antigen). At 24 and 48 h postexercise, we also determined DOMS, plasma CK activity, and knee extensor muscle torque.
Exercise resulted in an increased CK activity at +24 and +48 h (vs preexercise: P < 0.01), with no treatment effect. There were no treatment effects for any of the measured variables except for a return of voluntary knee extension torque to baseline by +48 h postexercise for NSAID treatment (P < 0.05).
NSAID administration did not alter CK rise, muscle force deficit at 24 h postexercise, nor perceived muscle pain. In addition, the increased CK at 24 h postexercise was not associated with an acute myofibrillar inflammatory cell infiltrate in moderately trained men after resistance exercise.
Stretch-induced muscle injuries or strains, muscle contusions and delayed-onset muscle soreness (DOMS) are common muscle problems in athletes. Anti-inflammatory treatment is often used for the pain and disability associated with these injuries. The most recent studies on nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) in strains and contusions suggest that the use of NSAIDs can result in a modest inhibition of the initial inflammatory response and its symptoms. However, this may be associated with some small negative effects later in the healing phase. Corticosteroids have generally been shown to adversely affect the healing of these acute injuries. Animal studies have suggested that anabolic steroids may actually aid in the healing process, but clinical studies are not yet available and the exact role of these drugs has yet to be determined. Studies on anti-inflammatory treatment of DOMS have yielded conflicting results. However, the effect of NSAIDs on DOMS appears small at best. Future research may have to focus on different aspects of these injuries as the emphasis on anti-inflammatory treatment has yielded somewhat disappointing results.
To investigate the efficacy of commonly available analgesics in the management of delayed-onset muscle soreness over an 11-day period.
Double-blind, placebo-controlled randomized trial.
University laboratory.
Sixty healthy volunteers (30 men, 30 women) with no current arm pain or pathology completed the experimental procedure.
Subjects were randomly allocated to one of five experimental groups: control; placebo; aspirin (900 mg); codeine (60 mg); and paracetamol (1000 mg) (n = 12 in all groups). Delayed soreness was induced in the nondominant elbow flexors using a standardized exercise protocol of repeated eccentric contractions.
Pain (visual analogue scale; McGill pain questionnaire [MPQ]), range of extension, flexion and resting angle (universal goniometer), and mechanical pain threshold (pressure algometer). Measurements were taken before and after drug administration each day, except for the MPQ, which was completed on the first and third days of the experiment.
Analysis of results using repeated-measures analysis of variance and relevant post hoc tests provided no evidence of the effectiveness of any of the preparations.
There is no beneficial effect from the medications, at least at the doses stated, in the management of delayed-onset muscle soreness.
The purpose of this study was to compare changes in muscle damage indicators following 24 maximal eccentric actions of the elbow flexors (Max-ECC) between the arms that had been previously trained either eccentrically or concentrically for 8 wk.
Fifteen subjects performed three sets of 10 repetitions of eccentric training (ECC-T) with one arm and concentric training (CON-T) with the other arm once a week for 8 wk using a dumbbell representing 50% of maximal isometric force of the elbow flexors (MIF) determined at the elbow joint of 90 degrees (1.57 rad). The dumbbell was lowered from a flexed (50 degrees, 0.87 rad) to an extended elbow position (180 degrees, 3.14 rad) in 3 s for ECC-T, and lifted from the extended to the flexed position in 3 s for CON-T. Max-ECC was performed 4 wk after CON-T and 6 wk after ECC-T. Changes in MIF, range of motion (ROM), upper arm circumference (CIR), muscle soreness (SOR), and plasma creatine kinase (CK) activity were compared between the ECC-T and CON-T arms.
The first ECC-T session produced larger decreases in MIF and ROM, and larger increases in CIR and SOR compared with CON-T. CK increased significantly (P < 0.01) and peaked 4 d after the first training session, but did not increase in the following sessions. All measures changed significantly (P < 0.01) following Max-ECC; however, the changes were not significantly different between ECC-T and CON-T arms.
These results showed that ECC-T did not mitigate the magnitude of muscle damage more than CON-T, and CON-T did not exacerbate muscle damage.
The effect of indomethacin on the development of delayed onset muscle soreness (DOMS) and localized sensitive region produced by eccentric exercise was examined in lightly anesthetized rabbits (n=12, 2.0-3.3 kg). Repeated eccentric contractions of the gastrocnemius (GS) muscle were made by manual extensions during the tetanic contractions induced by electrical stimulation of the tibial nerve. The development of DOMS was confirmed by evoked reflex EMG in the biceps femoris (BF) muscle elicited by a quantitative manual extension of the GS muscle. The distribution of thresholds for the evoked BF EMG was measured by focal electrical stimulations of the GS muscle. Indomethacin (5 mg/kg in 2% sodium bicarbonate) or a vehicle was injected subcutaneously before, during, and after the exercise (a total of 60 mg/kg in 12 doses). A clear ropy taut band was palpated at the GS muscle on the second day after the exercise and a localized sensitive region for evoked BF EMG was detected at the depth of the fascia of the band in the exercise and vehicle groups, whereas no such phenomena appeared in the control and indomethacin groups. The palpable band and sensitive region disappeared on the seventh day after the exercise. That indomethacin inhibits the development of DOMS and the localized sensitive region suggests that a sensitization of polymodal-type nociceptors in the fascia mediated by prostaglandins is a possible mechanism for the development of DOMS and the localized sensitive region.
Fish oils (FO) have been shown to modulate the inflammatory response through alteration of the eicosanoid pathway. Isoflavones (ISO) appear to reduce the inflammatory pathway through their role as a tyrosine kinase inhibitor. Delayed onset muscle soreness (DOMS) develops after intense exercise and has been associated with an inflammatory response. Therefore, we hypothesized that physical parameters associated with DOMS could be decreased via the modulation of the inflammatory response by supplementing subjects with either FO or ISO.
22 subjects were recru