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Acute compensatory eating following exercise is associated with implicit hedonic wanting for food
Abstract
The efficacy of exercise to promote weight loss could potentially be undermined by its influence on explicit or implicit processes of liking and wanting for food which in turn alter food preference. The present study was designed to examine hedonic and homeostatic mechanisms involved in the acute effects of exercise on food intake. 24 healthy female subjects were recruited to take part in two counterbalanced activity sessions; 50 min of high intensity (70% max heart rate) exercise (Ex) or no exercise (NEx). Subjective appetite sensations, explicit and implicit hedonic processes, food preference and energy intake (EI) were measured immediately before and after each activity session and an ad libitum test meal. Two groups of subjects were identified in which exercise exerted different effects on compensatory EI and food preference. After exercise, compensators (C) increased their EI, rated the food to be more palatable, and demonstrated increased implicit wanting. Compensators also showed a preference for high-fat sweet food compared with non-compensators (NC), independent of the exercise intervention. Exercise-induced changes in the hedonic response to food could be an important consideration in the efficacy of using exercise as a means to lose weight. An enhanced implicit wanting for food after exercise may help to explain why some people overcompensate during acute eating episodes. Some individuals could be resistant to the beneficial effects of exercise due to a predisposition to compensate for exercise-induced energy expenditure as a result of implicit changes in food preferences.
... Other studies using within-subjects designs have also predominately found no group-level differences in consumption after exercise compared to consumption after rest [15,16]. For example, in one study, participant completed two laboratory sessions, one-week apart [16]. ...
... Other studies using within-subjects designs have also predominately found no group-level differences in consumption after exercise compared to consumption after rest [15,16]. For example, in one study, participant completed two laboratory sessions, one-week apart [16]. The two sessions involved cycling on a stationary bicycle for 50 min (exercise condition) or reading quietly for 50 min (no-exercise condition) and then eating lunch in the laboratory. ...
... Once-per-day sampling was chosen over sampling multiple times per day to minimise participant burden and ensure good compliance over this longer duration [22]. Previous laboratory research has produced mixed findings for compensatory eating, and there is evidence of variability in post-exercise eating behaviour (e.g., [16,17]) suggesting that people may only compensate some of the time. Thus, although we hypothesised that, across days, participants would eat more unhealthily on exercise days compared to non-exercise days on average, we also expected some within-and between-person variability. ...
There is considerable variability in how successful people are in losing weight via exercise programs. Experimental research suggests that greater food intake after exercise may be one factor underlying this variability, but no studies have assessed patterns of post-exercise eating behaviour over time in naturalistic settings. Thus, we aimed to assess how exercise and contextual factors (e.g., hunger, presence of others) influence the healthiness and amount of food eaten after exercise in two daily diary studies. In Study 1, participants (n = 48) reported their food intake and exercise daily for 28 days. For each meal, they provided a brief description of the food(s) eaten which were then categorised as healthy, unhealthy, or mixed (neither healthy nor unhealthy) by two independent coders. Study 2 used the same method, but participants (n = 55) also reported the portion size of each meal. Hierarchical linear modelling showed that in Study 1, contrary to expectations, post-exercise meals were less likely to be unhealthy (relative to mixed) than were random meals from non-exercise days (OR = 0.63, p = .011), and that participants ate proportionally fewer unhealthy meals on exercise days compared to non-exercise days (b = -4.27, p = .004). Study 2 replicated these findings, and also found that participants consumed larger meals after exercise in comparison to random meals from non-exercise days (b = 0.25, p < .001). Participants were not consistently engaging in compensatory eating by eating less healthily after exercise compared to on non-exercise days, but they did eat larger portions post-exercise. This work highlights the need for naturalistic methods of assessing compensatory eating, and has the potential to facilitate development of strategies to improve health behaviour regulation.
... Liking and wanting can be further differentiated into implicit and explicit processes, corresponding with the extent to which these drivers of food choice are available to conscious introspection (27,30). Finlayson and colleagues conducted a series of experiments demonstrating the differentiation between implicit and explicit liking and wanting and their relative contributions to food choice (30,31). In 1 study, the authors found that enhanced implicit wanting for food stimuli was associated with compensatory eating after an exercise bout, but hunger and explicit liking were not (31). ...
... Finlayson and colleagues conducted a series of experiments demonstrating the differentiation between implicit and explicit liking and wanting and their relative contributions to food choice (30,31). In 1 study, the authors found that enhanced implicit wanting for food stimuli was associated with compensatory eating after an exercise bout, but hunger and explicit liking were not (31). This demonstrates that while explicit liking for foods might be considered a main driver of food choice and consumption, implicit processes may play a greater role in ingestive behavior. ...
... Griffioen-Roose and colleagues tested the effects of preloads varying in protein content and taste on ad libitum energy intake at a subsequent lunch buffet consisting of foods varying in protein content (high/low) and taste (sweet/savory) (32). In addition, they administered a computerized test to assess implicit and explicit components of food reward (31). In that study, both food intake and choice correlated with explicit and implicit processes but in differing amounts. ...
Background:
Since 2005, the Dietary Guidelines for Americans have recommended consuming at least half of total grains as whole grains (WGs) for optimal health benefits; however, consumption of WGs falls far short of recommended amounts.
Objective:
This study aimed to evaluate the effect of mere exposure to WGs on liking, acceptability, and consumption of WG foods and to determine if exposure to WG would influence liking and wanting for other foods varying in fat content and sweet taste.
Methods:
Healthy, self-identified low WG consumers (n = 45) were randomly assigned to either a 6-wk WG intervention or a refined grain (RG) control condition during which they received a weekly market basket of grain products to incorporate into daily meals and snacks. Consumption of grain products was measured by weekly logs and weigh-backs. A sensory evaluation protocol was conducted at baseline and week 6 to evaluate changes in perception of grain products. Computer tasks designed to measure liking and wanting for other foods varying in high/low-fat content and sweet/savory taste were also completed at baseline and week 6.
Results:
Participants in the WG group significantly increased WG consumption. Exposure to WG products resulted in improved ratings of liking, flavor, texture, and willingness to include WG in the regular diet. No significant changes in liking or wanting for foods representing high-fat sweet (HFSW), low-fat sweet (LFSW), high-fat savory (HFSA), or low-fat savory (LFSA) categories were found in the WG group. In contrast, exposure to RG foods resulted in an increased explicit wanting for HFSW and LFSW and a decreased wanting for HFSA foods.
Conclusions:
Mere exposure to WG foods represents a feasible and easily applied behavioral strategy for increasing consumption of WGs. Encouraging consumers to focus on enjoyment of the taste may be more effective than emphasizing the health benefits of WG consumption. This trial was registered at clinicaltrials.gov as NCT01403857.
... Sunderland, King, Miyashita, & Stensel, 2012). While the majority of papers included young recreationally-active males (Alajmi et al., 2016;Balaguera-Cortes et al., 2011;Becker et al., 2012;Beer et al., 2020;Bornath et al., 2023;Broom et al., 2007Broom et al., , 2017Deighton et al., 2013Deighton et al., , 2014Douglas et al., 2017;Finlayson et al., 2009;Hagobian et al., 2013;Hazell et al., 2017;Holliday & Blannin, 2017;Imbeault et al., 1997;Islam et al., 2017;Kelly et al., 2012;King et al., 1994King et al., , 1997King et al., , 2017King, Miyashita, et al., 2010;King, Wasse, Ewens, et al., 2011;Martins et al., 2007;McCarthy et al., 2023;Metcalfe et al., 2015;Panissa et al., 2016;Shorten et al., 2009;Ueda, Yoshikawa, Katsura, Usui, Nakao, & Fujimoto, 2009;Vanderheyden et al., 2020;Vatansever-Ozen et al., 2011;Wasse, Sunderland, King, Batterham, & Stensel, 2012;Wasse, Sunderland, King, Miyashita, & Stensel, 2012), there were some studies that included young or middleaged females (Alajmi et al., 2016;Beer et al., 2020;Douglas et al., 2017;Finlayson et al., 2009;Hagobian et al., 2013;Halliday et al., 2021;Hallworth et al., 2017;Hazell et al., 2017;Howe et al., 2016;Kamemoto et al., 2022;King et al., 1996;Larson-Meyer et al., 2012;Martins et al., 2007Martins et al., , 2015McCarthy et al., 2023;Moniz et al., 2023), middleaged men , as well as individuals experiencing overweight/obesity Hagobian et al., 2009;Holmstrup et al., 2013;Hopkins et al., 2014;Larsen et al., 2017;Metcalfe et al., 2015;Sim et al., 2014;Tobin et al., 2021;Unick et al., 2010). About half the studies demonstrated a nonsignificant change in acylated ghrelin with values ranging from ~1% to 20% (Balaguera-Cortes et al., 2011;Hagobian et al., 2013;King, Wasse, Ewens, et al., 2011;Larsen et al., 2019a;McCarthy et al., 2023;Panissa et al., 2016;Sim et al., 2014;Unick et al., 2010) and one study demonstrated an ~13% increase (Larson-Meyer et al., 2012) though we cannot rationalize this. ...
... Sunderland, King, Miyashita, & Stensel, 2012). While the majority of papers included young recreationally-active males (Alajmi et al., 2016;Balaguera-Cortes et al., 2011;Becker et al., 2012;Beer et al., 2020;Bornath et al., 2023;Broom et al., 2007Broom et al., , 2017Deighton et al., 2013Deighton et al., , 2014Douglas et al., 2017;Finlayson et al., 2009;Hagobian et al., 2013;Hazell et al., 2017;Holliday & Blannin, 2017;Imbeault et al., 1997;Islam et al., 2017;Kelly et al., 2012;King et al., 1994King et al., , 1997King et al., , 2017King, Miyashita, et al., 2010;King, Wasse, Ewens, et al., 2011;Martins et al., 2007;McCarthy et al., 2023;Metcalfe et al., 2015;Panissa et al., 2016;Shorten et al., 2009;Ueda, Yoshikawa, Katsura, Usui, Nakao, & Fujimoto, 2009;Vanderheyden et al., 2020;Vatansever-Ozen et al., 2011;Wasse, Sunderland, King, Batterham, & Stensel, 2012;Wasse, Sunderland, King, Miyashita, & Stensel, 2012), there were some studies that included young or middleaged females (Alajmi et al., 2016;Beer et al., 2020;Douglas et al., 2017;Finlayson et al., 2009;Hagobian et al., 2013;Halliday et al., 2021;Hallworth et al., 2017;Hazell et al., 2017;Howe et al., 2016;Kamemoto et al., 2022;King et al., 1996;Larson-Meyer et al., 2012;Martins et al., 2007Martins et al., , 2015McCarthy et al., 2023;Moniz et al., 2023), middleaged men , as well as individuals experiencing overweight/obesity Hagobian et al., 2009;Holmstrup et al., 2013;Hopkins et al., 2014;Larsen et al., 2017;Metcalfe et al., 2015;Sim et al., 2014;Tobin et al., 2021;Unick et al., 2010). About half the studies demonstrated a nonsignificant change in acylated ghrelin with values ranging from ~1% to 20% (Balaguera-Cortes et al., 2011;Hagobian et al., 2013;King, Wasse, Ewens, et al., 2011;Larsen et al., 2019a;McCarthy et al., 2023;Panissa et al., 2016;Sim et al., 2014;Unick et al., 2010) and one study demonstrated an ~13% increase (Larson-Meyer et al., 2012) though we cannot rationalize this. ...
The first systematic reviews of the effects of exercise on appetite‐regulation and energy intake demonstrated changes in appetite‐regulating hormones consistent with appetite suppression and decreases in subsequent relative energy intake over a decade ago. More recently, an intensity‐dependent effect and several potential mechanisms were proposed, and this review aims to highlight advances in this field. While exercise‐induced appetite suppression clearly involves acylated ghrelin, glucagon‐like peptide‐1 may also be involved, though recent evidence suggests peptide tyrosine tyrosine may not be relevant. Changes in subjective appetite perceptions and energy intake continue to be equivocal, though these results are likely due to small sample sizes and methodological inconsistencies. Of the proposed mechanisms responsible for exercise‐induced appetite suppression, lactate has garnered the most support through in vitro and in vivo rodent studies as well as a growing amount of work in humans. Other potential modulators of exercise‐induced appetite suppression may include sex hormones, growth‐differentiation factor 15, Lac‐Phe, brain‐derived neurotrophic factor, and asprosin. Research should focus on the mechanisms responsible for the changes and consider these other modulators (i.e., myokines/exerkines) of appetite to improve our understanding of the role of exercise on appetite regulation.
... Eating behaviour in response to exercise seems susceptible to substantial intra-individual variability [19][20][21]. After 7-14 days of structured exercise, energy intake starts to track the disruption in energy balance and compensates for ~ 30% of the ExEE [22,23]. ...
... To investigate the compensatory response in PAEE following ExEE, all participants completed the same experimental condition, thereby serving as their own controls. The study consisted of three sequential weeks namely Pre-exercise week (Day 1-7), Exercise week (Day 8-15), Post-exercise week (Day [15][16][17][18][19][20][21] with each week commencing on a Monday and ending on a Sunday (Fig. 1). On day 1 of the study, anthropometrical, body composition and RMR measurements were taken for analysis. ...
Background
Exercise-induced energy expenditure (ExEE) is commonly adopted as a mean to volitional body mass loss. ExEE can also modulate physical activity energy expenditure (PAEE) and potentially hinder rate of body mass loss. The detrimental effect of ExEE on PAEE may be more prevalent in women than in men.
Aims
This study was to investigate the sex differences in regulation of PAEE and body mass change following an acute exercise-induced perturbation in energy balance.
Methods
In this 3-week study, 4 men and 6 women with body mass index (BMI) of 28.8 ± 2.3 kg/m² were required to exercise on a leg ergometer, expending 15% of their total daily energy expenditure (TDEE) in each exercise session of week two (Exercise week). Participants had to complete three exercise sessions within the same week and on non-consecutive days. PAEE was assessed via wrist-worn accelerometers over the entire study period. Resting metabolic rate (RMR) and body composition were measured at the beginning of the study.
Results
Men had significantly greater stature (p = 0.021), body mass (p = 0.035) and resting metabolic rate (RMR) (p = 0.01) than women. Whereas women body fat % was significantly greater than men (p = 0.004). At the end of the study, there was no significant difference body mass % change (p = 0.409) and ExEE (p = 0.91) between men and women. There was no significant main effect of time for PAEE (p = 0.613), or between sex (p = 0.470).
Conclusion
Three bouts of ExEE performed within the same week did not alter PAEE in men and women with overweight and obesity.
... Across populations, physical activity and exercise are fundamentally associated with health outcomes and behaviors, extending to the management of body composition and energy intake (13). In young adults, it has been documented that physical activity and exercise may induce a compensatory response in energy intake, which can impact the longterm success of fitness regimens (13)(14)(15)(16). Evidence from this population has demonstrated that, while acute exercise causes a brief, transient decrease in appetite, it likewise stimulates the release of orexigenic hormones and reduces anorexigenic processes, ultimately upregulating hunger and eating drive (13)(14)(15)(16). ...
... In young adults, it has been documented that physical activity and exercise may induce a compensatory response in energy intake, which can impact the longterm success of fitness regimens (13)(14)(15)(16). Evidence from this population has demonstrated that, while acute exercise causes a brief, transient decrease in appetite, it likewise stimulates the release of orexigenic hormones and reduces anorexigenic processes, ultimately upregulating hunger and eating drive (13)(14)(15)(16). Notwithstanding these acute hormonal changes and the associated physiological response, some research has failed to demonstrate the expected increase in post-exercise energy intake (13,17). ...
Background: The effect of physical activity and exercise on hunger and satiety has been well-studied in younger adults, but the influence of aging is less understood. While some evidence suggests that acute bouts of exercise induce a compensatory eating drive, long-term activity may improve satiety sensitivity. The objective of this study was to investigate the effects of exercise on appetite in older adults.
Methods: We systematically reviewed available literature investigating the effect of exercise on appetite in older adults adults (CRD42020208953). PubMed, PsycINFO, Academic Search Complete, the Sports Medicine & Education Index, and Web of Science, were searched for peer-reviewed articles published in English with no date restriction. Included studies implemented a primary exercise or physical activity intervention with a control group, on a generally healthy population ≥60 years of age. Selected studies included at least one appetite outcome. Risk of bias was assessed using the 11-point Physiotherapy Evidence Database (PEDro) tool. Standardized mean difference summary statistics (Hedge's g effect sizes) and 95% confidence intervals were reported.
Results: We identified 15 reports (13 studies) which met all inclusion criteria (5 resistance training, 3 aerobic, 6 mixed modalities). Studies included 443 participants (Age = 68.9 ± 5.2, 82.3% female) and had generally “good” bias scores (PEDro = 6.4 ± 0.88). Random effects meta-analyses revealed that the exercising group showed statistically significant reductions in glucose [SMD = −0.34 (95% CI: −0.67, −0.02), p < 0.05, PEDro =6.4 ± 0.45] and leptin [SMD = −0.92 (95% CI: −1.28, −0.57), p < 0.00001, PEDro = 6.2 ± 0.75].
Discussion: This systematic review revealed that exercise and physical activity may modulate resting hunger and satiety in older adults. Decreases in fasting leptin and glucose hormones suggest that exercise promotes satiety sensitivity in adults aged 60+. This review highlights that engaging in exercise and activity programs may provide a meaningful avenue for improving chronic and functional disease burden in later life by promoting appetite control and balanced energy intake. Recommendations for future research include investigations of appetite in response to varied exercise modalities within more diverse and representative samples of older adults.
... Finally, the presence or absence of exercise may influence appetite responses, making it difficult to determine with certainty the isolated effects of thermal stress on energy intake. Energy intake is an outcome subject to a high degree of interindividual variability [44][45][46]. As thermal stress is also experienced very differently between individuals [47][48][49] and physiological and perceptive markers may be very weakly associated [50,51], we expected to find inconsistent effects of heat and cold exposures on energy intake. ...
... Finally changes in food reward value and its underlying components of implicit motivation (wanting) and explicit sensory pleasure (liking) may affect food choices and/or the amount of food consumed, and, therefore, energy intake [98]. The Leeds Food Preference Questionnaire (LFPQ) [99], used to assess food reward, is regularly used after an exercise session [44,100] or training [101], but only occasionally in assessments of the effects of environmental conditions. However, the preference for sweet foods and a liking for high-fat and savory foods were shown to increase during a fifteen day expedition to Greenland [102] and a four day rapid ascent in the Alps [103], respectively. ...
The objective of this meta-analysis was to assess the effect of acute heat/cold exposure on subsequent energy intake (EI) in adults. We searched the following sources for publications on this topic: PubMed, Ovid Medline, Science Direct and SPORTDiscus. The eligibility criteria for study selection were: randomized controlled trials performed in adults (169 men and 30 women; 20-52 years old) comparing EI at one or more meals taken ad libitum, during and/or after exposure to heat/cold and thermoneutral conditions. One of several exercise sessions could be realized before or during thermal exposures. Two of the thirteen studies included examined the effect of heat (one during exercise and one during exercise and at rest), eight investigated the effect of cold (six during exercise and two at rest), and three the effect of both heat and cold (two during exercise and one at rest). The meta-analysis revealed a small increase in EI in cold conditions (g = 0.44; p = 0.019) and a small decrease in hot conditions (g = −0.39, p = 0.022) for exposure during both rest and exercise. Exposures to heat and cold altered EI in opposite ways, with heat decreasing EI and cold increasing it. The effect of exercise remains unclear.
... optimize the process leading to energy compensation. In concordance with highly controlled laboratory studies Finlayson, Bryant, Blundell, & King, 2009), we observed a large interindividual variability in the level of EI and energy compensation. Figure 3 shows that the TAEC was above EI in 5 participants while ration size became rapidly insufficient in 4. From a practical point of view, it highlights the military challenge to elaborate fit-for-all menus, avoiding too many unconsumed items that would increase carried load, and providing portions large enough so that few or no soldiers feel limited. ...
... Figure 3 shows that the TAEC was above EI in 5 participants while ration size became rapidly insufficient in 4. From a practical point of view, it highlights the military challenge to elaborate fit-for-all menus, avoiding too many unconsumed items that would increase carried load, and providing portions large enough so that few or no soldiers feel limited. Finally, as in our previous studies, this variability in EI ranged on a continuum (from 69% to 99% of TAEC) and there was no possibility to separate "responders" and "non responders" as some authors have proposed (Finlayson et al., 2009;Finlayson et al., 2011). Interestingly, in their notebooks several participants reported hunger feelings, and added comments suggesting there was not enough available food during the expedition. ...
Soldiers on military expeditions usually fail to compensate for the increase in energy expenditure, with potential deleterious consequences. We therefore analyzed the characteristics of energy compensation in 12 male soldiers, during a 15-day expedition in the cold, while alleviating some of the contextual limitations of food intake (~20-MJ daily bags of easy-to-use, highly palatable and familiar foods with multiple and long breaks allowed during the day). Body and fat mass losses were low and moderate, respectively (−1.13 ± 1.42% and −19.5 ± 15.6%, respectively, p < .021). Mean energy intake (EI) was high (~16.3 MJ) and increased at each third of the expedition (15.3 ± 2.1, 16.1 ± 2.1, and 17.6 ± 2.0 for D1-5, D6-10 and D11-15, respectively , p < .012). This resulted in reaching a neutral energy balance as soon as the D6 to 10 period and reaching normal energy availability during D11 to 15. Participants only increased their EI during the midday (10:00-14:00) period (p = .002) whereas hunger and thirst only increased in the morning, with higher scores during D11-15 than D1-5 (p < .009). Last, the reward value of sweet foods was also higher during D11-15 than during D1-5 (p = .026). The changes in body mass were positively associated with EI (r = 0.598, p = .040) and carbohydrate intake (r = 0.622, p = .031). This study indicates that complete energy compensation can be reached in challenging field conditions when food intake is facilitated, offering some guidelines to limit energy deficit during operational missions. K E Y W O R D S arctic, energy compensation, energy deficiency, food preferences, military training, rations
... In some individuals, exercise training can result in dietary compensation that leads to increased energy intake (Finlayson et al., 2008) and undesirable food choices (Finlayson et al., 2009). Appetite, a desire for food, can affect dietary intake by both physiological and psychological states (Taylor et al., 2018). ...
... Physiological drivers can include changes in hunger and satiety by secretion of appetite-regulating hormones, such as acylated ghrelin (orexigenic), peptide YY (anorexigenic), and leptin. Psychological drivers may include dietary restraint and disinhibition (King et al., 2012;Martins et al., 2008), or food preferences and reward (Finlayson et al., 2009). A previous meta-analysis by our research group found no effect of HIIT or MICT on energy intake following a relatively short period of exercise training (4-15 weeks) (Taylor et al., 2018). ...
The aim of this study was to investigate short- and long-term compensatory effects on dietary intake following high intensity interval training (HIIT) compared with usual care moderate intensity continuous training (MICT) during and following a cardiac rehabilitation program. This study investigates secondary outcomes of a clinical trial. Ninety-three participants with coronary artery disease enrolled in a 4-week cardiac rehabilitation program, were randomised to 1) 4x4-minute HIIT; or 2) 40-min of MICT (usual care). Patients were instructed to complete 3 weekly sessions (2 supervised, 1 home-based) for 4-weeks, and 3 weekly home-based sessions thereafter for another 48-weeks. Dietary intake was measured by telephone-based 24-h recall over 2 day at baseline, 4-weeks, 3-months, 6-months, and 12-months. Three-Factor Eating Questionnaire was used to measure dietary behaviour and Leeds Food Preference Questionnaire used to measure food preferences. Appetite was assessed by a visual analogue scale and appetite-regulating hormones. There was no change over the study period or differences between groups for daily energy intake at 4-weeks or 12-months. There were also no group differences for any other measures of dietary intake, fasting hunger or appetite-related hormones, dietary behaviour, or food preferences. These findings suggest that compared to moderate intensity exercise, HIIT does not result in compensatory increases of energy intake or indicators of poor diet quality. This finding appears to be the same for patients with normal weight and obesity. HIIT can therefore be included in cardiac rehabilitation programs as an adjunct or alterative to MICT, without concern for any undesirable dietary compensation.
... As a result, a caloric surplus may still occur. Findings from controlled lab studies support this; although there is a lot of variability and individual motivations for compensatory behaviors, full caloric compensation is not typical (Finlayson et al., 2009;Hopkins et al., 2014). These negative psychological consequences indicate a possibility that the compensation mindset and poor mental health may reinforce each other, especially when individuals fail to achieve their weight management goals using compensatory behaviors. ...
Objective
Weight-control compensatory behaviors appear to be a commonly utilized strategy for health management. Individuals engaging in such behaviors believe that the negative consequences from unhealthy behaviors will be neutralized by the positive consequences of healthy behaviors. Existing research has not reached a consensus on whether such behaviors are beneficial to health. This review aims to (1) summarize the patterns of weight-control compensatory health behaviors in different populations, (2) highlight correlates, predictors, and consequences of compensatory health behaviors, and (3) identify gaps for future research.
Method
This review identified existing literature using online databases, CINAHL and PubMed. Primary research articles published after 2000 with non-clinical participants of 12 years or older who engaged in compensatory behaviors for weight control purposes were selected. Descriptive statistics were extracted from 35 studies.
Results
Different patterns for weight-control compensatory behaviors emerged between the female and male sexes. Meanwhile, no clear association of such behaviors was found across weight status. Studies reviewed also highlighted three main areas of compensatory behaviors for weight management, namely dietary behaviors, physical activity, and alcohol consumption. Weight-control compensatory behaviors had significant negative correlations with mental health indicators, such as psychosocial functioning, emotional differentiation ability, and body esteem.
Conclusion
Weight-control compensatory behaviors may be a widely used weight management strategy and can be presented in diverse ways. Although believed to be promoting health, such behaviors appear to be associated with poor psychological well-being. This emerging topic warrants more in-depth investigation to establish the direction of causation. Future research may investigate the relationship between weight-control compensatory behaviors and various aspects of health over longer time periods, examine the engagement of multiple weight-control compensatory behaviors, and focus on high-risk populations.
... Thus, the expected exercise effects in mitigating the LM loss may simply overshadow FM loss, canceling the exercise effects on WL. Nevertheless, it is also possible that exercise could have no meaningful effect following BS, which may result, for instance, from the fact that individuals engaged in exercise may tend to increase energy intake, compromising the attaining of a negative energy balance [14,15]. In fact, a study showed that patients who engage in moderate levels of physical activity post-BS experience larger energy deficits, resulting in greater WL and FM loss while maintaining muscle mass [16]. ...
Objective
This study aimed to determine the effects of a multicomponent exercise intervention during the first year post‐bariatric surgery (BS) on body composition, weight loss (WL), energy expenditure, and nutrient intake.
Methods
A total of 84 patients were included in this study and were randomly assigned to either an exercise group ( n = 41) or a control group ( n = 20). The exercise group participated in a multicomponent exercise program that began 1‐month post‐BS, whereas the control group received only standard medical care post‐BS. Body composition was assessed by dual‐energy x‐ray absorptiometry, and physical activity energy expenditure was assessed by accelerometers. Nutritional intake was assessed through a 4‐day food diary.
Results
A total of 6‐months post‐BS, exercise was found to be effective in mitigating the loss of lower‐limb and appendicular lean mass (LM), as well as favoring trunk fat mass (FM) loss. Moreover, it further decreased percent FM and promoted additional excess WL. After 12 months, exercise not only reduced waist circumference but also helped to lessen the loss of total, trunk, and appendicular LM.
Conclusions
Exercise further induced trunk fat mass, percent FM, excess WL, and waist circumference reductions. Moreover, exercise attenuated the loss of total and regional LM.
... However, the occurrence of compensatory eating may compromise the ability to achieve expected body weight loss (1) . Exercise-induced compensatory eating may be caused by the post-exercise changes of episodic appetite hormones (2) , which are also known to be affected by the macronutrient composition of meals (3) . The aim of this study is to compare the effect of consuming high-carbohydrate, low-fat (HCLF) and high-fat, low-carbohydrate (HFLC) meals before and after acute morning exercise on gastrointestinal appetite hormones energy intake and post-meal insulin sensitivity. ...
... no interactions) but overall liking was greater later than earlier in the day, in early compared late chronotypes and decreased after exercise. Previous studies have shown that regardless of time of day, an increase in reward for HFSW food in response to acute exercise is associated with compensatory eating after exercise (Finlayson, Bryant, Blundell, & King, 2009) and to lower-than-expected weight loss after 12 weeks of training (Finlayson et al., 2011). Therefore, it seems important to mitigate any increase in HFSW food reward in response to an acute exercise bout. ...
There is very limited evidence on the influence of diurnal exercise timing on appetite control, and none on food reward or how an individual's chronotype could moderate such effects. We examined the impact of acute exercise timing on perceived appetite and food reward in young Saudi adults with early or late chronotypes. Forty-five young adults (23 ± 4 years; BMI = 25.1 ± 4.0 kg/m²) completed the Morningness–Eveningness Questionnaire (MEQ) and were divided into early (score = 59 ± 5) or late (score = 41 ± 6) chronotypes. Participants attended the laboratory after ≥4h fast on two occasions for an AM (8:00–10:00) and PM (17:00–19:00) 30-min moderate-intensity cycling bout in a randomized counterbalanced order. Appetite ratings and food reward (Arab Leeds Food Preference Questionnaire) were measured before and after exercise. An acute exercise-induced decrease in hunger was found, which appeared to be dependent upon diurnal timing and chronotype, with hunger being more suppressed after AM exercise in the early chronotypes and after PM exercise in the late chronotypes. There was greater wanting for low-fat sweet foods after AM exercise relative to PM exercise, whereas there was greater wanting for high-fat sweet food and sweet relative to savoury food after PM exercise compared to AM exercise. These preliminary findings suggest that diurnal timing of exercise impacts food preferences, and that chronotype may influence the appetite response to an exercise bout at different times of day.
... allow greater energetic intake than the energetic expenditure achieved during exercise), which, over time, may lead to overweight or obesity. It has been shown, for instance, that individuals tend to overcompensate in terms of acute energy intake after exercise (33) . Second, even if parents are able to balance the energetic expenditure and intake of their children around exercise (i.e. ...
Objective:
Online youth-focused health programs often include parent modules-that equip parents with skills to assist their child in improving their health-alongside youth-specific content. BRAVE Self-Help, an evidence-based program designed for children and teenagers with early signs of anxiety, is a popular Australian program that includes six parent modules. Despite its popularity and proven efficacy, BRAVE Self-Help shares the same challenge as many online self-help programs-that of low participant engagement. Using parents registered in BRAVE Self-Help as 'information rich' participants, we explored (a) factors that influenced parent engagement in online health programs, and (b) their recommendations for enhancing parent engagement.
Design and outcome measure:
We conducted semi-structured interviews with 14 parents registered in BRAVE Self-Help. Data were analysed through reflexive thematic analysis.
Results:
Social-, family- and program-related factors drove parents' program engagement and recommendations. Social sub-themes related to the benefits of professional and community support in promoting more engagement. Family sub-themes included difficulties with program engagement due to competing priorities, perceptions that condition severity influenced engagement, and feelings that previously-acquired health knowledge reduced motivation to engage. Program sub-themes included perceived usefulness and ease-of-use.
Conclusion:
Program designers could target support systems, include flexible delivery options, and use iterative design processes to enhance parent engagement.
... Besides, there was a positive correlation between moderate physical activity and gaining excessive body weight in our project. Previous reports have demonstrated that acute aerobic exercise could generate a short-term energy deficit, disturbing the personal energy balance and contributing to a biological inevitability postexercise compensatory eating and energy intake [38,39]. It was noticed that the extent of compensation could be different among individuals [40]. ...
Background
The effect of the living environment on public health has received increasingly scholarly attention. This study aims to explore the relationship between adolescents’ body weight and their living environmental factors.
Methods
This cross-sectional study comprised 1362 middle-school students from Nanjing and 826 from Changzhou in China. We further collected information on living environmental factors based on their home address and ran multivariate logistic regressions to explore potential correlations after considering a range of potential confounding factors.
Results
Approximately 25% ( n = 303) of students from Nanjing and 26% ( n = 205) of students from Changzhou were excessive body weight. In Nanjing, students’ BMI (Body Mass Index) showed a strong negative correlation with the number of sports venues in their neighborhood (Adjusted Odds Ratio (AOR): 0.64, 95%CI: 0.40–0.94) after controlling for other covariates. In Changzhou, we observed a positive correlation between adolescents’ body weight and the number of bus stops in their neighbourhood (AOR:1.63, 95%CI:1.11–2.38).
Conclusions
The living environment factors were independently associated with teenagers’ excessive body weight. We hypothesis that the environmental risk factors might be associated with political management, which will consequently affect personal health outcomes. Further research and proactive measures are required to manage those potential risks and attenuate the problem.
... Still, given the reported moderate-to-large effects of chronic invasive VNS on body weight in animals and humans, more mechanistic research is necessary to unravel subacute or subconscious effects of taVNS that could be used to improve future treatments of pathological alterations in eating behavior and food choice. Implicit liking and wanting as assessed using reaction times (Cowdrey, Finlayson, & Park, 2013;Dalton & Finlayson, 2014;Finlayson, Arlotti, Dalton, King, & Blundell, 2011), approach-avoidance tasks (Piqueras-Fiszman, Kraus, & Spence, 2014) implicit association tests (Connell, Finkelstein, Scott, & Vallen, 2018;Kraus & Piqueras-Fiszman, 2018), effort allocation tasks , or combined physiological and behavioral measures (Müller, Teckentrup, Rebollo, Hallschmid, & Kroemer, 2021) may reflect such subconscious preferences that conscious choices are operating on (Finlayson, Bryant, Blundell, & King, 2009;Finlayson et al., 2007;Rogers & Hardman, 2015) and, thus, could be acutely modulated by taVNS more rapidly compared to consciously reported liking and wanting. In general, our results support the idea that vagal afferent activation elicits unconscious effects on food choice, which is in line with the theorized role of the "low road" to food choice (de Araujo et al., 2019). ...
The vagus nerve plays a vital role in the regulation of food intake and vagal afferent signals may help regulate food cue reactivity by providing negative homeostatic feedback. Despite strong evidence from preclinical studies on vagal afferent “satiety” signals in guiding food intake, evidence from human studies is largely inconclusive to date. Here, we investigated the acute effects of left or right transcutaneous auricular vagus nerve stimulation (taVNS) on subjective ratings of wanting and liking of various food and non-food items in 82 healthy participants (46 women, MBMI = 23.1 kg/m²). In contrast to previous reports in patients with depression, we found moderate to anecdotal evidence supporting the absence of taVNS-induced changes in food ratings. To test whether the absence of taVNS effects on food ratings is due to heterogeneity in the sample, we conducted post hoc subgroup analyses by splitting the data according to stimulation side and sex (between-subject factors) as well as caloric density, perceived healthiness, and flavor (sweet vs. savory) of the food (within-subject factors). This multiverse analysis largely supported the absence of taVNS-induced changes since the strongest subgroup effects provided only anecdotal evidence in favor of taVNS-induced changes. We conclude that acute taVNS only has a marginal effect on subjective ratings of food, suggesting that it is an unlikely mechanism for the reported long-term effects of VNS on body weight. In light of an absence of acute taVNS effects on conscious food liking and wanting, our results call for future research on the correspondence between acute and chronic effects of vagal afferent stimulation.
... Still, given the reported moderate-to-large effects of chronic invasive VNS on body weight in animals and humans, more mechanistic research is necessary to unravel subacute or subconscious effects of taVNS that could be used to improve future treatments of pathological alterations in eating behavior and food choice. Implicit liking and wanting as assessed using reaction times (Cowdrey, Finlayson, & Park, 2013;Dalton & Finlayson, 2014;Finlayson, Arlotti, Dalton, King, & Blundell, 2011), approach-avoidance tasks (Piqueras-Fiszman, Kraus, & Spence, 2014) implicit association tests (Connell, Finkelstein, Scott, & Vallen, 2018;Kraus & Piqueras-Fiszman, 2018), effort allocation tasks , or combined physiological and behavioral measures (Müller, Teckentrup, Rebollo, Hallschmid, & Kroemer, 2021) may reflect such subconscious preferences that conscious choices are operating on (Finlayson, Bryant, Blundell, & King, 2009;Finlayson et al., 2007;Rogers & Hardman, 2015) and, thus, could be acutely modulated by taVNS more rapidly compared to consciously reported liking and wanting. In general, our results support the idea that vagal afferent activation elicits unconscious effects on food choice, which is in line with the theorized role of the "low road" to food choice (de Araujo et al., 2019). ...
Introduction: The vagus nerve plays a prominent role in the regulation of food reward and energy metabolism. However, previous studies using vagus nerve stimulation yielded conflicting results regarding changes in food reward in healthy participants and participants with major depressive disorder (MDD), for which vagal nerve stimulation is an effective treatment. Methods: We investigated the acute effects of right transcutaneous auricular vagus nerve stimulation (taVNS) on ratings of liking and wanting of food and non-food items in 63 participants, including 31 patients with MDD. To test for taVNS-induced changes and interactions with between-subject variables group (MDD vs. healthy controls) and questionnaire scores as well as within-subject variables, we performed linear mixed-effects analysis. In addition, we assessed whether individual taVNS-induced changes in food reward ratings were dependent on average ratings.Results: taVNS increased liking of food cues in participants with MDD (p= 0.023), but not in healthy participants (p= 0.657). Specifically, taVNS induced larger improvements in liking ratings with increasing scores of anhedonia (p= 0.029). Notably, across all participants, taVNS reduced the variance of food liking compared to sham, suggesting that taVNS normalizes extreme liking ratings towards moderate levels (p = 0.039).Discussion: Our results show that taVNS acutely ameliorates hedonic responses in MDD suggesting that it could provide an effective treatment of anhedonia. Since anhedonia is difficult to treat with conventional therapies, taVNS may provide a powerful adjuvant to rapidly improve motivational deficiencies.
... For this reason, many argue that, currently, food choice is primarily influenced by the so-called hedonic hunger when people tend to eat for pleasure in the absence of an energy deficit [28]. In [63], subjects with compensatory energy intake compensated for energy expended on exercise by increasing the amount of food they eat, while subjects with non-compensatory energy intake did not. ...
An athlete’s diet is influenced by external and internal factors that can reduce or exacerbate exercise-induced food intolerance/allergy symptoms. This review highlights many factors that influence food choices. However, it is important to remember that these food choices are dynamic, and their effectiveness varies with the time, location, and environmental factors in which the athlete chooses the food. Therefore, before training and competition, athletes should follow the recommendations of physicians and nutritionists. It is important to study and understand the nutritional strategies and trends that athletes use before and during training or competitions. This will identify future clinical trials that can be conducted to identify specific foods that athletes can consume to minimize negative symptoms associated with their consumption and optimize training outcomes.
... Regarding training status, the evidence is also conflicting. Some studies reported no difference ad libitum in energy intake regarding training status or physical activity level [1,49], others revealed higher ad libitum energy intake in less trained [38,50], whereas some reported higher acute ad libitum energy intake in more trained individuals [51,52]. ...
The present systematic review and meta-analysis aimed to compare the impact of exercise intensity and mode (high-intensity interval exercise-HIIE or sprint interval exercise-SIE versus moderate-intensity continuous exercise-MICE) on post-exercise ad libitum energy intake. The studies were required to have at least two exercise conditions (HIIE or SIE vs MICE). Overall, 642 manuscripts were initially identified and 17 met the eligibility criteria. The random effect meta-analysis did not reveal differences for absolute energy intake (28 pairwise comparisons) between HIIE (p = 0.54; 95% Confidence Interval – CI: −0.14 to 0.26; 22 pairwise comparisons) or SIE (p = 0.08; 95% CI −0.65 to 0.03; 6 pairwise comparisons) versus MICE, neither for relative energy intake (p = 0.97; 95% CI: −0.35 to 0.10 for HIIE; p = 0.28; 95% CI: −1.03 to 0.06 for SIE) with five and one pairwise comparisons, respectively. Subgroup analyses for methods to evaluate ad libitum energy intake, body mass, sex, volume, and timing of exercise were non-significant. Inspecting each study, two pairwise comparisons reported lower post-exercise absolute energy intake in HIIE compared to control (CRTL), and three pairwise comparisons reported lower absolute energy intake after SIE compared to MICE. None pairwise comparison reported differences between protocols (HIIE or SIE versus MICE) for relative energy intake. In conclusion, the meta-analysis did not show differences between protocols for absolute and relative energy intake; five pairwise comparisons from 28 demonstrated lower absolute energy intake in HIIE or SIE compared to CRTL or MICE. Further studies are needed to address the key relevant variables in which exercise intensity and mode may impact energy intake.
... It can be thought that it is due to the fact that the students who do exercise make the cognitive restriction of eating in order to balance their body weight. Physical activity is very important in maintaining body weight control (Finlayson et al., 2009). The fact that healthy nutrition and physical activity are key lifestyle factors regulating lifelong health through the ability to improve body composition, musculoskeletal health, physical and cognitive performance, as well as to prevent metabolic diseases such as obesity and diabetes mellitus (Koehler et al., 2019) is known well. ...
Mimaride yüzeylerin görsel konforunu, görsel verimliliğini ve mimari özelliklerini vurgulamak için aydınlatma kullanılır. Aydınlatmada önemli olan kullanılan mekanda yapılan işin amacına uygun aydınlatmanın sağlanmasıdır. Acak bu aydınlatma insan sağlığına zarar vermemelidir. Aşırı veya yetersiz aydınlatma insan sağlığı açısından olumsuzluklara neden olarak vucudun biyolojik saatini yani Sirkadiyen Ritmi’ni bozmaktadır. Aydınlatmanın insan sağlığını bozma oranı düşünüldüğünden daha yüksek sayılarda kişinin sağlık sorunlarına neden olmaktadır. Bu tür sağlık sorunlarının oluşmasını engellemek için İnsan Odaklı Aydınlatma standartlarına ihtiyaç duyulmaktadır. İnsan Odaklı Aydınlatma kriterleri ile ilgili Uluslararasi Aydınlatma Komisyonu (CIE), Türk Standartları Enstitüsü (TSE) ve Avrupa Standardizasyon Komitesi (CEN) standartlarında herhangi bir teorik yaklaşım bulunmamaktadır. CIE, TSE ve CEN standartları daha çok Elektrik Mühendisliği alanı ve Mimarlık alanında İşlevsel aydınlatmaya hitap ederken, İnsan Odaklı Aydınlatma-WELL standartları yoğun olarak Mimarlık bilim dalı ile ilgili kriterleri kapsamaktadır. Bu nedenle bu çalışmaya ihtiyaç duyulmuştur. Günümüz dünyasında İnsan Odaklı Aydınlatma konsepti popüler hale gelmiştir. İnsan Odaklı Aydınlatma’ya dikkat çekmek bu alanda araştırmalar yapan bilim insanlarına bu yönde oluşan ihtiyacı göstermek için WELL standartlarından görsel aydınlatma tasarımı kriterleri bir aydınlatma tasarımcısı bakış açısıyla analiz edilmiştir.
... Additionally, the results of a study of 300 adolescents aged 12~18 found a positive effect of regular exercise on diet quality [61]. Physical activity influences dietary behavior by improving satiety, changing macronutrient preference, and modulating hedonic responses to foods [62][63][64][65]. Additionally, individuals with higher habitual physical activity levels than inactive individuals have a sensitive appetite regulation system through better compensatory adjustment of the energy content and density of food. ...
The promotion of healthful dietary intake in adolescents is an important public health concern, as obesity is on the rise among adolescents. The current study aimed to determine the association between sociodemographic characteristics and dietary intake (breakfast, vegetables, milk, fruits, fast food, carbohydrate beverages, and caffeine beverages) and to examine the influences of physical and mental health on dietary intake. A nationally representative sample of 187,622 adolescents who attended middle and high schools and participated in the Korean Youth Risk Behavior Survey (2015, 2017, and 2019) was used. The results showed a decrease in breakfast, vegetable, milk, and fruit consumption and an increase in the obesity rate from 2015 to 2019. There was a significant association between dietary intake and gender, economic status, BMI, and academic achievement. Multiple logistic regression analysis results revealed that the consumption of breakfast, vegetables, milk, and fruit were associated with greater odds of having enough sleep. Fast food intake was shown to be a significant risk factor for depression with an odds ratio of 1.204 (95% CI = 1.169–1.239), and carbonated beverage consumption was shown to be a significant risk factor for stress with an odds ratio of 1.042 (95% CI = 1.030–1.054). These results provide fundamental data that can be used to develop an effective nutrition intervention program or nutrition policy for adolescents or school food service programs.
... One cannot, however, ignore the obvious and well-reported explanation that the limited exercise-induced weight loss is more likely due to concomitant increases in energy intake (7,8). Poor adherence to exercise interventions may be an obvious contributing factor (8), yet well-controlled exercise trials conducted under constant supervision convincingly demonstrate that poor adherence is not the culprit and point to increased energy intake as the central mechanism (9)(10)(11), even at high doses (12). There is a large amount of variability in the degree to which people increase energy intake in response to exercise (13). ...
Introduction:
Exercise usually results in less weight loss than expected. This suggests increased energy intake and/or deceased expenditure counteract the energy deficit induced by exercise. The aim of this study was to evaluate changes in components of daily energy expenditure (doubly labeled water and room calorimetry) after 24 wk of exercise training with two doses of aerobic exercise.
Methods:
This was an ancillary study in 42 (29 women, 13 men) sedentary, middle-age (47.8 ± 12.5 yr) individuals with obesity (35 ± 3.7 kg·m-2) enrolled in the Examination of Mechanisms of Exercise-induced Weight Compensation study. Subjects were randomized to three groups: healthy living control group (n = 13), aerobic exercise that expended 8 kcal·kg-1 of body weight per week (8 KKW, n = 14), or aerobic exercise that expended 20 kcal per kilogram of weight per week (20 KKW, n = 15). Total daily energy expenditure (TDEE) was measured in free-living condition by doubly labeled water and in sedentary conditions in a metabolic chamber over 24 h (24EE). Energy intake was calculated over 14 d from TDEE before and after the intervention using the intake-balance method.
Results:
Significant weight loss occurred with 20 KKW (-2.1 ± 0.7 kg, P = 0.04) but was only half of expected. In the 20 KKW group free-living TDEE increased by ~4% (P = 0.03), which is attributed to the increased exercise energy expenditure (P = 0.001), while 24EE in the chamber decreased by ~4% (P = 0.04). Aerobic exercise at 8 KKW did not induce weight change, and there was no significant change in any component of EE. There was no significant change in energy intake for any group (P = 0.53).
Conclusions:
Structured aerobic exercise at a dose of 20 KKW produced less weight loss than expected possibly due to behavioral adaptations leading to reduced 24EE in a metabolic chamber without any change in energy intake.
... Less research, however, has studied the association between diet and physical activity and binge eating across sex. While EMA research has yet to look at the activity context of binge eating, this relationship warrants further research given the muscularity-oriented nature of eating disorders and disordered eating in men [3] and research suggesting that individuals' energy intake may change as a result of activity level [14,15]. Furthermore, in a recent qualitative study, college men indicated that they were more likely to engage in binge eating after exercise [16]. ...
PurposeKnowledge of within-day factors associated with binge-eating severity among middle-aged fathers is limited. The purpose of the current report was to examine within-day associations of affect, diet, and activity in relation to binge-eating severity using ecological momentary assessment (EMA) in men.Methods
Twenty-three middle-aged fathers completed 8 days of EMA and wore accelerometers to objectively assess activity. Generalized estimating equations assessed relationships among affect, diet, and activity and binge-eating severity.ResultsWhen positive affect was above average, men reported greater binge-eating severity in the next 2 h. Oppositely, when negative affect was above average, men reported less binge-eating severity in the next 2 h. At times when men reported consumption of sweets and fast food, they reported higher binge-eating severity during the same 2-h window. Men with greater average levels of light activity reported less overall binge-eating severity.Conclusions
Findings show that affect, unhealthy food intake, and light activity could be targeted among middle-aged fathers to reduce binge-eating severity and prevent eating disorders.Level of evidenceLevel III: Evidence obtained from cohort or case-control analytic studies.
... There may be differences between individuals in the biological response to physical activity that contributes to variability in weight loss (109), and these responses may include metabolic, molecular, and cellular differences between individuals that warrant examination. Moreover, the variability in response to physical activity may be partially explained by the variability in the effects on energy intake (110,111), variability in the effects on REE (112), or other factors that may impact energy expenditure or overall energy balance. ...
Although many persons with obesity can lose weight by lifestyle (diet and physical activity) therapy, successful long‐term weight loss is difficult to achieve, and most people who lose weight regain their lost weight over time. The neurohormonal, physiological, and behavioral factors that promote weight recidivism are unclear and complex. The National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases convened a workshop in June 2019, titled “The Physiology of the Weight‐Reduced State,” to explore the mechanisms and integrative physiology of adaptations in appetite, energy expenditure, and thermogenesis that occur in the weight‐reduced state and that may oppose weight‐loss maintenance. The proceedings from the first session of this workshop are presented here. Drs. Michael Rosenbaum, Kevin Hall, and Rudolph Leibel discussed the physiological factors that contribute to weight regain; Dr. Michael Lowe discussed the biobehavioral issues involved in weight‐loss maintenance; Dr. John Jakicic discussed the influence of physical activity on long‐term weight‐loss maintenance; and Dr. Louis Aronne discussed the ability of drug therapy to maintain weight loss.
... An important question is which factors account for the large variability in food consumption during and after exercise. Beside metabolic factors (such as changes in hormones) and exercise parameters (such as mode, duration, or intensity), research suggests that psychological factors play an important role in postexercise food intake (Dimmock et al., 2015;Finlayson et al., 2009;King et al., 2012). These psychological factors are not well understood and are only rarely taken into account by studies that examine the influence of exercise on people's diet or weight status (King, 1999;King et al., 1997King et al., , 2012. ...
Many exercise-based weight-loss interventions result in considerably less weight loss than predicted. One possible explanation could be that people have certain beliefs about the interplay of exercise and food that also influence their eating behavior, such as the belief that food is a reward for exercise. The current research outlines a systematic multiphase process to develop a psychometrically sound scale to assess these beliefs. In Study 1, regular exercisers ( N = 520) completed an exploratory questionnaire on their beliefs related to diet and exercise. In Study 2 ( N = 380), the factor structure of the newly developed scale was corroborated by confirmatory factor analysis. In addition, a test–retest ( N = 166) was used to confirm reliability and stability. In sum, the Diet-Related Beliefs of Exercisers Scale with its four subscales (“Refrain from Eating,” “Food as Reward,” “Healthy Eating,” and “Nutritional Replenishment”) represents a valid and reliable measure of exercisers’ diet-related beliefs.
... There is good evidence that long-term weight maintenance is optimised by sustainable, daily physical activity combined with the moderate restraint of food intake (74). However, the phenomenon of compensatory eating has received little attention (75)(76)(77). When overweight or obese individuals commence an exercise regimen, weight does not fall and may increase, due to a partly subconscious increase in energy intake (76). ...
The Twin Cycle Hypothesis postulated that type 2 diabetes was a result of excess liver fat causing excess supply of fat to the pancreas with resulting dysfunction of both organs. If this was so, the condition should be able to be returned to normal by calorie restriction. The Counterpoint study tested this prediction in short duration type 2 diabetes and showed that liver glucose handling returned to normal within 7 days and that beta cell function returned close to normal over 8 weeks. Subsequent studies have demonstrated the durability of remission from type 2 diabetes. Remarkably, during the first 12 months of remission, the maximum functional beta cell mass returns completely to normal and remains so for at least 24 months, consistent with re‐gain of insulin secretory function of beta cells which had de‐differentiated in the face of chronic nutrient oversupply. The likelihood of achieving remission after 15% weight loss has been shown to be mainly determined by duration of diabetes, with responders having better beta cell function at baseline. Remission is independent of BMI, underscoring the Personal fat Threshold concept that type 2 diabetes develops when an individual acquires more fat than can be individually tolerated even at a BMI which in the non‐obese range. Observations on people of South Asian or Afro‐American ethnicity confirm that substantial weight loss achieves remission in the same way as in the largely white Europeans studied in detail. Diagnosis of type 2 diabetes can now be regarded as an urgent signal that weight loss must be achieved to avoid a progressive decline of health.
Abstract
... allow greater energetic intake than the energetic expenditure achieved during exercise), which, over time, may lead to overweight or obesity. It has been shown, for instance, that individuals tend to overcompensate in terms of acute energy intake after exercise (33) . Second, even if parents are able to balance the energetic expenditure and intake of their children around exercise (i.e. ...
Objective
Little is known about parents’ compensatory health beliefs (CHB) surrounding their children’s engagement in physical activity (PA). Our aim was to provide evidence regarding the nature of, and factors underpinning, parents’ PA-related compensatory beliefs for their children.
Design
A qualitative descriptive approach and thematic content analysis were employed.
Setting
Parents were recruited from community sport and PA programmes.
Participants
Eighteen parents aged 32–52 years (mean age = 40·8 ( sd 5·4) years; six males; twelve females).
Results
Analyses indicated that parents compensate through ‘passive’ or ‘active’ means. Among parents who compensated, most described their provision of ‘treat’ foods/drinks and a minority described allowing extended sedentary time to their children. Parents’ reasons underpinning these beliefs related to their child’s general physical/health status and psychological characteristics, and their own motivation and mood state.
Conclusions
These findings provide the first evidence of unhealthy dietary and sedentary behaviour CHB that parents may hold regarding their children’s involvement in PA.
... The Activity Preference Assessment (APA) is a novel, computerized behavioral task designed to assess biases in decision-making across multiple leisure time activities. The APA is based on the psychometric properties and task design of a widely used and well-validated measure of explicit liking and implicit wanting for different types of food [14,15], which has been shown to correlate with objectively measured food intake, selfreported eating behaviors, and markers of obesity [16][17][18][19]. We have applied this framework to assess similar cognitive constructs in reference to physical and sedentary activity preferences. ...
Background:
High levels of sedentary behavior and low physical activity are associated with poor health, and the cognitive determinants of these behaviors in children and adolescents are not well understood. To address this gap, we developed a novel, non-verbal, computer-based assessment to quantify the degree to which youth prefer to be sedentary relative to physically active in their leisure time.
Methods:
The Activity Preference Assessment (APA) uses a forced-choice paradigm to understand implicit decision-making processes when presented with common sedentary and physical activities. The APA bias score ranges from - 100 to + 100, with positive scores indicating a relative preference for sedentary activities, and negative scores representing a preference for physical activities. In 60 children ages 8-17 years, we assessed the validity of this behavioral task against a free-choice play observation, accelerometry-measured activity, anthropometrics and body composition, and cardiorespiratory fitness. We explored neighborhood, family, and individual-level factors that may influence implicit activity preferences. Test-retest reliability was assessed over one week.
Results:
The majority of children (67%) preferred sedentary relative to physical activities. APA bias scores were positively associated with sedentary time during free-choice play. In girls, bias scores were negatively associated with average daily MVPA. APA bias scores were positively associated with body fat and negatively associated with cardiorespiratory fitness. These findings were independent of age, sex, and race/ethnicity. Neighborhood access to physical activity spaces, the number of people in the home, perceived physical self-competence (e.g., coordination, strength), and self-reported depressive symptoms were associated with activity preferences. The intra-class correlation for test-retest reliability was r = 0.59.
Conclusions:
The APA shows promise as a novel tool for quantifying children's relative preference for sedentary versus physical activities. Implicit bias scores from the APA are clinically meaningful, as shown by significant associations with adiposity and cardiorespiratory fitness. Future longitudinal studies should examine the directionality of the association between preferences and health markers, and the degree to which implicit activity preferences are modifiable. Importantly, the task only takes an average of 10 min to complete, highlighting a potential role as an efficient screening tool for the propensity to be sedentary versus physically active.
Trial registration:
ClinicalTrials.gov NCT03624582 .
... This compensatory eating behaviour occurs particularly in people with a BMI over 25 kg/m² and in those with a biological age of over 40 years. 9,10 In the pathophysiological studies of reversal of type 2 diabetes, increased physical activity was discouraged, and a purely dietary approach led to around 15 kg weight loss in 8 weeks. 3 In the DIADEM-I study, 8 the recommended physical activity might have been tolerated better than it might have been in the DiRECT study 6 because participants in the DIADEM-I study were younger (mean age of 42 years) than in the DiRECT study (mean age 61 years). ...
... While they found that energy intake was increased after swimming but not cycling compared with control, no differences in food reward were detected except for a tendency for a main effect of trial for implicit wanting fat bias with wanting being smaller after cycling relative to swimming and control. Lastly, Finlayson and colleagues demonstrated that implicit wanting was increased in response to moderateintensity exercise only in those individuals that increased their energy intake relative to no exercise (i.e., compensators) [47]. Consequently, even with the same methodology to assess food reward, the response to acute exercise seems to be equivocal and subject to individual variability. ...
Purpose of review:
This review brings together current evidence from observational, acute, and chronic exercise training studies to inform public debate on the impact of physical activity and exercise on food reward.
Recent findings:
Low levels of physical activity are associated with higher liking and wanting for high-energy food. Acute bouts of exercise tend to reduce behavioral indices of reward for high-energy food in inactive individuals. A dissociation in liking (increase) and wanting (decrease) may occur during chronic exercise training associated with loss of body fat. Habitual moderate-to-vigorous physical activity is associated with lower liking and wanting for high-fat food, and higher liking for low-fat food. Food reward does not counteract the benefit of increasing physical activity levels for obesity management. Exercise training appears to be accompanied by positive changes in food preferences in line with an overall improvement in appetite control.
... Indeed, one study found that 75% of people reported eating more on exercise days at least sometimes (Moshier et al., 2016). Furthermore, exercise has been associated with increased preference for hedonic foods (Finlayson, Bryant, Blundell, & King, 2009), increased approach motivation for unhealthy foods (May, Nock, Bentley, & Demaree, 2018), and changes to food palatability (Elder & Roberts, 2007). Thus, compensatory eating might underlie some of the variability observed in weight-loss responses to exercise, and also has implications for long-term wellbeing irrespective of how much it influences weight. ...
Objective: Patterns of ‘compensatory eating’ following exercise are likely to be harmful for long-term health and counterproductive for weight loss goals. However, little is known about reasons why people eat unhealthily after exercising. Thus, we aimed to develop a measure that assesses reasons why people engage in compensatory unhealthy eating. Method: A multi-stage approach using exploratory and confirmatory factor analysis was used to develop and replicate a scale and validate its psychometric properties in three different samples. Participants (total N = 814) rated their agreement with statements capturing different reasons for eating less healthily after exercise. Results: Factor analysis revealed four distinct factors underlying compensatory eating: Reward for Effort, Permission to Consume, Need to Consume, and Reduced Self-Control. The resulting Compensatory Unhealthy Eating Scale (CUES) had good internal consistency and convergent validity. Conclusion: The CUES has utility as a tool to assess compensatory eating behaviour. Further research should examine who is most likely to compensate and under what circumstances. Broadening current knowledge of compensatory eating after exercise may facilitate development of strategies to improve health behaviour regulation.
... Both questions will be presented intermittently and in a random order. Finlayson et al. showed that this questionnaire is sensitive to changes in the physiological state induced by eating and exercise, which suggests that it is suitable for capturing the changes in food reward when a change in individual's state occurs [58,60]. It has been previously used in individuals with overweight and obesity, as well as in anti-obesity drug trials [61,62]. ...
Preventive and educational programs directed to former elite athletes in the areas of healthy living are required. This is particularly relevant as obesity and health-related problems are observed in retired athletes, especially in those whose current levels of physical activity are below the recommendations. During their sports career, elite athletes are supported by a multidisciplinary team; upon retirement, no support is provided for the transition to a different lifestyle. So far, no program has been implemented to promote sustained healthy lifestyle behaviors in the post-career transition and evidence is lacking for such an intervention. Firstly, we aim to determine if Champ4life, a 1-year lifestyle intervention targeting inactive former athletes with overweight and obesity, is effective for reducing total and abdominal fat. Secondly, our purpose is to assess the effectiveness of the intervention on the levels of physical activity and sedentary behavior, resting energy expenditure, cardio-metabolic markers, physical fitness, energy balance components, eating self-regulation markers, and quality of life over 12 months. Champ4life is an evidence-and theory-based program using a randomized control trial design (intervention vs. control group) that will be conducted on 94 inactive former elite athletes with overweight and obesity. The first four months of the Champ4Life program include a nutritional appointment and 12 weekly, 90-min sessions. Classroom sessions seek to provide participants with key information and a toolbox of behavior change techniques to initiate and sustain long-term lifestyle changes. Participants will undergo baseline, 4-month, and 12-month measurements of body composition (primary outcomes), resting energy expenditure, physical fitness, metabolic markers, energy balance related-markers, and quality of life (secondary outcome). This trial will provide evidence on the effectiveness of the Champ4life program, a pioneer lifestyle intervention for retired athletes, offering tools for sustained changes in physical activity, sedentary behavior and diet, aiming to improve body composition and overall health-related markers.
The advent of streaming services, like Netflix and Prime Video by Amazon, has led to the expectation that demand for offline movie consumption is likely to die (i.e., consumers will simply stop going to the movies). We study this question in our work, and instead, we find that although streaming services provide value to customers in terms of comfort, convenience, and price, they do not lead to a reduction in offline movie consumption. Instead, we show that the offline movie consumption actually increases because streaming services do not fully substitute for the social aspects of going to the movies or the pleasure that is received from watching movies on the “big screen.” Our work thus speaks to the policies implemented in some countries where streaming platforms have been restricted given the concerns about disruption of the offline movie industry. We believe that these policies are potentially misguided because they assume perfect substitution between the two services. Our work also helps inform managers of movie theaters and streaming platforms by providing arguments for the specific types of service offerings that are more likely to be enjoyed at home versus at the movie theater. As we show in the paper, social and hedonic needs are more likely to be met at the movie theater rather than through streaming services. We reiterate the sentiments expressed by Steven Spielberg from 2019: “I hope all of us really continue to believe that the greatest contributions we can make as filmmakers are to give audiences the motion picture theatrical experience. I am a firm believer that movie theaters need to be around forever.”
Acute moderate- to high-intensity exercise, primarily aerobic exercise, has been reported to decrease food reward in brain regions via the hedonic pathways and reduce preference for high-energy or high-fat foods. However, studies examining food reward responses to acute exercise have been limited to measuring food reward only after exercise and less frequently before and after exercise. Therefore, the changes in food reward in response to acute exercise remain unclear. This study investigated the effect of acute running on food reward in healthy young men. Fourteen young healthy men (mean ± standard deviation, age; 23 ± 2 years, body mass index; 21 ± 2 kg/m2) completed two trials (i.e., exercise and control) in a randomised, crossover design. Participants performed a 30-min running bout at 70% of maximal oxygen uptake or sitting rest before and after food reward evaluation with a computer-based food choice behaviour task tool. Food reward was assessed for foods varying in fat content and sweet taste, and there were four assessment parameters: explicit liking, explicit wanting, implicit wanting and frequency of choice of each food category (relative preference). Explicit and implicit wanting, and relative preference for high-fat relative to low-fat foods were reduced after the exercise trial compared to the control trial (trial-by-time interaction, all p ≤ 0.02). Implicit wanting and relative preference for sweet relative to savoury foods were increased after the exercise trial compared to the control trial (trial-by-time interaction, all p ≤ 0.003). These findings indicate that moderate-intensity acute running alters the reward bias away from high fat towards low fat foods and away from savoury towards sweet foods in healthy young men
Management of type 2 diabetes has now been simplified by the understanding that the condition is caused by excess fat in the liver together with suppression of beta cell function by the associated excess liver export of fat. These factors can be reversed by substantial weight loss leading to remission in the early years after diagnosis, or at least major decrease in cardiovascular risks and improvement in glucose control for all. Weight loss by any means is successful, but it is most easily achieved by rapid action using a low or very low calorie diet of around 800 kcal/day followed by sustained modest restraint of dietary habits. Oral hypoglycaemic agents and one antihypertensive drug can be withdrawn on day 1 of the weight loss diet, raising the importance of appropriate deprescribing.
PURPOSE This study explores the impact of visual shape and exercise involvement on consumers' evaluation and happiness with healthy functional foods, specifically protein cookies.METHODS Using a one-factor design with two levels (pretty vs. ugly shape) and one measured variable (exercise involvement), we uncover interesting insights.RESULTS Consumers highly engaged in exercise show a greater purchase intention for ugly-shaped healthy functional foods compared to prettyshaped ones. Conversely, consumers with low exercise involvement express a higher purchase intention and happiness when it comes to pretty-shaped healthy functional foods compared to their ugly counterparts.CONCLUSIONS These findings contribute to the sports management and sports science literature by shedding light on how visual shape influences the evaluation of healthy functional foods by sport consumers. Furthermore, this research offers valuable practical implications for designing the shape of such foods to cater to the preferences of sports enthusiasts.
The interaction of exercise with appetite control and energy intake has been widely studied due to the ability of exercise-related energy expenditure to influence energy and substrate balance. Many empirical studies have explored appetite and energy intake responses to acute (single) exercise bouts involving a variety of protocols in diverse populations revealing several consistent trends. The balance of evidence suggests that acute moderate-to-vigorous intensity land-based exercise suppresses subjective appetite feelings and the orexigenic hormone acylated ghrelin and elevates the anorexigenic hormones peptide YY and glucagon-like peptide-1. These perturbations are transient and hormone concentrations usually return to resting values in the hours after exercise without evoking compensatory increases in appetite or energy intake on the same day. This evidence counters the popular assertion that exercise transiently increases appetite and may prompt greater energy intake at subsequent meals. The indifference of the appetite control system to acute exercise-induced energy deficits contrasts with the immediate increases in appetite and energy intake provoked by equivalent diet-induced energy deficits. There is, however, considerable inter-individual variability in subjective appetite and hormonal responses to acute exercise with some individuals experiencing greater exercise-induced appetite suppression than others. Current evidence supports the promotion of exercise as a strategy for inducing a short-term energy deficit but the relevance of this for long-term appetite regulation and the control of body mass remains uncertain.
Introduction
Unhealthy food choices increase the risk of obesity and its co-morbidities. Nutrition labels are a public health policy that aims to drive individuals toward healthier food choices. Chile has been an example of this policy, where mandatory nutrient warning labels (NWL) identify processed foods high in calories and critical nutrients. Eating contexts influence individual food choices, but whether eating contexts also influence how NWL alter the decision process and selection during food choice is unknown.
Methods
In an online mouse-tracking study, participants prompted to health, typical, or unrestricted eating contexts were instructed to choose between pairs of foods in the presence or absence of NWL. Conflict during choices was analyzed using mouse paths and reaction times.
Results
NWL increased conflict during unhealthy food choices and reduced conflict during healthy choices in all contexts. However, the probability that NWL reversed an unhealthy choice was 80% in a healthy, 37% in a typical, and 19% in an unrestricted context. A drift-diffusion model analysis showed the effects of NWL on choice were associated with an increased bias toward healthier foods in the healthy and typical but not in the unrestricted context.
Discussion
These data suggest that the efficacy of NWL to drive healthy food choices increases in a healthy eating context, whereas NWL are less effective in typical or unrestricted eating contexts.
An individual's affective (i.e. emotional) response to exercise may play an important role in post-exercise eating behaviour for some individuals. Taking advantage of advances in fully immersive virtual reality (VR) technology, this study aimed to: a) examine whether VR exergaming can improve the psychological response to exercise in inactive adults, and b) assess the extent to which this improvement reduces post-exercise appetite and eating behaviour. In a cross-over study, 34 adults not meeting the World Health Organisation's physical activity recommendations completed two exercise sessions on a stationary bike; one while engaging in a VR exergame and one without VR. Monitoring enabled heart rate, energy expenditure, and duration across conditions to be closely matched. The Physical Activity Enjoyment Scale, Feeling Scale, Felt Arousal Scale and Borg's Ratings of Perceived Exertion were measured to capture the affective responses to exercise. Appetite and eating behaviour were evaluated using visual-analogue scales, a computerised food preference task, and intake at a post-exercise buffet meal. Cycling in VR elicited greater exercise enjoyment (p < 0.001, η²p = 0.62), pleasure (p < 0.001, η²p = 0.47), and activation (p < 0.001, η²p = 0.55). VR exergaming did not alter perceived physical exertion (p = 0.64), perceived appetite (p = 0.68), and preference for energy dense (p = 0.78) or sweet/savoury foods (p = 0.90) compared to standard exercise. However, it did result in a mean 12% reduction in post-exercise food intake (mean difference: 105.9 kcal; p < 0.01; η²p = 0.20) and a decrease in relative food intake (p < 0.01; η²p = 0.20) although inter-individual differences in response to VR exergaming were observed. The integration of VR in a cycling workout improves the affective experience of physical activity for inactive adults and reduces subsequent food intake. Virtual reality technology shows potential as an adjunct tool to support adults in weight management programmes become more active, especially for those individuals who are prone to eat in excess after physical activity.
Purpose:
The aim of this study is to determine factors affecting hedonic hunger in adults.
Design and methods:
A cross-sectional research design was used to collect face-to-face data from 315 adults, aged 18-65 years, residing in Balıkesir/Turkey by way of a questionnaire.
Findings:
Hedonic hunger was found to be higher in women and also rates decreased with age. As body mass index increased, so did hedonic hunger. Hedonic hunger was seen as higher in individuals who do not engage in regular physical activity, those who consume nighttime snacks, and persons who follow a weight loss diet. It has been determined that individuals with hedonic hunger have a high level of food craving, impulsiveness, and low self-esteem.
Practice implications:
Controlling psychological factors such as impulsiveness and self-esteem can be effective in reducing hedonic hunger.
Although ample evidence supports the notion that an acute bout of endurance exercise performed at or greater than 70% of maximum oxygen uptake suppresses appetite partly through changes in appetite-regulating hormones, no study has directly compared the influence between the phases of the menstrual cycle in women. The present study compared the effects of an acute bout of exercise on orexigenic hormone (acylated ghrelin) and anorexigenic hormones (peptide YY and cholecystokinin) between the early follicular phase (FP) and the mid luteal phase (LP) of the menstrual cycle in physically active women. Ten healthy women (age, 20.6 ± 0.7 years) completed two 3.5-h trials in each menstrual phase. In both trials, participants performed cycling exercises at 70% of heart rate reserve (at a corresponding intensity to 70% of maximum oxygen uptake) for 60 min followed by 90 min of rest. Following 90 min of rest, participants were provided with an ad libitum meal for a fixed duration of 30 min. Blood samples and subjective appetite were collected and assessed before, during, immediately post-, 45 min post-, and 90 min post-exercise. The exercise increased estradiol (327 %) and progesterone (681 %) in the LP more than the FP respectively (P < 0.001, f = 1.33; P < 0.001, f = 1.20). There were no between-trial differences in appetite-regulating hormones, subjective appetite, or energy intake of ad libitum meal. These findings indicate that exercise-induced increases in ovarian hormones in the LP may not influence appetite-regulating hormones in physically active women.
Background:
We investigated the impact of obesity on responses to high intensity interval exercise (HIIE) on hunger and energy intake (EI) in young men.
Methods:
Ten men with obesity (OB) (body mass index [BMI]: 34.6±4.4 kg/m²) and 10 with normal weight (CG) (BMI: 23.1±3.9 kg/m²) participated in a HIIE session. The session consisted of 6 rounds performed at 100% of maximum aerobic velocity (MAV) for 30 seconds, followed by 30 seconds of active recovery at 50% MAV and concluded with 4 minutes of passive recovery. This was repeated three times. EI was estimated at baseline and 24h-post HIIE. Hunger was measured at baseline, 2h- and 24h-post HIIE.
Results:
Carbohydrate (CHO) intake increased in both groups (p<0.01). Hunger feelings [19.5 (0-50) mm at baseline to 50 (9-73) mm Post-2h and 60 (8-92) mm in Post-24h (Group:p=0.71, Time: p<0.01, Group x Time: p=0.06)] and a desire to eat [34 (1-89)±36.0 mm at baseline to 63 (11-86) mm Post-2h and 51 (7-84) mm Post-24h (Group: p=0.65, Time: p<0.01, Group x Time: p=0.29)] increased in both groups.
Conclusions:
Weight status does not modulate hunger and EI post-HIIE. However, the compensatory increase in CHO intake and hunger feelings is particularly noteworthy for health professionals.
Physical activity contributes to body weight regulation. At least 150 minutes per week of moderate-to-vigorous intensity physical activity may be needed. When not coupled with dietary restriction, physical activity contributes to an average weight loss of approximately 2 to 3 kg in interventions up to 6 months in duration; when added to modest dietary restriction it adds 20% additional weight loss compared with modest dietary restriction alone. Physical activity is associated with enhanced long-term weight loss and attenuation of weight regain and should be included within clinical and public health approaches to prevent weight regain and to treat obesity.
Tandis que les bénéfices de l’activité physique sur la santé ne sont plus à démontrer, des interrogations persistent quant à son effet sur le contrôle des comportements alimentaires. Alors que certaines études indiquent un meilleur contrôle de la prise alimentaire (PA) post-exercice, d’autres rapportent une augmentation de l’appétit et de la PA en réponse à l’activité physique. Ces mécanismes d’adaptations pourraient présenter des limites dans la réussite des programmes de gestion de poids. Il est donc nécessaire, de manière à améliorer nos stratégies de prise en charge, de mieux comprendre les interactions entre l’exercice et les comportements alimentaires. Dans ce cadre, l’objectif de ce travail de thèse visait à explorer les réponses nutritionnelles à l’activité physique chez l’adolescent en situation d’obésité. Différentes modalités de pratique ont été investiguées et les aspects physiologiques et neurocognitifs impliqués dans la régulation de la PA post-exercice ont été explorés au cours de programmes multidisciplinaires de perte de poids. Durant les premiers mois de la perte de poids les résultats indiquent une phase de compensation, pendant laquelle les sensations d’appétit, le système de la récompense et la PA ad libitum sont augmentés. Cette phase de « résistance à la perte de poids » était d’autant plus marquée chez les adolescents ayant un haut niveau de restriction cognitive. Finalement, la prolongation de la prise en charge résulte en une phase de stabilisation et d’amélioration du contrôle de la PA. Durant cette seconde phase, les sensations d’appétit, le système de la récompense, l’alimentation émotionnelle et l’externalité alimentaire, ainsi que la PA effective étaient diminués. Ainsi il semblerait que l’activité physique permette la reconnexion entre le système hédonique et le système homéostatique du contrôle de la PA.
We assessed energy compensation, appetite, and reward value of foods during a 14-day military expedition in Greenland realized by 12 male French soldiers, during which energy compensation was optimized by providing them with easy-to-eat palatable foods in excess. Although daily energy expenditure (estimated by accelerometry) stayed relatively constant throughout the expedition (15 ± 9 MJ·day⁻¹), energy intake (EI; estimated by self-reported diaries) was 17% higher during the D8–D14 period compared with the D1–D7 period, leading to a neutral energy balance (EB). Body fat mass (BFM) significantly decreased (–1.0 ± 0.7 kg, p < 0.001) but not body mass (BM). Neither hunger scores (assessed by visual analog scales) nor components of the reward value of food (explicit liking (EL) and food preference) were significantly altered. However, changes in EL at D10 were positively correlated with changes in BM (r = 0.600, p < 0.05) and BFM (r = 0.680, p < 0.05) and changes in hunger in the EI of the relevant period (r = 0.743, p < 0.01 for D1–D7, r = 0.652, p < 0.05 for D8–14). This study shows that the negative EB and BM loss can be attenuated by an appropriate food supply and that subjective components of eating behaviour, such as hunger and EL, may be useful to predict the magnitude of energy compensation.
NoveltyEnergy intake increases during of a 14-day expedition in the cold.
Energy compensation was likely facilitated by providing participants with easy-to-eat palatable and familiar foods.
Hunger scores and EL for energy-dense foods were associated with high EIs and low BM changes.
ÖZET Amaç: Bu çalışma; yüksek şiddetli uzun süreli egzersiz yapan profesyonel futbolcular ile sedanter kontrol grubunun hedonik açlık ve beslenme durumlarını belirleyerek fiziksel aktivitenin hedonik açlığa etkisini araştırmak amacıyla yapılmıştır. Bireyler ve Yöntem: Çalışmanın örneklem grubunu Aralık 2018-Mart 2019 tarihleri arasında Türkiye Futbol Federasyonu 1. Lig takımlarından birinde oynayan profesyonel 25 futbolcu ve aynı takımda çalışan 25 sedanter erkek olmak üzere 18-35 yaş arası toplam 50 sağlıklı birey oluşturmuştur. Ayrıca sporcu grubu kendi içerisinde fiziksel olarak aktif ve inaktif oldukları (devre arası tatil dönemi) dönem olarak ikiye ayrılmış ve sonuçlar araştırma kapsamında değerlendirilmiştir. Bireylerin hedonik açlık durumları Besin Gücü Ölçeği (BGÖ) ile saptanmıştır. Beş maddelik bir Likert ölçeği ile cevaplandırılan BGÖ'nün değerlendirme aşamasında toplam ve alt grup puanları 1-5 puan arasında değerlendirilmiştir. Beş puan üzerinden yapılan değerlendirme sonucunda ölçek puanlarının ortalama 2.5'un üzerine çıkması hedonik açlığın varlığını ve besinden etkilenildiğini ifade etmektedir. Bulgular: Futbolcu (aktif dönem-inaktif dönem) ve sedanter grubun BGÖ ortalama toplam puanları sırasıyla 3.0±0.62, 2.5±0.55, 2.4±0.56 olarak bulunmuştur. BGÖ toplam puanı ile "besin bulunabilirliği" ve "besinlerin tadına bakılması" alt grup ortalama puanlarının futbolcu aktif grubunda sedanter gruba göre daha yüksek olduğu belirlenmiştir (p<0.05). Futbolcu grubunun aktif döneminde BGÖ toplam puanı ve tüm alt grup puanlarının inaktif oldukları döneme göre daha yüksek olduğu bulunmuştur (p<0.05). Futbolcularda hedonik açlığın ve besinden etkilenmenin sedanter bireylere göre daha yüksek olduğu saptanmıştır (p<0.05). Bireylerin vücut kompozisyonu ile BGÖ toplam puanı arasındaki ilişki futbolcuların aktif döneminde ve sedanter grupta negatif ilişkili bulunurken; futbolcuların inaktif döneminde pozitif ilişkili saptanmıştır (p>0.05). Sonuç: Bu çalışma, uzun süreli ve yoğun egzersizin hedonik süreçler üzerinde etkili olabileceğinin bir göstergesi olabilir. Ancak bu konuya ilişkin literatürdeki çelişkili bulgular nedeni ile olası etkileşimi anlamak için daha fazla araştırma yapılması gerekmektedir.
Exercise modifies energy intake in adolescents with obesity, but whether this is mediated by the exercise-induced energy deficit remains unknown. The present study examined the effect of exercise with and without dietary replacement of the exercise energy expenditure on appetite, energy intake and food reward in adolescents with obesity. Fourteen 12-15 years adolescents with obesity (8girls; Tanner3-4; BMI 34.8±5.7kg/m ² ; BMI-z score 2.3±0.4) randomly completed 3 experimental conditions: i) rest control (CON); ii) 30-min cycling (EX); iii) 30-min cycling with dietary energy replacement (EX+R). Ad libitum energy intake (EI) was assessed at lunch and dinner, and food reward (Leeds Food Preference Questionnaire) before and after lunch. Appetite was assessed at regular intervals. Lunch, evening and total EI (excluding the post-exercise snack in EX-R) were similar across conditions. Lunch and total EI including the post-exercise snack in EX+R were higher in EX-R than CON and EX; EX and CON were similar. Total relative EI was lower in EX (1502±488 kcal) compared with CON (1713±530; p<0.05) and higher in EX+R (1849±486 kcal) compared with CON (p<0.001). Appetite and satiety quotients did not differ across conditions (p≥0.10). Pre-meal explicit liking for fat was lower in EX compared to CON and EX+R (p=0.05). There was time by condition interaction between EX and CON for explicit wanting and liking for fat (p=0.01). Despite similar appetite and energy intake, adolescents with obesity do not adapt their post-exercise food intake to account for immediate dietary replacement of the exercise-induced energy deficit, favoring a short-term positive energy balance.
A high level of dopaminergic activation such as that produced by a high dose of amphetamine suppresses eating, whereas a low level such as that produced by a low dose can have the opposite effect. Like a high dose of amphetamine, a high level of wheel running also suppresses eating. It was hypothesized that this suppression is due to dopaminergic activation produced by wheel running. If so, a relatively small amount of wheel running should produce a low level of dopaminergic activation and thus have the same effect as a low dose of amphetamine: facilitation of eating. In the present experiment, nondeprived rats were allowed to run in a wheel for 30 min before a feeding test. As predicted, a little wheel running facilitated eating in these rats relative to appropriate controls. The present results may be relevant to an understanding of eating disorders in humans.
Three studies were performed to assess the effects of a high-fat diet and exercise-induced changes in fat oxidation on energy intake in humans. In the first study the short-term effect of a high-fat diet on spontaneous energy intake was investigated. The second study evaluated the long-term effect of a high-fat diet on adiposity and the third study evaluated the effect of exercise-induced changes in fat oxidation on short-term regulation of energy intake when subjects were consuming a high-fat diet. The results of these studies indicate that a high-fat diet induces a short-term hyperphagia, a high percentage of lipids in the usual diet is associated with a higher adiposity, and exercise may attenuate or amplify the high-fat, diet-induced hyperphagia, depending on the magnitude of the exercise-induced increase in fat oxidation.
Differences in physical activity represent the largest source of variability in energy requirements, both within and between individuals. Chronic changes in physical activity can produce chronic changes in energy requirements that, if not compensated for, can lead to changes in the level at which body weight and body composition are maintained over time. We present a model that can serve as a framework for understanding how energy and macronutrient balance are maintained in steady state conditions, and for illustrating the potential effect of a change in physical activity on these steady state conditions and on energy requirements. According to the model, a chronic change in physical activity forces changes in other aspects of energy and substrate utilization so that a steady state condition can be reestablished. The net effects of the change in physical activity on energy requirements will depend on how and over what period of time these new steady states are reached. Although we cannot at present predict, for any individual, the precise effect of changes in physical activity on energy requirements and on body weight and composition, our model provides a framework for further study of the factors that can influence energy requirements.
This study assessed whether human food intake is regulated by negative feedback, directly or indirectly, from carbohydrate stores (glycogenostatic model). Six men were studied on three occasions during 7 d of whole-body indirect calorimetry, throughout which they had ad libitum access to one of three covertly manipulated diets: low fat (20% of energy as fat, 67% of energy as carbohydrate, and 13% of energy as protein; 4.80 kJ/g; LF), medium fat (40% of energy as fat, 47% of energy as carbohydrate, and 13% of energy as protein; 5.59 kJ/g; MF), or high fat (60% of energy as fat, 27% of energy as carbohydrate, and 13% of energy as protein; 7.04 kJ/g; HF). Energy intakes increased with percent fat (F[92,60] = 36.7; P < 0.001), producing average daily balances of -0.27, 0.77, and 2.58 MJ/d during the LF, MF, and HF diets, respectively. Changes in carbohydrate stores were attenuated by autoregulatory changes in carbohydrate oxidation. Carbohydrate balance showed a negative relation to the subsequent day's energy balance (t = 2.696; P = 0.0082) but explained only 5.5% of the variance. The relation for fat was positive (t = 5.245; P < 0.0001), accounting for 19.9% of the variance (stepwise regression). LF, lower-energy diets are more satiating than are HF-higher-energy diets, but carbohydrate stores per se did not entirely account for the change that diet composition had on energy intake. This study suggests that protein and carbohydrate have potential to reduce subsequent energy intake whereas there was no apparent reductive effect due to fat.
To examine the effects of two types of vigorous exercise [cycling (CYC) and running (RUN)] and diet composition on appetite control.
Two studies using separate groups of subjects were used for the two forms of exercise. The studies used a 2 x 2 design with the factors being exercise and diet composition. Therefore both studies had four treatment conditions and used a repeated measures design.
Both studies took place in the Human Appetite Research Unit at Leeds University.
Twenty-four lean, healthy males were recruited from the student staff population of Leeds University.
For both studies a control (no-exercise) and a vigorous exercise session (70% VO2 max) was followed by a free-selection lunch comprising high-fat/low-carbohydrate foods or low-fat/high-carbohydrate foods, during which energy and macronutrient intake was monitored. Motivation to eat was measured by visual analogue scales and by the latency to volitional onset of eating. Energy intake for the remainder of the day (outside of laboratory) was monitored by providing the subjects with airline-style food boxes.
Both CYC and RUN produced similar effects on appetite responses. Both CYC and RUN induced a transitory suppression of hunger (P < 0.01 and P < 0.05) and a delay to the onset of eating (P < 0.001). Exercise (whether CYC or RUN) had no significant effect on the total amount of food eaten, but there was a significant effect of lunch type. When provided with the high-fat/low-carbohydrate foods energy intake was significantly elevated (CYC: P < 0.001; and RUN: P < 0.0001). Both types of exercise induced a short-term negative energy balance when followed by the low-fat/high-carbohydrate foods (P < 0.001), which was completely reversed (positive energy balance) when subjects ate from the high-fat/low carbohydrate foods.
These results indicate that eating high-fat foods can prevent exercise inducing any (short-term) negative energy balance. Therefore, in order for exercise to have a significant impact on weight control, it is important to consider the energy density of the accompanying diet. Despite the different physiological aspects of cycling and running, they did not display different effects on appetite.
To examine the effects of a high dose (two high-intensity exercise sessions) of exercise on energy intake (EI) and subjective states (hunger and mood).
Using a within subjects design, there were two treatment conditions, each of two consecutive days.
The Human Appetite Research Unit at Leeds University Psychology Department.
Eight lean males who were regular exercisers were recruited from the student/staff population of Leeds University.
The effects of the high dose of exercise Ex1 were compared with the effects on the day immediately after exercise (Ex2) and two consecutive days of no exercise (R1 and R2). EI was monitored using self-record food diaries and subjective states were tracked using a new Electronic Appetite Rating System (EARS). Heart rate and physical activity were also measured.
Feelings of hunger were not elevated by the high dose of exercise on Ex1 or on the day after exercise (Ex2). In fact, average daily feeling of hunger on Ex1 was significantly lower compared with the average daily feeling of hunger on Ex2 (t = 3.15, d.f. = 7, P < 0.05), but not when compared with R1 or R2. EI and macronutrient intakes were not different on Ex1, Ex2, R1 or R2. Therefore, there were no increase in EI on Ex1 or Ex2 to account for the measured increase in exercise-induced energy expenditure (1200 kcal). Continuously monitored heart rate and activity profiles indicated that there was no difference in activity during the non-exercise periods between the four days.
This study indicates that a high dose of exercise in one day failed to have any effect on EI within the same day or on the day immediately after exercise, compared with days of no exercise. These results demonstrate that an acute but substantial increase in energy expenditure (EE) due to intense exercise does not automatically increase hunger or EI within 48 h. This indicates the absence of any strong coupling between EE and EI in the short-term, probably as a result of food intake being held in place by environmental contingencies and short-term pre-absorptive physiological responses arising from eating itself.
To investigate the short-term effects (one day) of exercise and diet composition on appetite control in restrained females.
2x2 repeated measures design, with exercise and lunch type used as the repeated factors.
The Human Appetite Research Unit at Leeds University Psychology Department.
Twelve dietary restrained females, normal weight and regular exercisers
A control (rest) and a bout of high intensity exercise (cycling 50 min., 70% VO2 max.) was followed by a free-selection lunch comprising high-fat (HF) or low-fat (LF) foods. Hunger and heart rate profiles were tracked. Energy Intake (EI) was monitored in the laboratory throughout the day. Post-meal hedonic ratings were completed after lunch and dinner.
There was a significant effect of lunch type (HF vs LF) on EI following exercise and rest (P < 0.001) and on total 24 h EI (P < 0.05): EI increased during both HF conditions compared to the LF. A main effect of exercise on tastiness and pleasantness (P < 0.05) of the LF foods served at lunch was found. However, there was no effect of exercise on hunger, weight or energy value of food eaten.
Exercise raises the perceived pleasantness of foods in dietary restrained women, but does not increase the drive to eat within 8 h of the cessation of exercise. The combination of physical activity and a low-fat diet could be used advantageously to control appetite, prevent overconsumption and protect against the development of obesity.
An implicit association test (IAT) measures differential association of 2 target concepts with an attribute. The 2 concepts appear in a 2-choice task (2-choice task (e.g., flower vs. insect names), and the attribute in a 2nd task (e.g., pleasant vs. unpleasant words for an evaluation attribute). When instructions oblige highly associated categories (e.g., flower + pleasant) to share a response key, performance is faster than when less associated categories (e.g., insect & pleasant) share a key. This performance difference implicitly measures differential association of the 2 concepts with the attribute. In 3 experiments, the IAT was sensitive to (a) near-universal evaluative differences (e.g., flower vs. insect), (b) expected individual differences in evaluative associations (Japanese + pleasant vs. Korean + pleasant for Japanese vs. Korean subjects), and (c) consciously disavowed evaluative differences (Black + pleasant vs. White + pleasant for self-described unprejudiced White subjects).
Salt preference was evaluated in 21 male students before and after 1 h routine exercise by measuring their preferred concentration of NaCl in tomato soup. Before exercise, baseline measures of preference were similar to those of 21 matched student controls that did not exercise. Immediately after exercise, the amount of NaCl added to flavour the soup increased by approximately 50% in comparison to pre-exercise baselines and to non-exercising controls. Concentration of sugar flavouring tea was unaltered. Twelve hours after exercise, preferred concentrations of both salt in soup and of sugar in tea were elevated. There were no changes, at any of these time intervals, in the preferences of the control students that did not exercise. These delayed and non-specific changes in preferences are attributed to hunger. However, we speculate that the immediate and specific increase in NaCl preference after exercise is due to sodium loss (in perspiration) and/or sympathetic arousal that activates the hormones, aldosterone and angiotensin II in humans, and that in animals increases salt preference. Our findings provide further evidence for the physiological regulation of salt preference in humans.
Assessment of a possible relationship between perception of satiety and diet-induced thermogenesis, with different macronutrient compositions, in a controlled situation over 24 h.
Two diets with different macronutrient compositions were offered to all subjects in randomized order.
The study was executed in the respiration chambers at the department of Human Biology, Maastricht University.
Subjects were eight females, ages 23-33 y, BMI 23+/-3 kg/m2, recruited from University staff and students.
Subjects were fed in energy balance, with protein/carbohydrate/fat: 29/61/10 and 9/30/61 percentage of energy, with fixed meal sizes and meal intervals, and a fixed activity protocol, during 36 h experiments in a respiration chamber. The appetite profile was assessed by questionnaires during the day and during meals. Diet induced thermogenesis was determined as part of the energy expenditure.
Energy balance was almost complete, with non-significant deviations. Diet-Induced-Thermogenesis (DIT) was 14.6+/-2.9%, on the high protein/carbohydrate diet, and 10.5+/-3.8% on the high fat diet (P < 0.01). With the high protein/high carbohydrate diet, satiety was higher during meals (P < 0.001; P < 0.05), as well as over 24 h (P < 0.001), than with the high fat diet. Within one diet, 24 h DIT and satiety were correlated (r = 0.6; P < 0.05). The difference in DIT between the diets correlated with the differences in satiety (r = 0.8; P < 0.01).
In lean women, satiety and DIT were synchronously higher with a high protein/high carbohydrate diet than with a high fat diet. Differences (due to the different macronutrient compositions) in DIT correlated with differences in satiety over 24 h.
To investigate the influences of inactivity and dietary macronutrient composition on energy and fat balance and to look for interactions between them.
Two-day measurements of energy expenditure and substrate oxidation on five occasions; ad libitum food intake from diets of 35% and 60% energy as fat, with and without imposed activity, and a fixed overfeeding at 35% fat with free activity.
Eight normal-weight male volunteers.
Energy expenditure and substrate oxidation by indirect whole-body calorimetry, and macronutrient intakes from food consumption on ad libitum regimens.
Subjects consumed the same energy, mean 11.6 MJ/d, regardless of activity level, on the 35% diet. Subjects consumed more energy on the 60% than the 35% diet, mean 14 vs. 11.6 MJ/d. Inactivity induced a strong positive energy balance: 5.1 (60% diet), and 2.6 MJ/d (35% diet). Energy balance with activity was not significantly different between diets, nor significantly different from zero: 1.1 MJ/d (60% diet), and -0.2 MJ/d (35% diet). When intentionally overfed, subjects failed to compensate by raising voluntary activity.
Energy intake was not regulated over a 2-day period in response to either imposition of inactivity or a high-fat diet. Activity proved essential to the avoidance of significant positive energy balance.
The objective of this investigation was to compare the acute effects of exercise and diet manipulations on energy intake, between dietary restrained and unrestrained females. Comparisons of two studies using an identical 2 x 2 repeated-measures design (level of activity (rest or exercise) and lunch type (high-fat or low-fat)) including thirteen dietary unrestrained and twelve restrained females were performed. Energy expenditure during the rest session was estimated and the energy cost of exercise was measured by indirect calorimetry. Relative energy intake was calculated by subtracting the energy expenditure of the exercise session from the energy intake of the test meal. Post-meal hedonic ratings were completed after lunch. Energy intake and relative energy intake increased during high-fat conditions compared with the low-fat, independently of exercise (P < 0.001). There was a positive relationship between dietary restraint scores and energy intake or relative energy intake in the rest conditions only (r 0.54, P < 0.01). The decrease of relative energy intake between the rest and exercise conditions was higher in restrained than in unrestrained eaters (P < 0.01). These results confirm that a high-fat diet reversed the energy deficit due to exercise. There was no energy compensation in response to an acute bout of exercise during the following meal. In restrained eaters, exercise was more effective in creating an energy deficit than in unrestrained eaters. Exercise may help restrained eaters to maintain control over appetite.
The aims of this study were to quantify the effects of factors such as mode of exercise, body composition and training on the relationship between heart rate and physical activity energy expenditure (measured in kJ x min(-1)) and to develop prediction equations for energy expenditure from heart rate. Regularly exercising individuals (n = 115; age 18-45 years, body mass 47-120 kg) underwent a test for maximal oxygen uptake (VO2max test), using incremental protocols on either a cycle ergometer or treadmill; VO2max ranged from 27 to 81 ml x kg(-1) x min(-1). The participants then completed three steady-state exercise stages on either the treadmill (10 min) or the cycle ergometer (15 min) at 35%, 62% and 80% of VO2max, corresponding to 57%, 77% and 90% of maximal heart rate. Heart rate and respiratory exchange ratio data were collected during each stage. A mixed-model analysis identified gender, heart rate, weight, V2max and age as factors that best predicted the relationship between heart rate and energy expenditure. The model (with the highest likelihood ratio) was used to estimate energy expenditure. The correlation coefficient (r) between the measured and estimated energy expenditure was 0.913. The model therefore accounted for 83.3% (R2) of the variance in energy expenditure in this sample. Because a measure of fitness, such as VO2max, is not always available, a model without VO2max included was also fitted. The correlation coefficient between the measured energy expenditure and estimates from the mixed model without VO2max was 0.857. It follows that the model without a fitness measure accounted for 73.4% of the variance in energy expenditure in this sample. Based on these results, we conclude that it is possible to estimate physical activity energy expenditure from heart rate in a group of individuals with a great deal of accuracy, after adjusting for age, gender, body mass and fitness.
Increased physical activity is an integral part of weight loss programs in adolescents. We hypothesized that exercise could affect appetite-regulating hormones and the subjective desire to eat, which could partly explain the poor success rate of the existing interventions.
The objective of this study was to investigate prospectively the effects of exercise on acylated ghrelin (AG) and desacyl ghrelin (DG) concentrations and on appetite.
The setting for this study was a tertiary care center.
Normal-weight [NW; body mass index (mean +/- se), 20.7 +/- 0.5 kg/m2] and overweight (OW; body mass index, 32.4 +/- 1.7) male adolescents (n = 17/group, age 15.3 +/- 0.2 yr) were studied.
Those studied participated in 5 consecutive days of aerobic exercise (1 h/d).
Changes in AG and DG concentrations and in appetite during a test meal were studied.
Exercise did not significantly affect insulin sensitivity or body weight. Fasting total (AG and DG) ghrelin concentrations were lower in OW (600 +/- 33 pg/ml) compared with NW (764 +/- 33 pg/ml, P < 0.05) boys and were not affected by exercise. In contrast, there was a differential effect of exercise on both AG and DG (P <or= 0.019). AG significantly increased after exercise, and this increase was greater in NW compared with OW adolescents (P < 0.05). Higher AG concentrations were correlated with an increase in markers of appetite (P < 0.05).
Exercise differentially affects AG and DG in NW and OW male adolescents. Our data suggest that total ghrelin does not adequately reflect AG and DG concentrations and that the influence of exercise-induced hormonal changes should be considered to ensure success in weight management.
To identify and characterize the individual variability in compensation for exercise-induced changes in energy expenditure (EE).
Twelve-week exercise intervention.
Thirty-five overweight and obese sedentary men and women (body mass index, 31.8+/-4.1 kg m(-2); age, 39.6+/-11.0 years) were prescribed exercise five times per week for 12 weeks under supervised conditions.
Body weight, body composition, resting metabolic rate (RMR), total daily energy intake (EI) and subjective appetite sensations were measured at weeks 0 and 12.
When all subjects' data were pooled, the mean reduction in body weight (3.7+/-3.6 kg) was significant (P<0.0001) and as predicted, which suggested no compensation for the increase in EE. However, further examination revealed a large individual variability in weight change (-14.7 to +1.7 kg). Subjects were identified as compensators (C) or noncompensators (NC) based on their actual weight loss (mean NC=6.3+/-3.2 kg and C=1.5+/- 2.5 kg) relative to their predicted weight loss. C and NC were characterized by their different metabolic and behavioural compensatory responses. Moderate changes in RMR occurred in C (-69.2+/-268.7 kcal day(-1)) and NC (14.2+/-242.7 kcal day(-1)). EI and average daily subjective hunger increased by 268.2+/-455.4 kcal day(-1) and 6.9+/-11.4 mm day(-1) in C, whereas EI decreased by 130+/-485 kcal day(-1) and there was no change in subjective appetite (0.4+/-9.6 mm day(-1)) in NC.
These results demonstrate that expressing the exercise-induced change in body weight as a group mean conceals the large inter-individual variability in body weight and compensatory responses. Individuals who experience a lower than predicted weight loss are compensating for the increase in EE.
An activity-induced increase in energy expenditure theoretically disturbs energy balance (EB) by creating an acute energy deficit. Compensatory responses could influence the weight loss associated with the energy deficit. Individual variability in compensation for perturbations in EB could partly explain why some individuals fail to lose weight with exercise. It is accepted that the regulatory system will readily defend impositions that promote a negative EB. Therefore, a criticism of exercise interventions is that they will be ineffective and futile methods of weight control because the acute energy deficit is counteracted. Compensation for exercise-induced energy deficits can be categorized into behavioral or metabolic responses and automatic or volitional. An automatic compensatory response is a biological inevitability and considered to be obligatory. An automatic compensatory response is typically a metabolic consequence (e.g., reduced resting metabolic rate) of a negative EB. In contrast, a volitional compensatory response tends to be deliberate and behavioral, which the individual intentionally performs (e.g., increased snack intake). The purpose of this review is to highlight the various metabolic and behavioral compensatory responses that could reduce the effectiveness of exercise and explain why some individuals experience a lower than expected weight loss. We propose that the extent and degree of compensation will vary between individuals. That is, some individuals will be predisposed to compensatory responses that render them resistant to the weight loss benefits theoretically associated with an exercise-induced increase in energy expenditure. Therefore, given the inter-individual variability in behavioral and metabolic compensatory responses, exercise prescriptions might be more effective if tailored to suit individuals.Keywords: energy balance, exercise, appetite
Exercise is known to cause physiological changes that could affect the impact of nutrients on appetite control. This study was designed to assess the effect of drinks containing either sucrose or high-intensity sweeteners on food intake following exercise. Using a repeated-measures design, three drink conditions were employed: plain water (W), a low-energy drink sweetened with artificial sweeteners aspartame and acesulfame-K (L), and a high-energy, sucrose-sweetened drink (H). Following a period of challenging exercise (70% VO2 max for 50 min), subjects consumed freely from a particular drink before being offered a test meal at which energy and nutrient intakes were measured. The degree of pleasantness (palatability) of the drinks was also measured before and after exercise. At the test meal, energy intake following the artificially sweetened (L) drink was significantly greater than after water and the sucrose (H) drinks (p < 0.05). Compared with the artificially sweetened (L) drink, the high-energy (H) drink suppressed intake by approximately the energy contained in the drink itself. However, there was no difference between the water (W) and the sucrose (H) drink on test meal energy intake. When the net effects were compared (i.e., drink + test meal energy intake), total energy intake was significantly lower after the water (W) drink compared with the two sweet (L and H) drinks. The exercise period brought about changes in the perceived pleasantness of the water, but had no effect on either of the sweet drinks. The remarkably precise energy compensation demonstrated after the higher energy sucrose drink suggests that exercise may prime the system to respond sensitively to nutritional manipulations. The results may also have implications for the effect on short-term appetite control of different types of drinks used to quench thirst during and after exercise.
Food choices and diet composition have been studied less often than energy intake in subjects with varying levels of physical activity. The reported effects of exercise on food choices are not fully consistent, especially on the short term. Type of exercise, intensity, duration can affect the results as well as subjects' characteristics (gender, age, previous training and fitness). A crucial role could also be played by psychological (chronic dieting, attitudes toward health and food, long-established food habits and preferences) and social (traditions, food availability, appropriate times and places) factors. In short-term intervention studies, where a meal is ingested a few minutes following a bout of exercise of varying duration and intensity, an increase in CHO intake is most often reported, while increased protein intake is an occasional observation. In long-term (several weeks) training interventions, intake is assessed from dietary records. Again CHO intake is augmented in exercised subjects as compared to controls, while that of saturated fats and cholesterol may also be affected. Epidemiological studies (without dietary or exercise intervention) often report that habitually active persons eat more and ingest more fruits and vegetables than less active peers. It is not known to what extent such food choices are driven by biological needs (e.g. replacement of glycogen) or elicited by social and psychological factors.
Responsiveness to sensory-based food cues was examined in restrained and unrestrained, normal-weight subjects identified with the Three-Factor Eating Questionnaire. Salivary flow rate was measured with no food present and while subjects viewed hot pizza. In the presence of food, restrained eaters had a mean salivary flow rate (0.388 g/min) greater than twice that of the unrestrained eaters (0.186 g/min). During sensory specific satiety testing, subjects tasted and rated the pleasantness of 9 foods, then received a meal of either cheese and crackers or cookies. Changes in pleasantness for the tasted foods were evaluated at 2, 20, and 40 min following the meal. Both restrained and unrestrained subjects displayed similar patterns of sensory specific satiety, i.e., the pleasantness foods which were eaten decreased relative to foods tasted but not eaten. These patterns were unaffected by the type of food consumed in the test meal. These data demonstrate that restrained eaters show moderately enhanced salivary responses but no changes in sensory-specific satiety to food stimuli, suggesting that heightened responsiveness to the sensory properties of foods may not be a generalized phenomenon in restrained eaters.
This report describes the construction of a questionnaire to measure three dimensions of human eating behavior. The first step was a collation of items from two existing questionnaires that measure the related concepts of 'restrained eating' and 'latent obesity', to which were added items newly written to elucidate these concepts. This version was administered to several populations selected to include persons who exhibited the spectrum from extreme dietary restraint to extreme lack of restraint. The resulting responses were factor analyzed and the resulting factor structure was used to revise the questionnaire. This process was then repeated: administration of the revised questionnaire to groups representing extremes of dietary restraint, factor analysis of the results and questionnaire revision. Three stable factors emerged: (1) 'cognitive restraint of eating', (2) 'disinhibition' and (3) 'hunger'. The new 51-item questionnaire measuring these factors is presented.
To examine the effects of exercise on short term energy intake and to investigate the existence of exercise-induced anorexia.
Two studies were conducted, both with three treatment conditions and employing a repeated measures design.
The Human Appetite Research Unit at Leeds University Psychology department.
Twenty three healthy, lean male subjects (n = 11 and n = 12 respectively) were recruited from the student/staff population of Leeds University.
Subjects were randomly assigned to a control, low intensity and high intensity exercise treatment in the first study and to a control, short duration and long duration exercise treatment (high intensity) in the second. Motivation to eat was measured by visual analogue rating scales and by the length of the time between the end of exercise and the volitional onset of eating. Energy and macronutrient intakes were measured by means of a free-selection test meal and by recorded intakes for the next 2 days.
Subjective feelings of hunger were significantly suppressed during and after intense exercise sessions (P 0.01), but the suppression was short-lived. Exercise sessions had no significant effect on the total amount of food consumed in the test meal but intense exercise delayed the start of eating (P < 0.05). When energy intake was assessed relative to the energy expended during the exercise or control periods, only the long duration, high intensity session created a significant short-term negative energy balance (P < 0.001).
These studies indicate that exercise-induced anorexia can be characterized by a brief suppression of hunger, accompanied by a delay to the onset of eating. The temporal aspects of exercise-induced anorexia may best be measured by the resistance to begin eating rather than the amount of food consumed.
What are the neural substrates of food reward? Are reward and pleasure identical? Can taste pleasure be assessed in animals? Is reward necessarily conscious? These questions have re-emerged in recent years, and there is now sufficient evidence to prompt re-examination of many preconceptions concerning reward and its relation to brain systems. This paper reviews evidence from many sources regarding both the psychological structure of food reward and the neural systems that mediate it. Special attention is paid to recent evidence from "tasty reactivity" studies of affective reactions to food. I argue that this evidence suggests the following surprising possibilities regarding the functional components and brain substrates of food reward. (1) Reward contains distinguishable psychological or functional components--"liking" (pleasure/palatability) and "wanting" (appetite/incentive motivation). These can be manipulated and measured separately. (2) Liking and wanting have separable neural substrates. Mediation of liking related to food reward involves neurotransmitter systems such as opioid and GABA/benzodiazepine systems, and anatomical structures such as ventral pallidum and brainstem primary gustatory relays. Mediation of wanting related to food reward involves mesotelencephalic dopamine systems, and divisions of nucleus accumbens and amygdala. Both liking and wanting arise from vastly distributed neural systems, but the two systems are separable. (3) Neural processing of food reward is not confined to the limbic forebrain. Aspects of food reward begin to be processed in the brainstem. A neural manipulation can enhance reward or produce aversion but no single lesion or transection is likely abolish all properties of food reward. (4) Both wanting and liking can exist without subjective awareness. Conscious experience can distort or blur the underlying reward process that gave rise to it. Subjective reports may contain false assessments of underlying processes, or even fail at all to register important reward processes. The core processes of liking and wanting that constitute reward are distinct from the subjective report or conscious awareness of those processes.
To examine the short-term effects of exercise and diet composition on appetite in unrestrained females.
A 2 x 2 repeated measures design study was conducted, with exercise and lunch type as the repeated factors.
The Human Appetite Research Unit at Leeds University Psychology department.
13 unrestrained, normal weight females were recruited from the student and staff population of Leeds University.
Subjects were assigned to four experimental treatments in a counterbalanced order. These were a control (no-exercise) session and an intense (70% VO2 max) exercise session followed by a free-selection test lunch consisting of high-fat/low-carbohydrate or low-fat/high-carbohydrate foods. The effects of exercise and lunch type were measured by monitoring energy intake and macronutrient intake during the test lunches only. Visual analogue scales were used to monitor profiles of motivation to eat during the treatments.
Subjects did not experience the marked suppression of hunger induced by exercise, which is a striking and robust finding in men. Moreover, unlike men, females rated a range of foods to be more palatable after exercise (F(1,12) = 8.0, P < 0.05). Similar to male subjects, exercise in females had no significant short-term effect on energy or macronutrient intake. Energy intake was significantly influenced by the fat:carbohydrate composition of the foods available (F(1,12) = 64.7, P < 0.001), and the short-term energy deficit induced by exercise when followed by low-fat lunch was completely wiped out when exercise was followed by a high-fat lunch (F(1,12) = 66.2, P < 0.001).
These results show that there are similarities and differences between males and females in the appetite response to foods varying in macronutrient composition following vigorous exercise. The differences may help to explain why exercise so often produces a disappointing effect on weight control in females.
A high level of dopaminergic activation such as that produced by a high dose of amphetamine suppresses eating, whereas a low level such as that produced by a low dose can have the opposite effect. Like a high dose of amphetamine, a high level of wheel running also suppresses eating. It was hypothesized that this suppression is due to dopaminergic activation produced by wheel running. If so, a relatively small amount of wheel running should produce a low level of dopaminergic activation and thus have the same effect as a low dose of amphetamine: facilitation of eating. In the present experiment, nondeprived rats were allowed to run in a wheel for 30 min before a feeding test. As predicted, a little wheel running facilitated eating in these rats relative to appropriate controls. The present results may be relevant to an understanding of eating disorders in humans.
To study the effect of exercise on appetite in men, hunger, thirst, taste perception, energy intake, and macronutrient choice were assessed in relation to exercise and to sauna; the latter was done to correct for dehydration and rise in body temperature. Since exercise is used to prevent and cure obesity, subjects included obese as well as nonobese men. Thirty subjects (25 +/- 7 years, BMI 22.8 +/- 1.6 and 28.5 +/- 1.9) were given twice, in random order before and after 2 h of cycling at 60% of Wmax, 2 h of sauna, or 2 h of rest, an ample choice from solid and liquid almost single-macronutrient food items and a taste perception test with solutions of sucrose, citric acid, NaCl, quinine, a mixture of these, and a carbohydrate electrolyte solution. After cycling as well as after sauna, in comparison to after rest, subjects lost 3 +/- 0.5% of body mass, while thirst, fluid intake, perception of sweet at relatively low concentrations, and percentage of energy coming from carbohydrate increased significantly. Only after cycling compared to after rest did perception of bitterness at a low concentration increase and hunger and energy intake decrease. We conclude that exercise induced a short-term reduction in hunger and energy intake, whereas exercise and sauna induced a short-term increase in taste perception of sweet at the lower concentration, while macronutrient preference of carbohydrate increased.
The effects of physical exercise on preference for various sapid solutions was studied in 58 healthy university students. After 30 min of exercise using a bicycle ergometer at 50% VO2max (maximal oxygen uptake) intensity, a rating scale test on taste hedonic tone and the triangle test for taste absolute threshold were done. The test solutions were sucrose, NaCl, citric acid, caffeine and monosodium glutamate (MSG). Preference scale values for sucrose and citric acid increased after exercise, whereas the values for NaCl, caffeine and MSG were not changed. The absolute thresholds for all the sapid solutions did not differ for pre- and post-exercise. These findings indicate that in humans preference for sucrose and citric acid increase after physical exercise.
The relationship between physical activity and energy intake (food consumption) can take a number of forms, depending on the intensity, duration and frequency of the activity, and upon the degrees of fitness and physiological status of the individual. At extremes of energy expenditure such as those found in long distance cyclists, voluntary energy intake may be sufficient to balance the enormous daily expenditure; this is due to an entraining effect. Under more normal situations, there is a widely held belief that physical activity is a poor strategy for losing weight, since the energy expended drives up hunger and food intake to compensate for the energy deficit incurred. Recent studies in both normal weight and obese individuals show that substantial periods of exercise do not increase hunger and do not drive up food intake. Comparisons between sedentary and normally active individuals, or between enforced periods of rest or strenuous activity, generate little or no effect on levels of hunger or daily energy intake, indicating a rather loose physiological coupling between energy expenditure and food intake. This view generates an optimistic view of the role of exercise in weight loss and weight control, as it indicates that intake is not automatically driven up to compensate for energy expended. Reasons why physical activity often produces disappointing effects, rise from inappropriate food choices, a desire for self-reward after exercise and misjudgements about the relative rates at which energy can be expended (by exercise) or taken in (by eating). This means that physical activity will be most beneficial for weight control, if carried out in conjunction with a low energy dense diet or with judicious control of eating.
The diminished capacity to experience pleasure or reward ("anhedonia") has its biological underpinnings in the mesolimbic dopamine system and is strongly implicated in risk for a variety of addictive behaviors. The present study tested the prediction that patients with anorexia nervosa (AN) would be more anhedonic than those with bulimia nervosa (BN)-a factor that could contribute to their respective avoidance and approach relationship to food. We also tested the idea that anhedonia would be correlated with high-level exercising from the viewpoint that the latter serves as a compensatory behavior for a blunted affect. AN patients of the restrictor subtype (n = 78) and BN patients with no history of AN (n = 76) were included in the regression analyses. Patients were also classified as excessive exercisers or moderate/nonexercisers according to information gathered during a structured clinical interview. Findings were largely supportive of our predictions. AN patients were highly anhedonic compared to BN patients, and excessive exercisers tended to be more anhedonic than those who did not exercise. We discuss the AN-BN differences in capacity for reward/pleasure in the context of the common psychobiological links between the eating disorders and drug and alcohol addiction, and speculate on how these differences might relate to the etiology and pathophysiology of both AN and BN.
Advances in neurobiology permit neuroscientists to manipulate specific brain molecules, neurons and systems. This has lead to major advances in the neuroscience of reward. Here, it is argued that further advances will require equal sophistication in parsing reward into its specific psychological components: (1) learning (including explicit and implicit knowledge produced by associative conditioning and cognitive processes); (2) affect or emotion (implicit 'liking' and conscious pleasure) and (3) motivation (implicit incentive salience 'wanting' and cognitive incentive goals). The challenge is to identify how different brain circuits mediate different psychological components of reward, and how these components interact.