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Endurance and neuromuscular changes in world-class level kayakers during a periodized training cycle
Abstract
This study was undertaken to analyze changes in selected cardiovascular and neuromuscular variables in a group of elite kayakers across a 12-week periodized cycle of combined strength and endurance training. Eleven world-class level paddlers underwent a battery of tests and were assessed four times during the training cycle (T0, T1, T2, and T3). On each occasion subjects completed an incremental test to exhaustion on the kayak-ergometer to determine maximal oxygen uptake (VO2max), second ventilatory threshold (VT2), peak blood lactate, paddling speed at VO2max (PSmax) and at VT2 (PSVT2), stroke rate at VO2max and at VT2, heart rate at VO2max and at VT2. One-repetition maximum (1RM) and mean velocity with 45% 1RM load (V
45%) were assessed in the bench press (BP) and prone bench pull (PBP) exercises. Anthropometric measurements (skinfold thicknesses and muscle girths) were also obtained. Training volume and exercise intensity were quantified for each of three training phases (P1, P2, and P3). Significant improvements in VO2max (9.5%), VO2 at VT2 (9.4%), PSmax (6.2%), PSVT2 (4.4%), 1RM in BP (4.2%) and PBP (5.3%), V
45% in BP (14.4%) and PBP (10.0%) were observed from T0 to T3. A 12-week periodized strength and endurance program with special emphasis on prioritizing the sequential development of specific physical fitness components in each training phase (i.e. muscle hypertrophy and VT2 in P1, and maximal strength and aerobic power in P2) seems effective for improving both cardiovascular and neuromuscular markers of highly trained top-level athletes.
... This partitioning into zones allows the fractional distribution of exercise intensity (e.g., within a training session or a mesoand macrocycle) to be quantified. Previously, the following three-zone model has been employed most widely: (i) Zone (Z) 1, in which the intensity is at or below the aerobic threshold; (ii) Z2, with an intensity between the aerobic and anaerobic thresholds; and (iii) Z3, involving an intensity above the anaerobic threshold (Esteve-Lanao et al., 2005;Seiler and Kjerland, 2006;García-Pallarés et al., 2009Plews et al., 2014;Baldassarre et al., 2019;Bellinger et al., 2020). [For further details concerning the concepts of aerobic and anaerobic thresholds, please see Faude et al. (2009)]. ...
... To date, only two prospective reports have evaluated the utilization of different TID by elite sprint kayakers (García-Pallarés et al., 2009, revealing that for these athletes an emphasis on Z2 or Z3 is effective and comparable to the pyramidal or polarized TID in other sports in which the legs play a predominant role. However, prospective training interventions such as these are relatively short and often alter the typical training schedule in an artificial manner. ...
... One explanation for this finding is that low-intensity training is needed to counteract potential negative effects (e.g., autonomic and hormonal stress, energy depletion) of training at intensities at or above threshold intensity (Bourgois et al., 2019). In contrast, two prospective examinations of the TID of elite Spanish sprint kayakers describe an emphasis on Z2 and Z3, with a block of high-intensity peaking designed to improve submaximal and maximal performance (García-Pallarés et al., 2009. The first of these studies involved 12 weeks of such block periodization and the follow-up study this same 12-week block periodization in combination with 22 weeks of linear periodization divided into three periods of training. ...
Purpose: To evaluate retrospectively the training intensity distribution (TID) among highly trained canoe sprinters during a single season and to relate TID to changes in performance.
Methods: The heart rates during on-water training by 11 German sprint kayakers (7 women, 4 men) and one male canoeist were monitored during preparation periods (PP) 1 and 2, as well as during the period of competition (CP) (total monitoring period: 37 weeks). The zones of training intensity (Z) were defined as Z1 [<80% of peak oxygen consumption (VO 2peak )], Z2 (81–87% VO 2peak ) and Z3 (>87% VO 2peak ), as determined by 4 × 1,500-m incremental testing on-water. Prior to and after each period, the time required to complete the last 1,500-m stage (all-out) of the incremental test (1,500-m time-trial), velocities associated with 2 and 4 mmol·L ⁻¹ blood lactate (v2 [BLa] , v4 [BLa] ) and VO 2peak were determined.
Results: During each period, the mean TID for the entire group was pyramidal (PP1: 84/12/4%, PP2: 80/12/8% and CP: 91/5/4% for Z1, Z2, Z3) and total training time on-water increased from 5.0 ± 0.9 h (PP1) to 6.1 ± 0.9 h (PP2) and 6.5 ± 1.0 h (CP). The individual ranges for Z1, Z2 and Z3 were 61–96, 2–26 and 0–19%. During PP2 VO 2peak (25.5 ± 11.4%) markedly increased compared to PP1 and CP and during PP1 v2 [bla] (3.6 ± 3.4%) showed greater improvement compared to PP2, but not to CP. All variables related to performance improved as the season progressed, but no other effects were observed. With respect to time-trial performance, the time spent in Z1 ( r = 0.66, p = 0.01) and total time in all three zones ( r = 0.66, p = 0.01) showed positive correlations, while the time spent in Z2 ( r = −0.57, p = 0.04) was negatively correlated.
Conclusions: This seasonal analysis of the effects of training revealed extensive inter-individual variability. Overall, TID was pyramidal during the entire period of observation, with a tendency toward improvement in VO 2peak , v2 [bla] , v4 [bla] and time-trial performance. During PP2, when the COVID-19 lockdown was in place, the proportion of time spent in Z3 doubled, while that spent in Z1 was lowered; the total time spent training on water increased; these changes may have accentuated the improvement in performance during this period. A further increase in total on-water training time during CP was made possible by reductions in the proportions of time spent in Z2 and Z3, so that more fractions of time was spent in Z1.
... In two studies [15,18] the velocity loss method was used, where the set of the given exercise is stopped after movement velocity falls below a certain threshold. Garcia-Pallares et al. [15] analyzed changes in selected cardiovascular and neuromuscular variables during a 12-week training cycle. ...
... In two studies [15,18] the velocity loss method was used, where the set of the given exercise is stopped after movement velocity falls below a certain threshold. Garcia-Pallares et al. [15] analyzed changes in selected cardiovascular and neuromuscular variables during a 12-week training cycle. Using this periodized cycle, eleven world-class level paddlers underwent a battery of tests four times (T0, T1, T2, and T3). ...
... This in turn will help maintain a higher quality of neuromuscular work (strength, power, speed) performed during a training session and ultimately increase specific performance (sprint, jump, change of direction performance, etc.). Velocity losses/thresholds of 10% [15], 15%, and 30% [18] were used in the reviewed studies. ...
Due to drawbacks of the percentage-based approach, velocity-based training was proposed as a method to better and more accurately prescribe training loads to increase general and specific performance. The purpose of this study was to perform a systematic review of the studies that show effects of velocity-based resistance training on strength and power performance in elite athletes. Electronic searches of computerized databases were performed according to a protocol that was agreed by all co-authors. Four databases—SportDiscus with Full Text and MEDLINE via EBSCO, SCOPUS, and Web of Science—were searched. Seven studies were found which researched the effects of velocity-based resistance training on athletes after a given training period. The analyzed studies suggest that applying velocity losses of 10–20% can help induce neuromuscular adaptations and reduce neuromuscular fatigue. Using velocity zones as part of a separate or combined (e.g., plyometric) training program can elicit adaptations in body composition and performance parameters. Moreover, velocity zones can be programmed using a periodized or non-periodized fixed velocity zones protocol. Lastly, obtaining instantaneous feedback during training is a more effective tool for increasing performance in sport-specific parameters, and should be used by sport practitioners to help keep athletes accountable for their performance.
... However, the ecological validity of such testing is questionable, with prior research showing discrepancies in physiological parameters, stroke rates (SR), muscle activity patterns and kinematic profiles between ergometer and on-water performance (Fleming, Donne, Fletcher, & Mahony, 2012;Klitgaard, Hauge, Oliveira, & Heinen, 2020;Villarino-Cabezas, González-Ravé, Santos-García, & Valdivielso, 2013;Winchcombe, Binnie, Doyle, Hogan, & Peeling, 2019). Furthermore, due to the technical difficulty of measuring PO on-water, the heart rate (HR) collected during the GXT that correspond to LT 1 and LT 2 are commonly used to demarcate onwater intensity into various training zones, which is then used for training monitoring and prescription purposes (Bullock et al., 2012;García-Pallarés, Sánchez-Medina, Carrasco, Díaz, & Izquierdo, 2009). However, HR measures can be heavily influenced by day-to-day biological variability (Bagger, 2003), and are limited by cardiovascular drift, delay, and the relative amplitude of the slow component of HR kinetics (Hogan, Binnie, Doyle, Lester, & Peeling, 2020a;Hogan, Binnie, Doyle, Lester, & Peeling, 2020b;Sanders, Myers, & Akubat, 2017;Zuccarelli, Porcelli, Rasica, Marzorati, & Grassi, 2018); accordingly, more direct and immediate measures of PO may be better suited for monitoring and prescribing training (Hogan et al., 2020a(Hogan et al., , 2020bSanders et al., 2017). ...
... From a training prescription perspective, the ability to accurately define athletes' LT 1 is important given that athletes from endurance-based sports spend ∼75% of their training at or below this threshold (Seiler & Kjerland, 2006). Indeed, training at or below LT 1 is particularly important early in the season or during an accumulation training phase where training is intended to develop aerobic endurance (García-Pallarés et al., 2009;Issurin, 2008). Given that maximal efforts over race-specific distances may not be relevant during these periods, and that the SEEs for the regression equations incorporating 1000-m MMP may be too high to accurately estimate LT 1 PO based upon time-trial data alone (SEE = 11.3%), the use of on-water GXTs may be the preferred testing methodology for delineating training zones during this time. ...
... Given that maximal efforts over race-specific distances may not be relevant during these periods, and that the SEEs for the regression equations incorporating 1000-m MMP may be too high to accurately estimate LT 1 PO based upon time-trial data alone (SEE = 11.3%), the use of on-water GXTs may be the preferred testing methodology for delineating training zones during this time. However, as athletes reach more competitive phases of the season, and both training intensities above LT 2 PO and performance over race-specific distances becomes more important (García-Pallarés et al., 2009), the use of a 1000-m timetrial could potentially become more relevant than GXTs for assessing performance and for estimating physiological thresholds to help delineate on-water training. The ability to inform athletes' LT 2 PO from a single 1000m time-trial is advantageous since it would provide a more feasible, and time-efficient testing protocol within the athletes' training schedule compared to GXTs, potentially allowing coaches and practitioners to monitor changes in LT 2 PO, and subsequently review individual training zones, more regularly. ...
This study utilised on‐water graded exercise tests (GXT) to determine the power output (PO) corresponding to the first and second lactate thresholds (LT 1 PO and LT 2 PO), subsequently examining their relationship to the mean maximal power (MMP) and race time achieved across three on‐water sprint kayak time‐trials. Twelve well‐trained sprint kayak athletes completed an on‐water GXT and a 200‐, 500‐ and 1000‐m time‐trial utilising novel instrumented paddle technology. Stepwise multiple regression was used to determine whether equations incorporating 200‐, 500‐ and 1000‐m MMP data could be used as an alternative method for estimating LT 1 PO and LT 2 PO. On‐water GXT derived LT 1 PO and LT 2 PO were 151 ± 34 and 194 ± 39 W, respectively. For the 200‐, 500‐ and 1000‐m time‐trials, MMP were 528 ± 143, 358 ± 92 and 287 ± 67 W, respectively. Athletes’ LT 1 PO and LT 2 PO had very‐large inverse relationships to 200‐, 500‐ and 1000‐m time‐to‐completion ( r = −.71 to −.85, P ≤ .010) and very‐large, to near‐perfect positive relationships to 200‐, 500‐ and 1000‐m MMP ( r = .81 to. 94, P ≤ .001). The equation incorporating 1000‐m MMP alone provided the best prediction of LT 1 PO and LT 2 PO, explaining 78% and 88% of the variance, and yielding a standard error of estimate (SEE) of 11.3% and 7.1% for these measures, respectively. The results of this study provide further evidence to support the ecological validity of recently developed on‐water GXTs graded by PO, since LT 1 PO and LT 2 PO were significantly correlated to 200‐, 500‐ and 1000‐m performance. Practitioners could also predict LT 2 PO with reasonable accuracy based solely from a 1000‐m time‐trial; potentially providing an alternative, non‐invasive, competition‐specific protocol for threshold determination.
Highlights
The fact that LT1PO and LT2PO had very‐large, to near‐perfect positive relationships to 200‐, 500‐ and 1000‐m MMP suggests that coaches should consider these relative submaximal aerobic‐fitness variables when evaluating the performance of sprint kayak athletes, regardless of their race specialty.
While the SEE and 95% limits of agreement (95%LoA) values for the prediction of LT 1 PO may be too large to be practically meaningful, measures of LT 2 PO could be predicted with a reasonable level of accuracy based upon 1000‐m MMP.
The ability to inform athletes' LT 2 PO from a single 1000‐m time‐trial is advantageous since it would provide a more feasible, and time‐efficient testing protocol within the athletes' training schedule compared to GXTs, potentially allowing coaches and practitioners to monitor changes in LT 2 PO, and subsequently review individual training zones, more regularly.
Given that LT 1 PO and LT 2 PO derived from on‐water GXTs had very‐large, to nearly perfect relationships to 200‐, 500‐ and 1000‐m performance, practitioners may prefer to use on‐water, rather than laboratory‐based GXTs given their greater practical significance and ecological validity.
... To overload specific variables that optimise physical performance preparation, professional team-sport athletes often perform multiple training sessions per day (Johnston et al., 2017), including technical, speed, aerobic and strength-focused activities. Whilst some studies report positive adaptations to the performance of multiple training sessions, or training aims, in a concurrent training paradigm (García-Pallarés, Sánchez-Medina, Carrasco, Díaz, & Izquierdo, 2009), a reduced training effect (Jones, Howatson, Russell, & French, 2016), proposed due to a failure to maintain training performance (Leveritt, Abernethy, Barry, & Logan, 1999) and compromised molecular signalling (Hawley, 2009), may also occur. The physiological responses to, and fatigue experienced after, exercise is specific to the intensity (Seiler, Haugen, & Kuffel, 2007), volume (Lepers, Maffiuletti, Rochette, Brugniaux, & Millet, 2002) and mode (Sparkes et al., 2020) and can persist for several days (Brownstein et al., 2017). ...
... 5-6 h between training sessions), speed training performance may be enhanced when preceded by strength training two hours prior (Johnston et al., 2017). When repeated, this enhanced training performance may result in greater adaptive response and improved competitive performance (García-Pallarés et al., 2009). However, as the performance of prior training may impair subsequent performance (Doma & Deakin, 2013) and strength development (Jones et al., 2016), it is clear that the understanding of these responses is important when targeting specific adaptations (García-Pallarés et al., 2009). ...
... When repeated, this enhanced training performance may result in greater adaptive response and improved competitive performance (García-Pallarés et al., 2009). However, as the performance of prior training may impair subsequent performance (Doma & Deakin, 2013) and strength development (Jones et al., 2016), it is clear that the understanding of these responses is important when targeting specific adaptations (García-Pallarés et al., 2009). ...
The 20 h responses of International female netball players to training days requiring two sessions (netball and strength, separated by two hours) ordered alternatively were examined. Eleven players completed strength followed by netball training two hours later (STR-NET), with the order reversed (NET-STR) on a separate day. Well-being, neuromuscular performance (jump height [JH], peak power output [PPO], peak velocity [PV]) and endocrine function (testosterone, cortisol concentrations) were measured before sessions one (PreS1) and two (PreS2), immediately after sessions one (IPS1) and two (IPS2), and 20 h post session one (20P). Session and differential ratings of perceived exertion (upper-body, cognitive/technical [RPE-T], lower-body, breathlessness), were collected, and accelerometry and heart rate measured netball load. Identification of clear between-order differences were based on the nonoverlap of the 95% confidence interval (95%CI) for mean differences relative to baseline. Compared to PreS1, greater increases in JH (percentage difference between trials; 95%CI: 9%; 4 to 14%), PPO (5%; 2 to 8%), PV (3%; 1 to 5%) and cortisol concentration (45%; 1 to 88%), and a greater decrease for testosterone/cortisol ratio (-35%; -72 to -2%) occurred at PreS2 in NET-STR. At 20P, greater decreases in JH (10%; 5 to 15%), PPO (4%; 1 to 8%) and PV (4%; 2 to 6%) were observed following STR-NET. No differences existed for well-being, whilst RPE-T was greater (15 AU; 3 to 26 AU) for strength training during NET-STR. Session order influenced neuromuscular and endocrine responses in International female netball players, highlighting session ordering as a key consideration when planning training.
... The incremental maximal test protocol had earlier been applied on world class paddlers [18]. Briefly, five min warm-up at a target speed of 9 km h -1 was performed first. ...
... at the beginning of a training period [18]. Of note, the present kayakers were relatively young. ...
Moderate paddling, as in long distance kayaking, constitutes an endurance activity, which shares
energetic aspects with activities such as long distance running and road cycling. The aim of the present study
was to investigate whether in moderate paddling there is a U-shaped relationship between oxygen uptake and
stroke rate, and also whether elite kayakers apply a freely chosen stroke rate, which is energetically optimal.
Eleven young male elite kayakers performed moderate kayak ergometry at preset target stroke rates of 65, 75,
and 90 strokes min-1, and at a freely chosen stroke rate, while physiological responses including oxygen uptake
were measured. The results showed that considering average values calculated across all participants, there
was an approximately U-shaped relationship between oxygen uptake and target stroke rate with a minimum
at 75 strokes min-1. The freely chosen stroke rate was 67.0 ± 6.1 strokes min-1. Thus, the freely chosen stroke
rate, for the group in total, appeared to be lower and require higher oxygen uptake as compared to the
energetically optimal preset target stroke rate. Eight out of 11 participants had a higher oxygen uptake
(5.1% ± 6.7%, p = 0.028, across all participants) at their freely chosen stroke rate than at the preset target
stroke rate, which resulted in the lowest oxygen uptake. In conclusion, an approximately U-shaped relationship
between oxygen uptake and stroke rate for young elite kayakers during moderate ergometer kayaking was
found. Additionally, the freely chosen stroke rate was systematically lower and, consequently, required higher
oxygen uptake than the preset stroke rate, which resulted in the lowest oxygen uptake.
... The incremental maximal test protocol had earlier been applied on world class paddlers [18]. Briefly, five min warm-up at a target speed of 9 km h -1 was performed first. ...
... at the beginning of a training period [18]. Of note, the present kayakers were relatively young. ...
Moderate paddling, as in long distance kayaking, constitutes an endurance activity, which shares energetic aspects with activities such as long distance running and road cycling. The aim of the present study was to investigate whether in moderate paddling there is a U-shaped relationship between oxygen uptake and stroke rate, and also whether elite kayakers apply a freely chosen stroke rate, which is energetically optimal. Eleven young male elite kayakers performed moderate kayak ergometry at preset target stroke rates of 65, 75, and 90 strokes min-1, and at a freely chosen stroke rate, while physiological responses including oxygen uptake were measured. The results showed that considering average values calculated across all participants, there was an approximately U-shaped relationship between oxygen uptake and target stroke rate with a minimum at 75 strokes min-1. The freely chosen stroke rate was 67.0 ± 6.1 strokes min-1. Thus, the freely chosen stroke rate, for the group in total, appeared to be lower and require higher oxygen uptake as compared to the energetically optimal preset target stroke rate. Eight out of 11 participants had a higher oxygen uptake (5.1% ± 6.7%, p = 0.028, across all participants) at their freely chosen stroke rate than at the preset target stroke rate, which resulted in the lowest oxygen uptake. In conclusion, an approximately U-shaped relationship between oxygen uptake and stroke rate for young elite kayakers during moderate ergometer kayaking was found. Additionally, the freely chosen stroke rate was systematically lower and, consequently, required higher oxygen uptake than the preset stroke rate, which resulted in the lowest oxygen uptake.
... Trunk and upper extremities hugely participate in paddling efforts to overcome water resistance on both sprint and slalom races García-García et al., 2015). Thus, strength and conditioning coaches regularly prescribe dry-land training based on the bench press and pull for paddlers (García-Pallarés et al., 2009;Bielik et al., 2018). This factor explains why these exercises are adopted for studying the strength/power of these athletes (García-Pallarés et al., 2009;García-Pallarés and Izquierdo, 2011;Ualí et al., 2012;McKean and Burkett, 2014;Bielik et al., 2018). ...
... Thus, strength and conditioning coaches regularly prescribe dry-land training based on the bench press and pull for paddlers (García-Pallarés et al., 2009;Bielik et al., 2018). This factor explains why these exercises are adopted for studying the strength/power of these athletes (García-Pallarés et al., 2009;García-Pallarés and Izquierdo, 2011;Ualí et al., 2012;McKean and Burkett, 2014;Bielik et al., 2018). ...
This study aimed to compare the aerobic power (treadmill running) and muscle power (bench press and bench pull) of Junior/U23 paddlers from Slovakia who won medals in international championships with that of those who did not take the podium. Forty-three Slovak Junior/U23 paddlers (sprint = 24, medalists = 8, non-medalists = 16; slalom = 19, medalists = 11, non-medalists = 8) were tested in 2018 and 2019 after the world championships. The maximal oxygen uptake (VO2max) and the velocity at maximal oxygen uptake (vVO2max) were determined by the incremental running protocol (0% slope and 1 km⋅h–1 increments every minute until volitional exhaustion). Mean maximal power from the entire concentric phase was recorded during bench press and bench pull exercises by the validated TENDO weightlifting analyzer. No interaction was obtained between medal and canoe discipline for VO2max (p = 0.069, F = 3.495), vVO2max (p = 0.552, F = 0.361) and absolute (bench press: p = 0.486, F = 0.495; bench pull: p = 0.429, F = 0.640) or relative (bench press: p = 0.767, F = 0.089; bench pull: p = 0.696, F = 0.155) mean maximal power. Conversely, a significant effect for the medal on the bench press (absolute p = 0.017, F = 6.170; relative p = 0.043, F = 4.384) and the bench pull (absolute p = 0.041, F = 4.470) mean maximal power were observed. Our study indicates the absolute mean power on the bench press as a prerequisite for success in international Junior/U23 championships of slalom and sprint canoeing. However, the mean power on bench pull seems to have a deeper influence on sprint paddlers when compared to slalom athletes. Regarding the aerobic power, the data from the treadmill testing did not reveal outcomes between medalists and non-medalists. This result can be associated with the lack of specificity of the incremental treadmill testing for canoeing, and future studies are encouraged to propose specific protocols to compare the aerobic power of medalists and non-medalists in international slalom and sprint championships.
... Elite cyclists typically spend up to 100 days in competition (Lucia et al., 2001), which is both a high physical and psychological exertion, with an inherent risk of burnout toward the end of the season (Silva, 1990;Lemyre et al., 2006). Although the need for a subsequent period of physical and mental recovery is regarded as necessary for elite athletes (Mujika et al., 2018), the manipulation of training in these transition periods is scarcely investigated (Garcia-Pallares et al., 2009;Ronnestad et al., 2014). To recover from the strenuous competition period, cyclists' training load is often drastically reduced for 2-3 weeks in the subsequent transition period (Lucia et al., 2000;Sassi et al., 2008). ...
... Maintaining a minimum of training load in periods of decreased training volume seems necessary to avoid performance decrements (Mujika, 1998;Bosquet et al., 2007), with highintensity training (HIT) playing a key role for maintenance of endurance performance (Neufer, 1989;Garcia-Pallares et al., 2009;Ronnestad et al., 2014). Maintenance of fitness in the transition period might also be crucial for continuous improvement in the following seasons of elite athletes (Mujika et al., 1995). ...
https://hdl.handle.net/11250/2718960
... 3 Multiple studies have investigated the influence of muscular strength on sprint kayaking performance. [4][5][6][7][8] For example, McKean and Burkett 7 showed that bench press 1-repetition maximum resulted in a large significant inverse correlation with time to 200 (r = −.74 to −.76), 500 (r = −.71 to −.75), and 1000 m (r = −.64 to −.66) distances, in both male and female kayakers. Although several studies have shown the importance of muscular strength and power on sprint kayak performance, most of these studies have included either only dynamic strength measurements of the upper body [4][5][6][7][8] or isometric strength using kayak-specific movement. ...
... [4][5][6][7][8] For example, McKean and Burkett 7 showed that bench press 1-repetition maximum resulted in a large significant inverse correlation with time to 200 (r = −.74 to −.76), 500 (r = −.71 to −.75), and 1000 m (r = −.64 to −.66) distances, in both male and female kayakers. Although several studies have shown the importance of muscular strength and power on sprint kayak performance, most of these studies have included either only dynamic strength measurements of the upper body [4][5][6][7][8] or isometric strength using kayak-specific movement. 3,9,10 Interestingly, only one study has endeavored to investigate the relationship between measures obtained from lower-limb strength assessment with sprint kayak performance. ...
Force-time characteristics obtained during isometric strength tests are significantly correlated to various sporting movements. However, data on the relationship between isometric force-time characteristics and sprint kayaking performance are lacking in the literature.
Purpose:
The purpose of the study was, therefore, to investigate the relationship between sprint kayaking performance with ergometer performance and measures from 3 isometric strength tests: isometric squat, isometric bench press, and isometric prone bench pull.
Methods:
A total of 23 sprint kayaking athletes performed all 3 tests, at 90° and 120° knee angles for isometric squat and at elbow angles for isometric bench press and isometric prone bench pull, and a 200-m sprint on-water to attain the fastest time-to-completion (OWTT) possible and on a kayak ergometer to attain the highest mean power (LABTT) possible.
Results:
There was a significant inverse correlation between OWTT and LABTT (r = -.90, P < .001). The peak forces achieved from all isometric strength tests were significantly correlated with time-to-completion for OWTT and mean power for LABTT (r = -.44 to -.88, P < .05 and .47 to .80, P < .05, respectively). OWTT was significantly correlated with the peak rate of force development during all isometric tests except for the isometric squat at a 120° knee angle (r = -.47 to -.62, P < .05). LABTT was significantly correlated with peak rate of force development from the isometric bench press and isometric prone bench pull (r = .64-.86, P < .01).
Conclusion:
Based on the observed strong correlations, the mean power attained during LABTT is a good predictor of OWTT time-to-completion. Furthermore, upper- and lower-body maximum strength and peak rate of force development are equally important for on-water and ergometer sprint kayaking performance.
... Elite cyclists typically spend up to 100 days in competition (Lucia et al., 2001), which is both a high physical and psychological exertion, with an inherent risk of burnout toward the end of the season (Silva, 1990;Lemyre et al., 2006). Although the need for a subsequent period of physical and mental recovery is regarded as necessary for elite athletes (Mujika et al., 2018), the manipulation of training in these transition periods is scarcely investigated (Garcia-Pallares et al., 2009;Ronnestad et al., 2014). To recover from the strenuous competition period, cyclists' training load is often drastically reduced for 2-3 weeks in the subsequent transition period (Lucia et al., 2000;Sassi et al., 2008). ...
... Maintaining a minimum of training load in periods of decreased training volume seems necessary to avoid performance decrements (Mujika, 1998;Bosquet et al., 2007), with highintensity training (HIT) playing a key role for maintenance of endurance performance (Neufer, 1989;Garcia-Pallares et al., 2009;Ronnestad et al., 2014). Maintenance of fitness in the transition period might also be crucial for continuous improvement in the following seasons of elite athletes (Mujika et al., 1995). ...
The purpose of this study was to investigate the effects of including 30-s sprints in one weekly low-intensity training (LIT) session during a 3-week transition period in elite cyclists. Sixteen male elite cyclists (maximal oxygen uptake, VO2max: 72 ± 5 ml·kg⁻¹·min⁻¹) reduced their training load by ~60% for 3 weeks from the end of competitive season and performed only LIT or included 30-s sprints (SPR) in one weekly LIT-session. Performance and physiological capacities were evaluated during a prolonged (~2.5 h) test-session, including a strength test, a submaximal blood lactate profile test, an incremental test to exhaustion to determine VO2max, 1 h continuous cycling including four maximal 30-s sprints, and a 20-min all-out test. In addition, mental recovery was evaluated using the Athlete Burnout Questionnaire (ARQ). The only significant between-group change during the transition period was an 8 ± 11% larger improvement in 30-s sprint performance in SPR compared to control (CON; SPR: 4 ± 5%, CON: −4 ± 5%, p = 0.01). Although not different from CON, SPR maintained 20-min all-out performance (−1 ± 5%, p = 0.37) and fractional utilization of VO2max (1.9 ± 6.1%-points, p = 0.18) during the 20-min all-out test, whereas corresponding declines were observed in CON (−3 ± 5%, p = 0.04, and −2.5 ± 2.9%-points, p = 0.02, respectively). Power output at 4 mmol·L⁻¹ blood lactate concentration decreased similarly in SPR (−4 ± 4%, p = 0.02) and CON (−5 ± 5%, p = 0.01), while VO2max, maximal aerobic power (Wmax), and total burnout score were unaffected in both groups. Including sprints in one weekly LIT-session in the transition period improves sprint performance and maintains 20-min all-out power and fractional utilization of VO2max without compromising mental recovery. Inclusion of sprints in LIT-sessions may therefore be a plausible, time-efficient strategy during short periods of reduced training.
... Such effects are evident despite 'best practice' in terms of nutritional and physical therapy countermeasures being applied. Furthermore, elite athletes reducing training at the end of their competitive season can expect rapid (within 5 weeks) declines in function, with the extent being related to the level of withdrawal from training [71]. Such data brings into stark focus the challenges that those involved in collision sports face, if athletes undergo enforced periods of reduced or absent training load. ...
... Focusing on elite athletes, bench press and bench pull performance were assessed in kayakers before and after five weeks of detraining following the World Championships [71]. Seven athletes discontinued all training, while seven completed a dramatically reduced volume of training that included one resistance training session per week. ...
The COVID-19 pandemic in 2020 has resulted in widespread
training disruption in many sports. Some athletes have access
to facilities and equipment, while others have limited or no
access, severely limiting their training practices. A primary concern
is that the maintenance of key physical qualities (e. g.
strength, power, high-speed running ability, acceleration, deceleration
and change of direction), game-specific contact
skills (e. g. tackling) and decision-making ability, are challenged,
impacting performance and injury risk on resumption
of training and competition. In extended periods of reduced
training, without targeted intervention, changes in body composition
and function can be profound. However, there are
strategies that can dramatically mitigate potential losses, including
resistance training to failure with lighter loads, plyometric
training, exposure to high-speed running to ensure
appropriate hamstring conditioning, and nutritional intervention.
Athletes may require psychological support given the
challenges associated with isolation and a change in regular
training routine. While training restrictions may result in a decrease
in some physical and psychological qualities, athletes
can return in a positive state following an enforced period of
rest and recovery. On return to training, the focus should be on
progression of all aspects of training, taking into account the
status of individual athletes.
... Such effects are evident despite 'best practice' in terms of nutritional and physical therapy countermeasures being applied. Furthermore, elite athletes reducing training at the end of their competitive season can expect rapid (within 5 weeks) declines in function, with the extent being related to the level of withdrawal from training [71]. Such data brings into stark focus the challenges that those involved in collision sports face, if athletes undergo enforced periods of reduced or absent training load. ...
... Focusing on elite athletes, bench press and bench pull performance were assessed in kayakers before and after five weeks of detraining following the World Championships [71]. Seven athletes discontinued all training, while seven completed a dramatically reduced volume of training that included one resistance training session per week. ...
The COVID-19 pandemic in 2020 has resulted in widespread training disruption in many sports. Some athletes have access to facilities and equipment, while others have limited or no access, severely limiting their training practices. A primary concern is that the maintenance of key physical qualities (e. g. strength, power, high-speed running ability, acceleration, deceleration and change of direction), game-specific contact skills (e. g. tackling) and decision-making ability, are challenged, impacting performance and injury risk on resumption of training and competition. In extended periods of reduced training, without targeted intervention, changes in body composition and function can be profound. However, there are strategies that can dramatically mitigate potential losses, including resistance training to failure with lighter loads, plyometric training, exposure to high-speed running to ensure appropriate hamstring conditioning, and nutritional intervention. Athletes may require psychological support given the challenges associated with isolation and a change in regular training routine. While training restrictions may result in a decrease in some physical and psychological qualities, athletes can return in a positive state following an enforced period of rest and recovery. On return to training, the focus should be on progression of all aspects of training, taking into account the status of individual athletes.
... Both groups performed prescribed training programs (Table 1), two sessions per week for 10 weeks with at least 48 h between the sessions. The participants were instructed to maintain regular running training but refrain from running training 6 h before conducting the added PT or RT sessions to avoid the influence of fatigue and potential interference effects (Fyfe et al., 2014;Garcia-Pallares et al., 2009). The PT and RT programs were conducted according to their group allocation. ...
The effects of plyometric training (PT) versus resistance training (RT) on running economy and performance are unclear, especially in middle‐aged recreational runners. We examined (1) the efficacy of PT versus RT on running economy and performance in middle‐aged recreational runners and (2) the relationships between the main training outcomes. Twenty middle‐aged recreational runners were randomly allocated to a PT or RT group (n = 10/group). Training was conducted twice/week for 10 weeks combined with daily running. PT included the countermovement jump (CMJ), rebound jump, hurdle hop, and drop jump. RT consisted of leg press, leg curl, and calf raise with 50%–90% of one‐repetition maximum (1RM). Before and after the intervention, 1RM of the three lifting tasks, CMJ and drop jump performances, oxygen cost at 8–12 km/h, and 5 km running time were assessed. PT enhanced 1RM of leg curl only (8.5% and p = 0.007), whereas RT increased 1RM of the three lifting tasks (19.0%–21.1% and p < 0.001). Both groups improved CMJ height (6.4%–8.3% and p = 0.016) and drop jump performance (height: 9.7%–19.4%, p = 0.005, height/contact time: 11.4%–26.3% and p = 0.009) and oxygen cost regardless of running velocity (2.0% and p = 0.001) without significant group differences. However, neither group changed the 5‐km running time (p ≥ 0.259). A significant correlation was found between the changes in calf raise 1RM and oxygen cost (r = −0.477 and p = 0.046) but not between the other measured variables. These results suggest that for middle‐aged recreational runners, PT and RT can similarly improve running economy albeit not necessarily the 5‐km running time, and enhancing plantarflexion strength may particularly contribute to improving running economy.
... Among these, the training sequence and interval of strength and endurance in concurrent training are important factors affecting the effect of such training. Strength and endurance training on different training days or different training sessions on the same training day (such as strength in the morning and endurance in the afternoon) will effectively reduce the counteractive effects of simultaneous training [17]. In the context of good kayakers, strength before endurance training or an interval of 6-8 hours between endurance and resistance training is conducive to the recovery of muscle glycogen reserves of athletes. ...
This study investigated the effects of different 8-week concurrent training sequences on the maximal strength and explosive power of lower extremities in male college students. Forty male students from sports colleges were divided into four groups, following the same training content and load over an 8-week period and prioritizing different types of training: resistance-training (GCOM1 RT + ET), endurance-training (GCOM1 ET + RT), two-session resistance-training (GCOM2 RT + ET), and two-session endurance-training (GCOM2 ET + RT) priority groups. The one-repetition maximum (1RM) deep squat score improved significantly after different training sequences (F = 12.240, p < 0.001, ES = 0.238). Post hoc two-by-two comparisons showed that the effect size was significantly lower in the GCOM1 RT + ET (p < 0.05), GCOM2 RT + ET (p < 0.05), and GCOM2 ET + RT (p < 0.05) groups. The 1RM hard pull improved significantly after different training sequences (F = 3.674, p = 0.021, ES = 0.234). Post hoc two-by-two comparisons showed that the degree of variables was significantly lower in the endurance-first group than in the two-session strength-first group (p < 0.05) and the two-session endurance-first group (p < 0.05). Squat jumps improved significantly after different training sequences (F = 12.405, p < 0.001, ES = 0.508). Post hoc two-by-two comparisons showed that the degree of variables was significantly higher in the strength-first exercise group during the same session than in the endurance-first exercise group during the same session (p < 0.05), two-session strength-first exercise group (p < 0.05), and two-session endurance-first exercise group (p < 0.05). Squat jumps improved after different training sequences without significant differences (F = 0.495, p = 0.688, ES = 0.004). The GCOM2 training sequence was more effective than the GCOM1 sequence in improving the maximum strength of the lower limbs. The RT + ET training sequence was more effective in improving the countermovement jump height using the GCOM1 training sequence. Future research should consider factors such as training pattern and intensity.
... -Muscle Damage Hypothesis: It is widely known that exhaustive exercise is linked with increased oxygen consumption in skeletal muscles, elevated lipid peroxidation, and inhibition of key mitochondrial enzymes [35]. Endurance training, when not properly balanced with adequate rest, typically does not lead to functional damage and promotes muscular maladaptation along with oxidative stress generation and a reduction in the muscle defense system [36]. Under normal training conditions, muscle fibers regenerate through the activation of satellite cells, resulting in the generation of new differentiated myofibers [37]. ...
Lifestyle factors, particularly physical inactivity, are closely linked to the onset of numerous metabolic diseases. Adipose tissue (AT) has been extensively studied for various metabolic diseases such as obesity, type 2 diabetes, and immune system dysregulation due to its role in energy metabolism and regulation of inflammation. Physical activity is increasingly recognized as a powerful non-pharmacological tool for the treatment of various disorders, as it helps to improve metabolic, immune, and inflammatory functions. However, chronic excessive training has been associated with increased inflammatory markers and oxidative stress, so much so that excessive training overload, combined with inadequate recovery, can lead to the development of overtraining syndrome (OTS). OTS negatively impacts an athlete’s performance capabilities and significantly affects both physical health and mental well-being. However, diagnosing OTS remains challenging as the contributing factors, signs/symptoms, and underlying maladaptive mechanisms are individualized, sport-specific, and unclear. Therefore, identifying potential biomarkers that could assist in preventing and/or diagnosing OTS is an important objective. In this review, we focus on the possibility that the endocrine functions of AT may have significant implications in the etiopathogenesis of OTS. During physical exercise, AT responds dynamically, undergoing remodeling of endocrine functions that influence the production of adipokines involved in regulating major energy and inflammatory processes. In this scenario, we will discuss exercise about its effects on AT activity and metabolism and its relevance to the prevention and/or development of OTS. Furthermore, we will highlight adipokines as potential markers for diagnosing OTS.
... The training volume and number of repetitions completed within a set are crucial factors for short-term adaptations in highly trained rowers during CT. 1,6,18 In this study, rowing ergometer performance (T250, T500, and T1000) was found to be deteriorated only by high-fatigue RT protocols involving both upper-and lower-body exercises. These results support previous findings that moderate training volumes lead to greater short-term improvements in rowing performance compared to high-volume RT protocols. ...
Purpose:
To evaluate the interference effects of various resistance-training (RT) protocols on rowing ergometer performance.
Methods:
Fourteen semiprofessional male rowers randomly completed 5 protocols in separate sessions: (1) control-no RT session was performed, (2) upper-body high-fatigue-4 sets to failure during the bench pull exercise, (3) upper-body low-fatigue-4 sets of 6 repetitions during the bench pull exercise, (4) lower-body high-fatigue-4 sets to failure during the leg-press exercise, and (5) lower-body low-fatigue-4 sets of 6 repetitions during the leg-press exercise. All sets were performed against the 12-repetition-maximum load with 2 minutes of interset rest. Following the completion of the protocols, subjects performed an all-out 1000-m rowing ergometer test.
Results:
Compared with the control condition, rowing ergometer performance was not significantly affected after the low-fatigue RT protocols (upper body: P ≥ .487; Δ = 0.0%-0.2%; lower body: P ≥ .200; Δ = -0.2%-0.5%), while it significantly declined following high-fatigue RT protocols (upper body: P ≤ .001; Δ = 1.0%-2.0%; lower body: P ≤ .002; Δ = 2.1%-2.5%). The average heart rate was significantly lower for the control condition compared with all RT protocols (P ≤ .043; Δ = 1.0%-1.5%).
Conclusions:
To minimize interference on rowing performance, coaches should prioritize the level of effort in RT protocols over specific exercises, specifically avoiding high-fatigue protocols that lead to failure before rowing practice.
... In elite kayakers, García-pallarés et al. (2009) found that the S-E training sequence, or a 6-8 h interval between endurance and strength training, ensured restoration of muscle glycogen stores and improved aerobic work, maximal strength, and power. Our study confirmed that the S-E sequence was beneficial to the improvement of maximal flexion and extension of the lower limbs for maximal muscle strength in knee extension (SMD = 0.44, 95% CI: 0.02-0.86, ...
The aim of this study is to compare the effects of concurrent strength and endurance training sequences on VO2max and lower limb strength performance to provide scientific guidance for training practice. We searched PubMed, EBSCO, Web of Science (WOS), Wanfang, and China National Knowledge Infrastructure (CNKI) databases up to December 2022. The included articles were randomized controlled trials that allowed us to compare the strength–endurance (S-E) sequence and endurance–strength (E-S) sequence on VO2max, maximum knee extension strength, maximum knee flexion strength, and lower limb power. The Cochrane bias risk tool was used to evaluate the methodological quality of the included literature, and Stata 12.0 was used for the heterogeneity test, subgroup analysis, draw forest map, sensitivity analysis, and publication bias evaluation. The results have been presented as standardized mean differences (SMDs) between treatments with 95% confidence intervals and calculations performed using random effects models. Significance was accepted when p < 0.05. The studies included 19 randomized controlled trials (285 males and 197 females), 242 subjects in S-E sequence, and 240 subjects in E-S sequence in the analyses. No difference changes between S-E and E-S sequences has been observed on VO2max in the overall analysis (SMD = 0.02, 95% CI: −0.21–0.25, p = 0.859). The S-E sequence shows a greater increase in lower limb strength performance than does the E-S sequence (SMD = 0.19, 95% CI: 0.02–0.37, p = 0.032), which was manifested in the elderly (p = 0.039) and women (p = 0.017); in training periods >8 weeks (p = 0.002) and training frequencies twice a week (p = 0.003); and with maximum knee flexion (p = 0.040) and knee extension strength (p = 0.026), while no difference was found in lower limb power (p = 0.523). In conclusion, the effect of VO2max will not change with different concurrent training sequences. The S-E sequence improves lower limb strength more significantly, mainly in the improvement of knee flexion and knee extension. This advantage is more related to factors such as age, gender, training period, and training frequency.
... Races are contested as individuals and teams with up to four athletes using a double-bladed paddle used in a sitting position in a kayak (International Canoe Federation). Performance in sprint kayak requires high amounts of aerobic and anaerobic conditioning (Barzegar et al., 2021;Sheykhlouvand et al., 2022) as well as neuromuscular and mechanical contributions (García-Pallarés et al., 2009;Papandreou et al., 2020). Aerobic metabolism significantly contributes to 500, and 1,000-m performances (Bishop, 2000). ...
The aim of this study was to investigate physiological and performance adaptations to high-intensity interval training (HIIT) prescribed as a proportion of anaerobic speed reserve (ASR) compared to HIIT prescribed using maximal aerobic speed (MAS). Twenty-four highly trained sprint kayak athletes were randomly allocated to one of three 4-weak conditions (N = 8) (ASR-HIIT) two sets of 6 × 60 s intervals at ∆%20ASR (MAS-HIIT) six 2 min paddling intervals at 100% maximal aerobic speed (MAS); or controls (CON) who performed six sessions/week of 1-h traditional endurance paddling at 70%–80% maximum HR. A graded exercise test was performed on a kayak ergometer to determine peak oxygen uptake (V̇O2peak), MAS, V̇O2/HR, and ventilatory threshold. Also, participants completed four consecutive upper-body wingate tests to asses peak and average power output. Significant increases in V̇O2peak (ASR-HIIT = 6.9%, MAS-HIIT = 4.8%), MAS (ASR-HIIT = 7.2%, MAS-HIIT = 4.8%), ASR (ASR-HIIT = −25.1%, MAS-HIIT = −15.9%), upper-body Wingate peak power output and average power output (p < 0.05 for both HIIT groups) were seen compared with pre-training. Also, ASR-HIIT resulted in a significant decrease in 500-m − 1.9 % , and 1,000 − m − 1.5 % paddling time. Lower coefficient of variation values were observed for the percent changes of the aforementioned factors in response to ASR-HIIT compared to MAS-HIIT. Overall, a short period of ASR-HIIT improves 500-m and 1,000-m paddling performances in highly trained sprint kayak athletes. Importantly, inter-subject variability (CV) of physiological adaptations to ASR-HIIT was lower than MAS-HIIT. Individualized prescription of HIIT using ASR ensures similar physiological demands across individuals and potentially facilitates similar degrees of physiological adaptation.
... The results appear to be similar, with no observable improvement in swimming performance. The cause may be due to an interference effect generated by the high volume of swimming training, which did not allow adaptations to be achieved from strength training [39]. ...
Aims. — Strength training is not usually an important aspect of the training programme forswimmers. Instead, more emphasis is placed on traditional swimming training, which focusesmainly on endurance work.News. — This is why in this study a systematic review is carried out with the aim of observing theeffects that can be caused by a swimming training programme in which strength work is carriedout, while maintaining traditional swimming training. Considering the PRISMA statement, theWeb of Science (WOS) database was used to search for articles, taking those published between2017 and 2022. A total of 387 articles were identified, from which, after passing all criteria,19 were chosen as the study sample. After analysis, it was found that addressing strengthenhancement work within programming can have a positive transfer on short-medium distance swimming performance, improving force transmission and stroke biomechanics.
Conclusion. — This indicates that it would be appropriate to plan the training microcycles withstrength sessions separated from the swimming sessions, without increasing the training volumetoo much, so as not to cause greater fatigue in the swimmer.
... Therefore, it is possible to deduce that the kayak means velocity is the consequence of the combined effects of the propulsion and the drag forces (Pendergast et al., 2005;Michael et al., 2009). In order to improve the propulsion phase useful to reduce the race time performance, the kayaker usually conditions the strength and power of upper limbs muscles through the prone bench pull (PBP) and bench press (BP) exercises (Akca and Muniroglu, 2008;García-Pallarés et al., 2009;Pearson et al., 2009;Burkett, 2010, 2014;Ualí et al., 2012;Hamano et al., 2015;Bielik et al., 2017;Bjerkefors et al., 2018;Winchcombe et al., 2019). Uali et al. (2012) reported that heavy resistance training performed in bilateral bent pull and one-arm cable row significantly correlated with the start phase of kayak sprint performances. ...
Several studies showed significant differences between bench lift exercises without investigating which is more related, in biomechanical and neuromuscular terms, to improve the sprint flatwater kayak performance. This study aims to compare the power-load and velocity-load neuromuscular parameters performed in prone bench pull (PBP), and bench press (BP) exercises to identify which of them meet the gesture specificity in sprint flatwater kayak performance. Ten elite kayakers participated in this study. Power-load, velocity-load relationships, the maximum dynamic strength, and the kayak sprint performance test were assessed. The power-load and velocity-load relationships showed significant differences between the PBP and BP for each considered load. The kayakers showed a significant correlation between maximum power performed on the PBP and the maximum velocity reached in the kayak sprint (r = 0.80, p < 0.01) and the stroke frequency (r = 0.61, p < 0.05). Conversely, the maximum power performed on the BP did not correlate with the kinematic parameters analyzed. In addition, the maximum dynamic strength in the PBP and BP did not correlate with the maximum velocity and stroke frequency. Furthermore, no significant difference was observed in both the bench exercises for the maximum dynamic strength (p > 0.05). The results of this study suggest that the maximal muscular power expressed in PBP exercise only seems to be more specific in kayak velocity performance compared with maximal dynamic strength and with all dynamic parameters recorded in the BP. This will allow coaches and trainers to use specific bench exercises for specific neuromuscular kayakers’ adaptations during the whole competitive season.
... It is generally accepted by coaches and sports scientists that endurance and strength training modes of exercise, when repeated over time, elicit distinct and competing adaptive mechanisms, including the genetic and molecular mechanisms of adaptation, that generate the specific exercise induced phenotype associated with long-term training. However, many factors, such as the volume and specifically the intensity of the training program, may influence to what extent any adaptation occurs, aerobic or otherwise [18]. Indeed, similar adaptations to high-intensity interval training are likely to occur via resistance/strength training to volitional failure. ...
Citation: Jurasz, M.; Boraczyński, M.; Laskin, J.J.; Kamelska-Sadowska, A.M.; Podstawski, R.; Jaszczur-Nowicki, J.; Nowakowski, J.J.; Gronek, P. Acute Cardiorespiratory and Metabolic Responses to Incremental Cycling Exercise in Endurance-and Strength-Trained Athletes. Biology 2022, 11, 643. https://doi.org/10.3390/biology11050643
... It is generally accepted by coaches and sports scientists that endurance and strength training modes of exercise, when repeated over time, elicit distinct and competing adaptive mechanisms, including the genetic and molecular mechanisms of adaptation, that generate the specific exercise induced phenotype associated with long-term training. However, many factors, such as the volume and specifically the intensity of the training program, may influence to what extent any adaptation occurs, aerobic or otherwise [18]. Indeed, similar adaptations to high-intensity interval training are likely to occur via resistance/strength training to volitional failure. ...
Citation: Jurasz, M.; Boraczyński, M.; Laskin, J.J.; Kamelska-Sadowska, A.M.; Podstawski, R.; Jaszczur-Nowicki, J.; Nowakowski, J.J.; Gronek, P. Acute Cardiorespiratory and Metabolic Responses to Incremental Cycling Exercise in Endurance-and Strength-Trained Athletes. Biology 2022, 11, 643. https://doi.
... For example, the DL and BP are 2 of the 3 key exercises in powerlifting, whereas the PBP and the SP are frequently trained by, among other athletes, kayakers, swimmers, fighters, or throwers. 31,32 The inclusion of these 5 multijoint exercises allowed the present study not only to examine the effects of the different programming models on each of them but also to study the possible synergies and interrelationships generated during a comprehensive RT routine. Likewise, the RT routine we used could have generated an optimal hormonal and metabolic environment to maximize the adaptations, 10 which might have been attenuated in traditional interventions made up by only 1 or 2 RT exercises. ...
Purpose:
To compare the strength and athletic adaptations induced by 4 programming models.
Methods:
Fifty-two men were allocated into 1 of the following models: linear programming (intensity increased while intraset volume decreased), undulating programming (intensity and intraset volume were varied in each session or set of sessions), reverse programming (intensity decreased while intraset volume increased), or constant programming (intensity and intraset volume kept constant throughout the training plan). All groups completed a 10-week resistance-training program made up of the free-weight bench press, squat, deadlift, prone bench pull, and shoulder press exercises. The 4 models used the same frequency (2 sessions per week), number of sets (3 per exercise), interset recoveries (4 min), and average intensity throughout the intervention (77.5%). The velocity-based method was used to accurately adjust the planned intensity for each model.
Results:
The 4 programming models exhibited significant pre-post changes in most strength variables analyzed. When considering the effect sizes for the 5 exercises trained, we observed that the undulating programming (mean effect size = 0.88-2.92) and constant programming (mean effect size = 0.61-1.65) models induced the highest and lowest strength enhancements, respectively. Moreover, the 4 programming models were found to be effective to improve performance during shorter (jump and sprint tests) and longer (upper- and lower-limb Wingate test) anaerobic tasks, with no significant differences between them.
Conclusion:
The linear, undulating, reverse, and constant programming models are similarly effective to improve strength and athletic performance when they are implemented in a real-context routine.
... Muscle size is a determinant of muscle strength during single-joint and multi-joint movements [1][2][3][4] . During the assessment of sports performance, power output determined by muscle strength and joint velocity are important for determining the optimal load for resistance and power training [5][6][7][8][9] . Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) has been used to assess muscle size and found to significantly correlate with joint power in single-joint 10 and multi-joint movements 1 . ...
To develop and validate a deep convolutional neural network (CNN) method capable of selecting the greatest Pectoralis Major Cross-Sectional Area (PMM-CSA) and automatically segmenting PMM on an axial Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI). We hypothesized a CNN technique can accurately perform both tasks compared with manual reference standards. Our method is based on two steps: (A) segmentation model, (B) PMM-CSA selection. In step A, we manually segmented the PMM on 134 axial T1-weighted PM MRIs. The segmentation model was trained from scratch (MONAI/Pytorch SegResNet, 4 mini-batch, 1000 epochs, dropout 0.20, Adam, learning rate 0.0005, cosine annealing, softmax). Mean-dice score determined the segmentation score on 8 internal axial T1-weighted PM MRIs. In step B, we used the OpenCV2 (version 4.5.1, https://opencv.org) framework to calculate the PMM-CSA of the model predictions and ground truth. Then, we selected the top-3 slices with the largest cross-sectional area and compared them with the ground truth. If one of the selected was in the top-3 from the ground truth, then we considered it to be a success. A top-3 accuracy evaluated this method on 8 axial T1-weighted PM MRIs internal test cases. The segmentation model (Step A) produced an accurate pectoralis muscle segmentation with a Mean Dice score of 0.94 ± 0.01. The results of Step B showed top-3 accuracy > 98% to select an appropriate axial image with the greatest PMM-CSA. Our results show an overall accurate selection of PMM-CSA and automated PM muscle segmentation using a combination of deep CNN algorithms.
... [7,8]). Likewise, a longer recovery period of 6-8 h, applied in cycling, running, or rowing, equally improved performance [62][63][64][65]. Recovery between sessions may depend on athletes' level, individual characteristics, and the intensity or duration of the first session, whichever it is (SWIM or RT). ...
Dry-land resistance exercise (RT) is routinely applied concurrent to swimming (SWIM) training sessions in a year-round training plan. To date, the impact of the acute effect of RT on SWIM or SWIM on RT performance and the long-term RT-SWIM or SWIM-RT training outcome has received limited attention. The existing studies indicate that acute RT or SWIM training may temporarily decrease subsequent muscle function. Concurrent application of RT-SWIM or SWIM-RT may induce similar physiological alterations. Such alterations are dependent on the recovery duration between sessions. Considering the long-term effects of RT-SWIM, the limited existing data present improvements in front crawl swimming performance, dry-land upper and lower body maximum strength, and peak power in swim turn. Accordingly, SWIM-RT training order induces swimming performance improvements in front crawl and increments in maximum dry-land upper and lower body strength. Concurrent application of RT-SWIM or SWIM-RT training applied within a training day leads in similar performance gains after six to twelve weeks of training. The current review suggests that recovery duration between RT and SWIM is a predisposing factor that may determine the training outcome. Competitive swimmers may benefit after concurrent application with both training order scenarios during a training cycle.
... (Stöggl & Sperlich, 2015). Dakle, što se u trenažnom procesu više uvažavaju vrednosti individualnih biomarkera, koncept trenažnih jedinica je efikasniji, i u definisanju zona opterećenja i u dizajnu ostalih metodskih odrednica treninga, te je posledično veća adaptacija sportiste i njegovo postignuće (García-Pallarés et al., 2009;Wolpern et al., 2015). (Bhambhani, Buckley, & Susaki, 1997;Miura et al., 1998;Moalla et al., 2005). ...
Cardiorespiratory performance is one of the most important determinants of success in sports activities. In order to better prepare for sports challenges, the athletes must be exposed to appropriate training which should be based on individualized physiological parameters during activity. Even though training intensity can be determined in many different ways, the endurance training intensity is often quantified by the lactate thresholds obtained from the blood sampling or the ventilator thresholds obtained from the gas exchange. These data represent delayed indirect indicators of an increased anaerobic ATP resynthesis. The muscle oximetry, based on near-infrared spectroscopy (NIRS), represents non-invasive method that enables the information about the changes in oxygenation in hemoglobin, and potentially represents a very suitable technique to detect a critical exercise threshold directly in the exercising muscle.
... Previous studies have associatedVO 2 recovery kinetics with survival and disease severity, in addition to serving as an index of functional capacity in subsets of apparently healthy individuals and in clinical population subsets [10, 14,27]. Associations of performance fatigability withVO 2 off-kinetics following peak and submaximal exercise has also been demonstrated [39]. ...
Background
The severity of performance fatigability and the capacity to recover from activity are profoundly influenced by skeletal muscle energetics, specifically the ability to buffer fatigue-inducing ions produced from anaerobic metabolism. Mechanisms responsible for buffering these ions result in the production of excess carbon dioxide (CO 2 ) that can be measured as expired CO 2 ( V ̇ CO 2 ) during cardiopulmonary exercise testing (CPET). The primary objective of this study was to assess the feasibility of select assessment procedures for use in planning and carrying out interventional studies, which are larger interventional studies investigating the relationships between CO 2 expiration, measured during and after both CPET and submaximal exercise testing, and performance fatigability.
Methods
Cross-sectional, pilot study design. Seven healthy subjects (30.7±5.1 years; 5 females) completed a peak CPET and constant work-rate test (CWRT) on separate days, each followed by a 10-min recovery then 10-min walk test. Oxygen consumption ( V ̇ O 2 ) and V ̇ CO 2 on- and off-kinetics (transition constant and oxidative response index), excess- V ̇ CO 2 , and performance fatigability severity scores (PFSS) were measured. Data were analyzed using regression analyses.
Results
All subjects that met the inclusion/exclusion criteria and consented to participate in the study completed all exercise testing sessions with no adverse events. All testing procedures were carried out successfully and outcome measures were obtained, as intended, without adverse events. Excess- V ̇ CO 2 accounted for 61% of the variability in performance fatigability as measured by V ̇ O 2 on-kinetic ORI (ml/s) ( R ² =0.614; y = 8.474 x − 4.379, 95% CI [0.748, 16.200]) and 62% of the variability as measured by PFSS ( R ² =0.619; y = − 0.096 x + 1.267, 95% CI [−0.183, −0.009]). During CPET, V ̇ CO 2 -off ORI accounted for 70% ( R ² =0.695; y = 1.390 x − 11.984, 95% CI [0.331, 2.449]) and V ̇ CO 2 -off Kt for 73% of the variability in performance fatigability measured by V ̇ O 2 on-kinetic ORI (ml/s) ( R ² =0.730; y = 1.818 x − 13.639, 95% CI [0.548, 3.087]).
Conclusion
The findings of this study suggest that utilizing V ̇ CO 2 measures may be a viable and useful addition or alternative to V ̇ O 2 measures, warranting further study. While the current protocol appeared to be satisfactory, for obtaining select cardiopulmonary and performance fatigability measures as intended, modifications to the current protocol to consider in subsequent, larger studies may include use of an alternate mode or measure to enable control of work rate constancy during performance fatigability testing following initial CPET.
... In particular, the concurrent development of muscular hypertrophy, strength and power from resistance training compared to the development of aerobic and anaerobic endurance from swimming training can lead to conflicting neuromuscular adaptations. 17 Furthermore, the volume of swim training undertaken weekly is considerably greater than the dry-land resistance training sessions. Typically, swimmers engage in nine to ten in-water pool sessions weekly, with each session lasting one and a half to two hours. ...
This study aimed to (1) track changes in body composition, lower body force-time characteristics, and swim start performance over a competitive season, and (2) investigate the intra-individual associations between changes in body composition and lower body force-time characteristics to swim start performance in five high performance swimmers (three males, two females). Over a ∼12-month period, body composition, lower body force-time characteristics and swim start performance were assessed at three time points via DXA scan, squat jump and swim start performance test (start times to 5 and 15 m and several kinematic and kinetic outputs). Throughout a competitive season of concurrent swimming and dry-land resistance training, improvements in lower body lean mass and squat jump force-time characteristics were observed. However, changes in start times varied between athletes. Total body and lower body lean mass both displayed large negative correlations with the time spent in the entry and propulsive underwater phases (r = –0.57 to –0.66), along with a large positive correlations with glide time (r = 0.56–0.53). Additionally, lower body lean mass exhibited large to very large positive correlations with the flight phase (r = 0.70–0.73). Overall, these findings provide some insight into the potential magnitude of change in body composition, lower body force-time characteristics and swim start performance in high performance swimmers within a season. The large to very large correlations between increased lower body lean mass and SJ force-time metrics to improvements in aspects of start performance may provide useful information to coaches and sports scientists.
... Taking into account the inequality of disciplines, as well as the typology of efforts in competition, canoeing can be classified as an endurance sport, in which good aerobic capacity, aerobic efficiency at the anaerobic threshold, and lactic anaerobic capacity, especially lactate tolerance, are required to obtain a good performance (Fry and Morton, 1991;Faina et al., 1997). Therefore, canoeing is a sport where strength and endurance are developed together to optimize the athlete's performance (Bishop et al., 2002;Garcia-Pallares et al., 2009), factors that entail a greater training load, which can have an impact on the psychological aspect of athletes (Isorna Folgar et al., 2019). ...
The main objective of performance sport is to obtain achievements at the highest level through the adequate development of the athlete. The scientific literature demonstrates the fundamental role played by the inclusion of certain psychological variables in the training plan. This study examined the psychological profile of kayak polo players through the variables of burnout, optimism, and mood in the hours prior to the competition, relating these to each other and to some sociodemographic data. A sample of 86 canoeists, 60 men (69.8%) and 26 women (30.2%), with an age measurement of 24.4 ± 9.1 years belonging to the first male and female kayak polo division, completed the POMS-29, the LOT-R, and the IBD-R. Athletes' levels of optimism were found to be significantly correlated with mood. Optimism also influenced emotional exhaustion. In addition, seniority and internationality were decisive factors in the level of optimism and mood achieved.
... 4,6 Comprehensive testing of the VO 2 max, oxygenation of muscles involved, and anaerobic threshold of sprint kayakers should aid in monitoring the development of performance and adjusting training appropriately. To assess these physiological and other performance parameters [4][5][6][7][8][9][10][11][12] as well as to prescribe training intensity, 9,[13][14][15] different incremental on-water and ergometer testing protocols are applied in canoeing and kayaking. The physiological responses (ie, oxygen uptake, peripheral oxygenation, blood lactate) between ergometer and on-water testing in relation to actual competitive performance in elite kayakers are unknown. ...
Purpose: (1) To compare various physiological indicators of performance during a 5 × 1500-m incremental kayak test performed on an ergometer and on-water and (2) to analyze the relationships between these indicators and the actual competition performance of elite sprint kayakers, aiming to provide information to coaches for evaluating and planning training on-water.
Methods: A total of 14 male and female German elite sprint kayakers performed an incremental test both on an ergometer and on-water. The tissue saturation index of the musculus (m.) biceps brachii, oxygen consumption, ratings of perceived exertion, and levels of blood lactate were measured and compared with actual racing times. In addition, power output was monitored during ergometer testing only.
Results: Oxygen consumption during the fourth (P = .02; d = 0.32) and final (fifth; P < .001; d = 0.32) steps of incremental testing was higher on-water than on the ergometer. The tissue saturation index of the m. biceps brachii was approximately 21% higher at the end of the ergometer test (P = .002; d = 1.14). During the second (P = .01; d = 0.78), third (P = .005; d = 0.93), and fourth stages (P = .005; d = 1.02), the ratings of perceived exertion for ergometer kayaking was higher. During the final step, power output was most closely correlated to 200- (r = .88), 500- (r = .93), and 1000-m (r = .86) racing times (all Ps < .01).
Conclusions: During high-intensity kayaking on an ergometer or on-water, the oxygen consumption and tissue saturation index of the m. biceps brachii differ. Furthermore, at moderate to submaximal intensities, the ratings of perceived exertion were higher for ergometer than for on-water kayaking. Finally, of all parameters assessed, the power output during ergometer kayaking exhibited the strongest correlation with actual racing performance.
... In many respects, the functional potential of paddlers on canoes and kayaks is determined by the availability of high capacity energy supply systems (Tesch, 1983;Sheykhlouvand et al., 2018;Pickett et al., 2018;Paquette et al., 2018). The system for diagnosing the power of the energy supply system for paddlers of high qualification at different distances is presented before (García-Pallarés et al., 2009;Guo et al., 2020;Diachenko et al., 2020). ...
The aim of the study. The overall goal of this manuscript was to gain a better understanding of differences in the level of functional support for special endurance for paddlers of uniform groups (in terms of sports qualification): men kayakers, men canoeists, and women kayakers who specialize in a distance of 200 m.
Material and methods. 20 qualified paddlers’ level of functionality is being assessed, among them are a group of elite athletes, the members of the Chinese national team and winners of the 2018 Asian Games.
Results. The important feature of the analysis is the evaluation of the structure of the ergonomic power of a 30-second maximum load. Estimating the average value of the ergometric power of work for 25-30 seconds of operation in accordance with the average power of the entire 30-second load made it possible to determine the ratio of the anaerobic alactic and lactic abilities of the athletes, taking into account the requirements of a 200-meter race for canoe and kayak paddlers.
A significant range of individual differences in the indices of reactive properties of the cardiorespiratory system, which are determined by the ratio of the partial pressure of СО2 and the maximum level of pulmonary ventilation (VE/PaCO2) during the10 and 30 second test task, attracts attention.
The range of VE/PaCO2 indicators was: the relation of partial pressure СО2 to pulmonary ventilation in the 10 s test – 2.3 ± 0.8 for men kayakers; 2.3 ± 0.7 for men canoeists; 2.2 ± 0.5 for women kayakers; the relation of partial pressure СО2 to pulmonary ventilation in the 30 s test – 3.9 ± 1.0 for men kayakers; 3.8 ± 1.1 for men canoeists; 3.6 ± 0.7 for women kayakers.
Conclusion. The results of the study indicate differences in the level of functional support for special endurance for paddlers of uniform groups (in terms of sports qualification): kayakers and canoeists who specialize in a distance of 200 m.
... 4,6 Comprehensive testing of the VO 2 max, oxygenation of muscles involved, and anaerobic threshold of sprint kayakers should aid in monitoring the development of performance and adjusting training appropriately. To assess these physiological and other performance parameters [4][5][6][7][8][9][10][11][12] as well as to prescribe training intensity, 9,[13][14][15] different incremental on-water and ergometer testing protocols are applied in canoeing and kayaking. The physiological responses (ie, oxygen uptake, peripheral oxygenation, blood lactate) between ergometer and on-water testing in relation to actual competitive performance in elite kayakers are unknown. ...
Purpose:
(1) To compare various physiological indicators of performance during a 5 × 1500-m incremental kayak test performed on an ergometer and on-water and (2) to analyze the relationships between these indicators and the actual competition performance of elite sprint kayakers, aiming to provide information to coaches for evaluating and planning training on-water.
Methods:
A total of 14 male and female German elite sprint kayakers performed an incremental test both on an ergometer and on-water. The tissue saturation index of the musculus (m.) biceps brachii, oxygen consumption, ratings of perceived exertion, and levels of blood lactate were measured and compared with actual racing times. In addition, power output was monitored during ergometer testing only.
Results:
Oxygen consumption during the fourth (P = .02; d = 0.32) and final (fifth; P < .001; d = 0.32) steps of incremental testing was higher on-water than on the ergometer. The tissue saturation index of the m. biceps brachii was approximately 21% higher at the end of the ergometer test (P = .002; d = 1.14). During the second (P = .01; d = 0.78), third (P = .005; d = 0.93), and fourth stages (P = .005; d = 1.02), the ratings of perceived exertion for ergometer kayaking was higher. During the final step, power output was most closely correlated to 200- (r = .88), 500- (r = .93), and 1000-m (r = .86) racing times (all Ps < .01).
Conclusions:
During high-intensity kayaking on an ergometer or on-water, the oxygen consumption and tissue saturation index of the m. biceps brachii differ. Furthermore, at moderate to submaximal intensities, the ratings of perceived exertion were higher for ergometer than for on-water kayaking. Finally, of all parameters assessed, the power output during ergometer kayaking exhibited the strongest correlation with actual racing performance.
... Concurrent training is complex in that both swim training and resistance training impose different acute stresses on the body that elicit distinct adaptations. In particular, the concurrent development of both muscular strength/power and aerobic endurance from resistance training and swimming training respectively can lead to conflicting neuromuscular adaptations (Garcia-Pallares et al., 2009). In the current study, participants were primarily middle to long distance swimmers, who performed nine in-water sessions weekly (HF: 45.5 ± 17.7 km and VF: 53 ± 20.0 km per week). ...
Background
The block phase in the swimming start requires a quick reaction to the starting signal and a large take-off velocity that is primarily horizontal in direction. Due to the principle of specificity of training, there is a potential benefit of performing a greater proportion of horizontal force production exercises in a swimmers’ dry-land resistance training sessions. Therefore, the purpose of this pilot study was to provide an insight into the effects of a horizontal- (HF) vs vertical-force (VF) training intervention on swim start performance.
Methods
Eleven competitive swimmers (six males (age 20.9 ± 1.8 years, body mass 77.3 ± 9.7 kg, height 1.78 ± 0.05 m) and five females (age 21.4 ± 2.0 years, body mass 67.5 ± 7.4 kg, height 1.69 ± 0.05 m)) completed 2 weekly sessions of either a horizontal- or vertical-force focused resistance training programme for 8 weeks. Squat jump force-time characteristics and swim start kinetic and kinematic parameters were collected pre- and post-intervention.
Results
Across the study duration, the swimmers completed an average of nine swimming sessions per week with an average weekly swim volume of 45.5 ± 17.7 km (HF group) and 53 ± 20.0 km (VF group), but little practice of the swim start per week ( n = 9). Within-group analyses indicated a significant increase in predicted one repetition maximum (1RM) hip thrust strength in the HF group, as well as significant increases in grab resultant peak force but reductions in resultant peak force of the block phase for the VF group. No significant between-group differences in predicted 1RM hip thrust and back squat strength, squat jump force-time and swim start performance measures were observed after 8 weeks of training. Significant correlations in the change scores of five block kinetic variables to time to 5 m were observed, whereby increased block kinetic outputs were associated with a reduced time to 5 m. This may be indicative of individual responses to the different training programmes.
Discussion
The results of this current study have been unable to determine whether a horizontal- or vertical-force training programme enhances swim start performance after an 8-week training intervention. Some reasons for the lack of within and between group effects may reflect the large volume of concurrent training and the relative lack of any deliberate practice of the swim start. Larger samples and longer training duration may be required to determine whether significant differences occur between these training approaches. Such research should also look to investigate how a reduction in the concurrent training loads and/or an increase in the deliberate practice of the swim start may influence the potential changes in swim start performance.
... Strength training is an integral component in the physical preparation of sprint kayakers, and improvement in muscular strength has been associated with improved kayaking performance [1][2][3]. For example, McKean and Burkett [3] reported that a 6.5-13% increase in 1 repetition maximum bench press and a 2.3-10% increase in 1 repetition maximum pull up coincided with improvement of 1% in kayaking time. ...
Performing isometric strength training (IST) can enhance various sports performance. This study compared the effects of including IST on sprint kayaking performance as compared to traditional strength training. Twenty sprint kayaking athletes (age 22±4 y, stature 1.71±0.09 m, body mass 72.0±11.4 kg) performed a 200-m kayak ergometer time trial (200mTT), isometric squat (IsoSqT), isometric bench press (IsoPress) and isometric prone bench pull (IsoPull) during the pre- and post-tests. Athletes were randomly assigned to ei-ther traditional strength training (TRAD) or IST group. Both groups performed similar strength training program twice a week for six weeks. However, half the volume for squat, bench press and prone bench pull were replaced by IsoSqT, IsoPress and IsoPull, respectively, for the IST group. IsoSqT was performed at 90o knee angle, while IsoPress and IsoPull were performed at 90o and 120o elbow angles, respectively. Each isometric contraction was performed with maximum intensity and sustained for three seconds. A significant main time effect was observed for 200mTT (P<0.001, ƞ²p=0.68) and all isometric strength measures (P=0.001–0.032, ƞ²p=0.24–0.76) except rate of force development at 0-90 ms (RFD90) obtained from IsoSqT120 and IsoPress90. Group main effect was ob-served in RFD90 obtained from IsoSqT120 and IsoPull120 (P=0.003–0.004, ƞ²p=0.37–0.39). Time x Group interaction was observed for 200mTT (P=0.027, ƞ²p=0.68), peak force obtained from IsoSqT90, IsoPress90, and IsoPull120 (P=0.004–0.006, ƞ²p=0.36–0.38) and RFD90 obtained from IsoSqT120 and IsoPull120 (P=0.012–0.015, ƞ²p=0.28–0.30). Inclusion of IST resulted in greater improvement for sprint kayaking and strength performances then TRAD alone.
... The authors of this review believe that the duration of these studies is too short to support the efficacy of periodization when the core concepts are centered around the yearlong plan and phasic adaptations. The details of each study (author, year, subject, design, and duration) are listed in Table 3 Garcia-Pallares et al. [143] 2009 11 male world-class, flat-water kayak paddlers (all of whom were finalists at the World Championships, including two Olympic gold-medalists) All subjects followed the same strength and endurance program with special emphasis on prioritizing the sequential development of specific physical fitness components in each training phase ...
Over the past several decades, periodization has been widely accepted as the gold standard of training theory. Within the literature, there are numerous definitions for periodization, which makes it difficult to study. When examining the proposed definitions and related studies on periodization, problems arise in the following domains: (1) periodization has been proposed to serve as the macro-management of the training process concerning the annual plan, yet research on long-term effects is scarce; (2) periodization and programming are being used interchangeably in research; and (3) training is not periodized alongside other stressors such as sport (i.e., only resistance training is being performed without the inclusion of sport). Overall, the state of the literature suggests that the inability to define periodization makes the statement of its superiority difficult to experimentally test. This paper discusses the proposed definitions of periodization and the study designs which have been employed to examine the concept.
... In addition, the participants were instructed to assess the subjective sleep quality in the morning after waking up using the Karolinska Sleep Diary (KSD) [24], which addresses the following points: [29]. In addition, non-failure training would be an especially interesting method in sport modalities in which there is a necessity to develop simultaneously strength, endurance and technical capacities due to its faster time course of recovery [30]. ...
Resistance training (RT) variables can affect sleep quality, strength recovery and performance. The aim of this study was to examine the acute effect of RT leading to failure vs. non-failure on sleep quality (SQ), heart rate variability (HRV) overnight and one-repetition maximum (1-RM) performance 24 hours after training. Fifteen resistance-trained male athletes (age: 23.4 ± 2.4 years; height 178.0 ± 7.6 cm; weight: 78.2 ± 10.6 kg) performed two training sessions in a randomized order, leading to failure (4x10) or non-failure (5x8(10) repetitions), with 90 seconds for resting between sets at 75% 1-RM in bench press (BP) and half squat (HS). The day after, the participants completed the predicted 1-RM test for both exercises. In addition, the subjective and actigraphic SQ and HRV during sleep were measured after each training session. The day after the training protocol leading to failure, the 1-RM of BP (MD = 7.24 kg; -7.2%; p < 0.001) and HS (MD = 20.20 kg; -11.1%; p < 0.001) decreased. However, this parameter did not decrease after a non-failure RT session. No differences were observed between failure and non-failure training sessions on SQ and HRV; therefore, both types of training sessions similarly affected the SQ and the autonomic modulation during the night after the training session. This study provides an insight into the influence of different training strategies on SQ, strength performance and recovery after moderate- to high-demand training. This information could be useful especially for professional coaches, weightlifters and bodybuilders, due to the potential influence on the programming processes.
... For optimal competition preparation, athletes undergo specialised training programmes which emphasise effort durations and intensities that are race-specific (Oliveira Borges, Dascombe, Bullock, & Coutts, 2015;Zouhal et al., 2012). To quantify the training demands for these athletes, current practice involves the measurement of heart rate (HR), where intensity is classified into aerobic training zones (Bullock, Woolford, Peeling, & Bonetti, 2012;Garcia-Pallares, Garcia-Fernandez, Sanchez-Medina, & Izquierdo, 2010;García-Pallarés, Sánchez-Medina, Carrasco, Díaz, & Izquierdo, 2009). In high-performance settings, these aerobic training zones are delineated into a 3-or 5-zone intensity model using established physiological criteria such as the first and second blood lactate (BLa) thresholds (LT 1 and LT 2 ) (Bullock et al., 2012;Garcia-Pallares et al., 2010;Seiler, 2010). ...
This study examined the utility of novel measures of power output (PO) compared to traditional measures of heart rate (HR) and stroke rate (SR) for quantifying high-intensity sprint kayak training. Twelve well-trained, male and female sprint kayakers (21.3 ± 6.8 y) completed an on-water graded exercise test (GXT) and a 200-, 500- and 1000-m time-trial for the delineation of individualised training zones (T) for HR (5-zone model, T1-T5), SR and PO (8-zone model, T1-T8). Subsequently, athletes completed two repeat trials of a high-intensity interval (HIIT) and a sprint interval (SIT) training session, where intensity was prescribed using individualised PO-zones. Time-in-zone (minutes) using PO, SR and HR was then compared for both HIIT and SIT. Compared to PO, time-in-zone using HR was higher for T1 in HIIT and SIT (P < 0.001, d ≥ 0.90) and lower for T5 in HIIT (P < 0.001, d = 1.76). Average and peak HR were not different between HIIT (160 ± 9 and 173 ± 11 bpm, respectively) and SIT (157 ± 13 and 174 ± 10 bpm, respectively) (P ≥ 0.274). In HIIT, time-in-zone using SR was higher for T4 (P < 0.001, d = 0.85) and was lower for T5 (P = 0.005, d = 0.43) and T6 (P < 0.001, d = 0.94) compared to PO. In SIT, time-in-zone using SR was lower for T7 (P = 0.001, d = 0.66) and was higher for T8 (P = 0.004, d = 0.70), compared to PO. Heart rate measures were unable to differentiate training demands across different high-intensity sessions, and could therefore misrepresent the training load in such instances. Furthermore, SR may not provide a sensitive measure for detecting changes in intensity due to fatigue, whereas PO may be more suitable.
... The bench press is often used to strengthen the upper body [44] and is often assessed in many sports' performance testing batteries [7,45]. However, the 1RM bench press test does not provide data on the force-time characteristics for better understanding of an athlete's force generating capacities. ...
The purpose of this article was to review the data on the relationship between multi-joint isometric strength test (IsoTest) force-time characteristics (peak force, rate of force development and impulse) and dynamic performance that is available in the current literature. Four electronic databases were searched using search terms related to IsoTest. Studies were considered eligible if they were original research studies that investigated the relationships between multi-joint IsoTest and performance of dynamic movements; published in peer-reviewed journals; had participants who were athletes or active individuals who participate in recreational sports or resistance training, with no restriction on sex; and had full text available. A total of 47 studies were selected. These studies showed significant small to large correlations between isometric bench press (IBP) force-time variables and upper body dynamic performances (r 2 = 0.221 to 0.608, p < 0.05) and significant small to very large correlation between isometric squat (ISqT) (r 2 = 0.085 to 0.746, p < 0.05) and isometric mid-thigh pull (IMTP) (r 2 = 0.120 to 0.941, p < 0.05) force-time variables with lower body dynamic performances. IsoTest force-time characteristics were shown to have small to very large correlations with dynamic performances of the upper and lower limbs as well as performance of sporting movements (r 2 = 0.118 to 0.700, p < 0.05). These data suggest that IsoTest force-time characteristics provide insights into the force production capability of athletes which give insight into dynamic performance capabilities.
Handcycling has become a popular recreational and competitive form of Para-cycling. Like their able-bodied cycling counterparts, competitive handcyclists continue to explore ways by which to gain a performance edge. Whilst our collective understanding as to the influence of handbike design and configuration, handcycling technique, and the physiological determinants of competitive handcycling has improved over the past 20-years, there still remains several gaps in our scientific knowledge as to the most effective approach by which to optimise handcycling performance capabilities. Therefore, the following PhD thesis summarises five thematically linked publications, and two related conference presentations which aimed to investigate the development and implementation of appropriate training interventions designed to enhance the performance of recumbent handcyclists across the spectrum of competitive events including road races, time-trials, and ultra-endurance challenges. Publication 1 (Chapter 3) represents a pilot research project which aimed to investigate the effectiveness of concurrent strength and endurance training on handcycling performance. Whilst demonstrating that concurrent training was more effective than endurance training alone this study
generated several pertinent research questions. These included what are the physiological determinants of real-world handcycling performance? What is the relationship between upper-body strength and handcycling performance? and would a long-term concurrent training intervention elicit greater improvements in performance capabilities? To address these questions Publication 2 (Chapter 4) and Publication 3 (Chapter 5) build upon the published literature and identify the physiological determinants of handcycling performance. However, for the first time in the literature these studies also investigate the relationship between upper-body strength measures, anaerobic capacity and identified determinants of handcycling performance. Based upon these findings Publication 4 (Chapter 6) reports upon the effectiveness of a 30-week concurrent training program based upon a block periodisation model. Furthermore, this study reports the performance profile of an elite handcyclist during a 1407-km ultra-endurance handcycling challenge. Building upon this body of work, Publication 5 (Chapter 7) represents a holistic narrative review led by the author and written in conjunction with a group of international researchers in the field of handcycling. This piece aims to translate handcycling specific research and provide useful insights to riders, coaches and sports scientists as to the history of handcycling, functional classification levels, handbike configuration, the physiological determinants of handcycling performance, and the best approach by which to develop handcycling performance capabilities.
In summary, the body of work presented within this PhD thesis has added to our collective knowledge in regard to understanding the physiological determinants of handcycling performance including the importance of quantifying anaerobic capacity and upper-body strength. Furthermore, from an applied perspective the work presented demonstrates that concurrent strength and endurance training based upon a block periodisation model appears to be an effective approach by which to develop both TT and ultra-endurance handcycling performance. Taken collectively this knowledge adds to the existing body of literature and will positively impact upon the ability of riders, coaches, and sport scientists to optimise recumbent handcycling performance capabilities. Future studies should aim to use classifiable handcyclists with the intent of translating their findings to the wider handcycling community with the goal of not only enhancing handcycling performance but also improving the functional capabilities of a valued but often under represented section of society.
Study purpose. This study aimed to investigate the relationship between physiological reactivity and sprint paddling performance among elite athletes, focusing on cardiorespiratory responses, metabolic efficiency, and energy utilization patterns. Materials and methods. A group of N= 20 elite sprint paddlers from various regions in India was meticulously selected for this study. Detailed assessments of cardiorespiratory responses, metabolic efficiency, and energy utilization patterns were conducted using standardized protocols and cutting-edge measurement techniques. Individual differences among athletes were carefully documented. Results. The study revealed a remarkable homogeneity among the athletes, reflecting stringent training standards. However, intriguing individual differences emerged, particularly in cardiorespiratory reactivity. Athletes with swift neural responses and adept metabolic acidosis adaptation showcased enhanced overall performance, indicating the critical role of the nervous system and efficient respiratory mechanisms in optimizing paddlers’ capabilities. Analysis of CO2 emissions and lactate concentrations indicated a balanced energy utilization pattern and optimal anaerobic metabolism and respiratory responses. Balancing anaerobic alactate and lactate capacities emerged as pivotal. Conclusions. The findings underscore the need for targeted training programs that leverage individual differences, enhance neural adaptations, and metabolic acidosis tolerance, and optimize energy pathways. These transformative insights offer coaches, sports scientists, and athletes valuable tools to elevate performance outcomes. The study enriches our understanding of sprint paddling and serves as a paradigm for studying elite athletic performance, guiding the future of sports science and coaching. Future research avenues include exploring the long-term impact of tailored training interventions, investigating molecular mechanisms of cardiorespiratory reactivity, and studying psychological aspects of athletic performance. Comparative studies across diverse sports disciplines promise universal insights into elite athletic performance.
This study examined the force-velocity profile differences between men and women in three variations of row exercises. Twenty-eight participants (14 men and 14 women) underwent maximum dynamic strength assessments in the free prone bench row (PBR), bent-over barbell row (BBOR), and Smith machine bent-over row (SMBOR) in a randomized order. Subjects performed a progressive loading test from 30 to 100% of 1-RM (repetition maximum), and the mean propulsive velocity was measured in all attempts. Linear regression analyses were conducted to establish the relationships between the different measures of bar velocity and % 1-RM. The ANOVAs applied to the mean velocity achieved in each % 1-RM tested revealed significantly higher velocity values for loads < 65% 1-RM in SMBOR compared to BBOR (p < 0.05) and higher velocities for loads < 90% 1-RM in SMBOR compared to PBR (p < 0.05) for both sexes. Furthermore, men provided significantly higher velocity values than women (PBR 55-100% 1-RM; BBOR and SMBOR < 85% 1-RM; p < 0.05) and significant differences were found between exercises and sex for 30-40% 1-RM. These results confirm that men have higher velocities at different relative loads (i.e., % 1-RM) compared to women during upper-body rowing exercises.
The aim of the study. To better understanding of the indicators of functional support for special endurance and physiological demands in canoeists at a distance of 1000 m.
Material and methods: 20 athletes (19-23 years) in canoeing from Shandong and Jiangxi provinces.
Results. According to the results of the analysis, the following typological groups of athletes-canoeists, specializing in the distance of 1000 m, with pronounced differences in the implementation of anaerobic energy supply. Typological groups of athletes had no significant differences in aerobic energy capacity (p > 0.05).
The first typological group (La max 90s 16.64 mmol·l-1, p
Long-term training is a common approach within the applied setting for components of physiology and strength and conditioning, for example. However, less is known about the reality of training across similar timescales from a technical perspective. Taking the highly-technical sport of golf, current research rarely considers coaching technique beyond a single-session, nor with the aim to understand the reality for, or challenges faced by, coaches working at the elite-level. Accordingly, this qualitative study explored the goals, structure and methods of coaches’ long-term technical work with players at macro, meso and micro levels. Findings revealed, (a) coaches attempted to undertake technical refinement with players but without a clear systematic process, (b) there is little coherence and consistency across the levels of work, (c) the process and timescales of technical work is considered unpredictable and uncertain and, (d) long-term planning is seen as subservient to meeting players’ immediate performance needs. These results highlight the complexity of long-term technical work at the elite level and the need for coaches to develop both a sound and clear rationale through a more comprehensive case conceptualisation process, as well as a greater alignment to the scientific literature, in order to advance future practice.
Die Arbeit beleuchtet den Einsatz algorithmischer Datenbearbeitungen bei sportwissenschaftlichen Spiroergometrien aus praktischen und theoretischen Gesichtspunkten. Die aktuelle Verbreitung von algorithmischen Datenbearbeitungen aus Breath-by-Breath Untersuchungen wird über die Ergebnisse eines Fragebogens und einer systematischen Literaturübersicht dargestellt. Zudem erfolgt die Analyse der durch Algorithmen verursachten Messwertvarianzen der Sauerstoffaufnahme in diskontinuierlichen Belastungsuntersuchungen, bei Jugendlichen und im submaximalen Belastungsbereich.
Introduction - The body of scientific literature on sports and exercise continues to expand. The summer and winter Olympic games will be held over a 7-month period in 2021–2022.
Objectives - We took this rare opportunity to quantify and analyse the main bibliometric parameters (i.e., the number of articles and citations) across all Olympic sports to weigh and compare their importance and to assess the structure of the “sport sciences” field. The present review aims to perform a bibliometric analysis of Olympic sports research.
Methods - We searched 116 sport/exercise journals on PubMed for the 40 summer and 10 winter Olympic sports. A total of 34,038 articles were filtered for a final selection of 25,003 articles (23,334 articles on summer sports and 1,669 on winter sports) and a total of 599,820 citations.
Results and Discussion - Nine sports (football (soccer), cycling, athletics, swimming, distance & marathon running, basketball, baseball, tennis, and rowing) were involved in 69% of the articles and 75% of the citations. Football was the most cited sport, with 19.7% and 26.3% of the total number of articles and citations, respectively. All sports yielded some scientific output, but 11 sports (biathlon, mountain biking, archery, diving, trampoline, skateboarding, skeleton, modern pentathlon, luge, bobsleigh, and curling) accumulated a total of fewer than 50 publications. While ice hockey is the most prominently represented winter sport in the scientific literature, winter sports overall have produced minor scientific output.
Further analyses show a large scientific literature on team sports, particularly American professional sports (i.e., baseball, basketball, and ice hockey) and the importance of inclusion in the Olympic programme to increasing scientific interest in “recent” sports (i.e., triathlon and rugby sevens). We also found local/cultural influence on the occurrence of a sport in a particular “sport sciences” journal. Finally, the relative distribution of six main research topics (i.e., physiology, performance, training and testing, injuries and medicine, biomechanics, and psychology) was large across sports and reflected the specific performance factors of each sport.
Purpose:
The aim of the following case study was to evaluate the effectiveness of a 30-week concurrent strength and endurance training program designed to prepare a trained H4 male handcyclist (aged 28 y, bilateral, above knee amputee, and body mass 65.6 kg) for a 1407-km ultra-endurance handcycling challenge.
Methods:
This observational case study tracked selected physiological measures, training intensity distribution, and total training load over the course of a 30-week concurrent training protocol. Furthermore, the athlete's performance profile during the ultra-endurance challenge was monitored with power output, cadence, speed, and heart rate recorded throughout.
Results:
Findings revealed considerable improvements in power output at a fixed blood lactate concentration of 4 mmol·L-1 (+25.7%), peak aerobic power output (+18.9%), power-to-mass ratio (+18.3%), relative peak oxygen uptake (+13.9%), gross mechanical efficiency (+4.6%), bench press 1-repetition maximum (+4.3%), and prone bench pull 1-repetition maximum (+14.9%). The athlete completed the 1407-km route in a new handcycling world record time of 89:55 hours. Average speed was 18.7 (2.1) km·h-1; cadence averaged 70.0 (2.6) rpm, while average power output was 67 (12) W. In terms of internal load, the athlete's average heart rate was 111 (11) beats per minute.
Conclusion:
These findings demonstrate how a long-term concurrent strength and endurance training program can be used to optimize handcycling performance capabilities in preparation for an ultra-endurance cycling event. Knowledge emerging from this case study provides valuable information that can guide best practices with respect to handcycling training for ultra-endurance events.
El objetivo de este estudio fue analizar la composición corporal de piragüistas veteranos de élite y relacionarla con el rendimiento físico. Para ello, se midieron una serie de parámetros antropométricos y se realizó una prueba ergoespirométrica a 11 piragüistas veteranos que compiten a nivel nacional e internacional. La edad media de los participantes fue 43.45 ± 11.96 años y las horas de entrenamiento a la semana 10.91 ± 3.24. Se correlacionó negativamente la edad con la frecuencia cardiaca (FC) y el consumo de oxígeno (VO2) con: Índice Masa Corporal (IMC), Índice Cintura/Talla (ICT), Masa Grasa Relativa (MGR), sumatorio de cuatro y seis pliegues y porcentaje de masa grasa. Asimismo, se correlacionó positivamente las horas de entrenamiento a la semana con el VO2 (r=.78, p=.00) y el porcentaje de masa muscular con el VO2 (r=.86, p=.00) y con la potencia (r=.67, p=.02). Como conclusión, aquellos piragüistas veteranos que tenían unas mejores características antropométricas presentaron un mejor VO2 y fueron capaces de movilizar una mayor carga de vatios durante la prueba de esfuerzo. Abstract. The aim of this study was to analyze the body composition of veteran elite kayakers and relate it to physical performance. For this purpose, a group of anthropometric parameters were measured and an ergospirometric test was performed in 11 veteran kayakers competing nationally and internationally. The average age of the participants was 43.45 ± 11.96 years and the training hours per week was 10.91 ± 3.24. Age was negatively correlated with heart rate (HR) and maximal oxygen intake (VO2) with: Body Mass Index (BMI), Waist-Size, Relative Fat Mass (RFM), sumattion four and six skin folds and the percentage of fat mass. Likewise, training hours per week were correlated positively with VO2 (r = .78, p = .00) and the percentage of muscle mass with VO2 (r = .86, p = .00) and with power (r = .67, p=.02). In conclusion, those veteran kayakers who had better anthropometric characteristics presented a better VO2 and were able to mobilize a higher watt load during the stress test.
Background
High resistance training enhances muscular strength, and recent work has suggested an important role for metabolite accumulation in this process.
Objective
To investigate the role of fatigue and metabolite accumulation in strength gains by comparing highly fatiguing and non-fatiguing isotonic training protocols.
Methods
Twenty three healthy adults (18–29 years of age; eight women) were assigned to either a high fatigue protocol (HF: four sets of 10 repetitions with 30 seconds rest between sets) to maximise metabolic stress or a low fatigue protocol (LF: 40 repetitions with 30 seconds between each repetition) to minimise changes. Subjects lifted on average 73% of their 1 repetition maximum through the full range of knee extension with both legs, three times a week. Quadriceps isometric strength of each leg was measured at a knee joint angle of 1.57 rad (90°), and a Cybex 340 isokinetic dynamometer was used to measure the angle-torque and torque-velocity relations of the non-dominant leg.
Results
At the mid-point of the training, the HF group had 50% greater gains in isometric strength, although this was not significant (4.5 weeks: HF, 13.3 (4.4)%; LF, 8.9 (3.6)%). This rate of increase was not sustained by the HF group, and after nine weeks of training all the strength measurements showed similar improvements for both groups (isometric strength: HF, 18.2 (3.9)%; LF, 14.5 (4.0)%). The strength gains were limited to the longer muscle lengths despite training over the full range of movement.
Conclusions
Fatigue and metabolite accumulation do not appear to be critical stimuli for strength gain, and resistance training can be effective without the severe discomfort and acute physical effort associated with fatiguing contractions.
D. BISHOP, D. BONETTI, and B. DAWSON. The influence of pacing strategy on V̇O2 and supramaximal kayak performance. Med. Sci. Sports Exerc., Vol. 34, No. 6, pp. 1041-1047, 2002.
Purpose: The purpose of this study was to investigate the effects of manipulating pacing strategy on V̇O2 and kayak ergometer performance in well-trained paddlers.
Methods: Eight well-trained kayak paddlers (500-m time = 115-125 s) first performed a graded exercise test for determination of V̇O2max and lactate (La-) parameters. On subsequent days and in a random, counterbalanced order, subjects performed a 2-min, kayak ergometer test using either an all-out start or even pacing strategy.
Results: There was a significantly greater peak power (747.6 ± 152.0 vs 558.3 ± 110.1 W) and average power (348.5 ± 47.6 vs 335.5 ± 44.8 W) using the all-out start strategy, when compared with the even-paced strategy. There was however, no significant difference between the two pacing strategies for peak V̇O2, accumulated oxygen deficit (AOD), peak [La-], or posttest pH. Using the all-out start, total V̇O2 was significantly greater (7.3 ± 0.8 vs 6.9 ± 0.8 L).
Conclusion: The results of this study indicate that 2-min kayak ergometer performance is significantly greater following an all-out start strategy when compared with an even-paced strategy. The improved performance appears to be attributable to faster V̇O2 kinetics, without a significant change in the total AOD (although the AOD distribution was altered).
MILLET, G. P., B. JAOUEN, F. BORRANI, and R. CANDAU. Effects of concurrent endurance and strength training on running economy and V̇O2 kinetics. Med. Sci. Sports Exerc., Vol. 34, No. 8, pp. 1351-1359, 2002.
Purpose: It has been suggested that endurance training influences the running economy (CR) and the oxygen uptake (V̇O2) kinetics in heavy exercise by accelerating the primary phase and attenuating the V̇O2 slow component. However, the effects of heavy weight training (HWT) in combination with endurance training remain unclear. The purpose of this study was to examine the influence of a concurrent HWT+endurance training on CR and the V̇O2 kinetics in endurance athletes.
Methods: Fifteen triathletes were assigned to endurance+strength (ES) or endurance-only (E) training for 14 wk. The training program was similar, except ES performed two HWT sessions a week. Before and after the training period, the subjects performed 1) an incremental field running test for determination of V̇O2max and the velocity associated (VV̇O2max), the second ventilatory threshold (VT2); 2) a 3000-m run at constant velocity, calculated to require 25% of the difference between V̇O2max and VT2, to determine CR and the characteristics of the V̇O2 kinetics; 3) maximal hopping tests to determine maximal mechanical power and lower-limb stiffness; 4) maximal concentric lower-limb strength measurements.
Results: After the training period, maximal strength were increased (P < 0.01) in ES but remained unchanged in E. Hopping power decreased in E (P < 0.05). After training, economy (P < 0.05) and hopping power (P < 0.001) were greater in ES than in E. V̇O2max, leg hopping stiffness and the V̇O2 kinetics were not significantly affected by training either in ES or E.
Conclusion: Additional HWT led to improved maximal strength and running economy with no significant effects on the V̇O2 kinetics pattern in heavy exercise.
Impairment in strength development has been demonstrated with combined strength and endurance training as compared with strength training alone. The purpose of this study was to examine the effects of combining conventional 3 d[middle dot]wk-1 strength and endurance training on the compatibility of improving both [latin capital V with dot above]O2peak and strength performance simultaneously. Sedentary adult males, randomly assigned to one of three groups (N = 10 each), completed 10 wk of training. A strength-only (S) group performed eight weight-training exercises (4 sets/exercise, 5-7 repetitions/set), an endurance-only (E) group performed continuous cycle exercise (50 min at 70% heart rate reserve), and a combined (C) group performed the same S and E exercise in a single session. S and C groups demonstrated similar increases (P < 0.0167) in 1RM squat (23% and 22%) and bench press (18% for both groups), in maximal isometric knee extension torque (12% and 7%), in maximal vertical jump (6% and 9%), and in fat-free mass (3% and 5%). E training did not induce changes in any of these variables. [latin capital V with dot above]O2peak (ml[middle dot]kg-1min-1) increased (P < 0.01) similarity in both E (18%) and C (16%) groups. Results indicate 3 d[middle dot]wk-1 combined training can induce substantial concurrent and compatible increases in [latin capital V with dot above]O2peak and strength performance.
(C)1995The American College of Sports Medicine
Thirty-five healthy men were matched and randomly assigned to one of four training groups that performed high-intensity strength and endurance training (C; n = 9), upper body only high-intensity strength and endurance training (UC; n = 9), high-intensity endurance training (E; n = 8), or high-intensity strength training (ST; n = 9). The C and ST groups significantly increased one-repetition maximum strength for all exercises (P < 0.05). Only the C, UC, and E groups demonstrated significant increases in treadmill maximal oxygen consumption. The ST group showed significant increases in power output. Hormonal responses to treadmill exercise demonstrated a differential response to the different training programs, indicating that the underlying physiological milieu differed with the training program. Significant changes in muscle fiber areas were as follows: types I, IIa, and IIc increased in the ST group; types I and IIc decreased in the E group; type IIa increased in the C group; and there were no changes in the UC group. Significant shifts in percentage from type IIb to type IIa were observed in all training groups, with the greatest shift in the groups in which resistance trained the thigh musculature. This investigation indicates that the combination of strength and endurance training results in an attenuation of the performance improvements and physiological adaptations typical of single-mode training.
The impact of adding heavy-resistance training to increase leg-muscle strength was studied in eight cycling- and running-trained subjects who were already at a steady-state level of performance. Strength training was performed 3 days/wk for 10 wk, whereas endurance training remained constant during this phase. After 10 wk, leg strength was increased by an average of 30%, but thigh girth and biopsied vastus lateralis muscle fiber areas (fast and slow twitch) and citrate synthase activities were unchanged. Maximal O2 uptake (VO2max) was also unchanged by heavy-resistance training during cycling (55 ml.kg-1.min-1) and treadmill running (60 ml.kg-1.min-1); however, short-term endurance (4-8 min) was increased by 11 and 13% (P less than 0.05) during cycling and running, respectively. Long-term cycling to exhaustion at 80% VO2max increased from 71 to 85 min (P less than 0.05) after the addition of strength training, whereas long-term running (10 km times) results were inconclusive. These data do not demonstrate any negative performance effects of adding heavy-resistance training to ongoing endurance-training regimens. They indicate that certain types of endurance performance, particularly those requiring fast-twitch fiber recruitment, can be improved by strength-training supplementation.
Elite flat-water kayak paddlers were characterized with regard to body composition, muscle strength and endurance for upper-body exercise. Furthermore, maximal oxygen uptake was measured during three types of exercise: treadmill running, arm cranking and outdoor paddling. Blood samples for subsequent lactate analysis were collected not only after maximal exercises but also during training sessions and post 1000 m racing. In comparison with other groups of athletes known to exhibit great upper-body muscle strength, kayakers were found to possess high values for shoulder strength, endurance and anaerobic capacity. Total body maximal oxygen uptake averaged (+/- SD) 5.36 +/- 0.25 l X min-1. The values for arm cranking and paddling were 4.30 +/- 0.29 l X min-1 and 4.67 +/- 0.16 l X min-1. High blood lactate levels were noticed under training conditions and post competition (11.0-17.5 mmol X l-1). Taken together, the present study suggests success in flat-water kayak racing to require great upper-body muscle strength, anaerobic capacity and endurance in addition to high aerobic power.
A review of the current research on the interference phenomenon between concurrent aerobic and strength training indicates modest support for the model proposed in this article. However, it is clear that without a systematic approach to the investigation of the phenomenon there is lack of control and manipulation of the independent variables, which makes it difficult to test the validity of the model. To enhance the understanding of the interference phenomenon, it is important that researchers are precise and deliberate in their choice of training protocols.
Clear definition of the specific training objectives for strength (muscle hypertrophy or neural adaptation) and aerobic power (maximal aerobic power or anaerobic threshold) are required. In addition, researchers should equate training volumes as much as possible for all groups. Care needs to be exercised to avoid overtraining individuals. There should be adequate recovery and regeneration between the concurrent training sessions as well as during the training cycle. The model should be initially tested by maintaining the same protocols throughout the duration of the study. However, it is becoming common practice to use a periodised approach in a training mesocycle in which there is a shift from high volume and moderate intensity training to lower volume and higher intensity. The model should be evaluated in the context of a periodised mesocycle provided the investigators are sensitive to the potential impact of the loading parameters on the interference phenomenon. It may be that the periodised approach is one way of maintaining the training stimulus and minimising the amount of interference.
The effects of gender, training status, duration and frequency of training, and the mode of training need to be regarded as potential factors effecting the training response when investigating the interference phenomenon. Other experimental design factors such as unilateral limb training or training the upper body for one attribute and the lower body for another attribute, may help establish the validity of the model.
The purpose of this study was to examine muscle morphological and neural activation adaptations resulting from the interaction between concurrent strength and endurance training.
Thirty sedentary healthy male subjects were randomly assigned to one of three training groups that performed 10 wk of 3-d x wk(-1) high-intensity strength training (S), cycle endurance training (E), or concurrent strength and endurance training (CC). Strength, quadriceps-muscle biopsies, computed tomography scans at mid-thigh, and surface electromyogram (EMG) assessments were made before and after training.
S and CC groups demonstrated similar increases (P < 0.0001) in both thigh extensor (12 and 14%) and flexor/adductor (7 and 6%) muscle areas. Type II myofiber areas similarly increased (P < 0.002) in both S (24%) and CC (28%) groups, whereas the increase (P < 0.004) in Type I area with S training (19%) was also similar to the nonsignificant (P = 0.041) increase with CC training (13%). Significant increases (P < 0.005) in maximal isometric knee-extension torque were accompanied by nonsignificant (P <or= 0.07) increases in root mean squared EMG amplitude of the quadriceps musculature for both S and C groups. No changes (P > 0.38) in the EMG/torque relation across 20 to 100% maximal voluntary contractions occurred in any group. A small 3% increase (P < 0.01) in thigh extensor area was the only change in any of the above variables with E training.
Findings indicate 3-d x wk(-1) concurrent performance of both strength and endurance training does not impair adaptations in strength, muscle hypertrophy, and neural activation induced by strength training alone. Results provide a physiological basis to support several performance studies that consistently indicate 3-d x wk(-1) concurrent training does not impair strength development over the short term.
High resistance training enhances muscular strength, and recent work has suggested an important role for metabolite accumulation in this process.
To investigate the role of fatigue and metabolite accumulation in strength gains by comparing highly fatiguing and non-fatiguing isotonic training protocols.
Twenty three healthy adults (18-29 years of age; eight women) were assigned to either a high fatigue protocol (HF: four sets of 10 repetitions with 30 seconds rest between sets) to maximise metabolic stress or a low fatigue protocol (LF: 40 repetitions with 30 seconds between each repetition) to minimise changes. Subjects lifted on average 73% of their 1 repetition maximum through the full range of knee extension with both legs, three times a week. Quadriceps isometric strength of each leg was measured at a knee joint angle of 1.57 rad (90 degrees ), and a Cybex 340 isokinetic dynamometer was used to measure the angle-torque and torque-velocity relations of the non-dominant leg.
At the mid-point of the training, the HF group had 50% greater gains in isometric strength, although this was not significant (4.5 weeks: HF, 13.3 (4.4)%; LF, 8.9 (3.6)%). This rate of increase was not sustained by the HF group, and after nine weeks of training all the strength measurements showed similar improvements for both groups (isometric strength: HF, 18.2 (3.9)%; LF, 14.5 (4.0)%). The strength gains were limited to the longer muscle lengths despite training over the full range of movement.
Fatigue and metabolite accumulation do not appear to be critical stimuli for strength gain, and resistance training can be effective without the severe discomfort and acute physical effort associated with fatiguing contractions.
The purpose of this study was to investigate effects of concurrent strength and endurance training (SE) (2 plus 2 days a week) versus strength training only (S) (2 days a week) in men [SE: n=11; 38 (5) years, S: n=16; 37 (5) years] over a training period of 21 weeks. The resistance training program addressed both maximal and explosive strength components. EMG, maximal isometric force, 1 RM strength, and rate of force development (RFD) of the leg extensors, muscle cross-sectional area (CSA) of the quadriceps femoris (QF) throughout the lengths of 4/15–12/15 (L
f) of the femur, muscle fibre proportion and areas of types I, IIa, and IIb of the vastus lateralis (VL), and maximal oxygen uptake (V̇O2max) were evaluated. No changes occurred in strength during the 1-week control period, while after the 21-week training period increases of 21% (p<0.001) and 22% (p<0.001), and of 22% (p<0.001) and 21% (p<0.001) took place in the 1RM load and maximal isometric force in S and SE, respectively. Increases of 26% (p<0.05) and 29% (p<0.001) occurred in the maximum iEMG of the VL in S and SE, respectively. The CSA of the QF increased throughout the length of the QF (from 4/15 to 12/15 L
f) both in S (p<0.05–0.001) and SE (p<0.01–0.001). The mean fibre areas of types I, IIa and IIb increased after the training both in S (p<0.05 and 0.01) and SE (p<0.05 and p<0.01). S showed an increase in RFD (p<0.01), while no change occurred in SE. The average iEMG of the VL during the first 500 ms of the rapid isometric action increased (p<0.05–0.001) only in S. V̇O2max increased by 18.5% (p<0.001) in SE. The present data do not support the concept of the universal nature of the interference effect in strength development and muscle hypertrophy when strength training is performed concurrently with endurance training, and the training volume is diluted by a longer period of time with a low frequency of training. However, the present results suggest that even the low-frequency concurrent strength and endurance training leads to interference in explosive strength development mediated in part by the limitations of rapid voluntary neural activation of the trained muscles.
The object of this study was to investigate the changes in physical parameters produced during an in-season resistance training (RT) and detraining (DT, or RT cessation) in 16 high level team handball players (THPs). Apart from normal practice sessions, THPs underwent 12 weeks of RT. Subjects performed 3 sets of 3-6 reps with a load of 70-85% concentric 1 repetition maximum bench press (1RMBP), 3 sets of 3-6 reps with a load of 70-95% of 4 repetition maximum parallel squats (4RMPS), plus vertical jumps and sprints. The 1RMBP, 4RMPS, speed over 30 m (S30), jump (countermovement jump height [CMJ]; CMJ with additional weights [20kg and 40kg], and ball throw velocity (BTv) were tested before the experimental period (T1), after 6 weeks (T2), and after the 12-week experimental period (T3). Immediately after these 12 weeks, THPs started a 7-week DT period, maintained normal practices. The CMJ and the BTv were the only parameters evaluated during DT. The most important gains (p < 0.001) in S30 were obtained between T1-T2 and T1-T3. The BTv improved significantly (p < 0.001) only between T1-T2 and T1-T3. The most relevant increases (p < 0.001) in jumping performance took place between T1-T2 and T1-T3. The 1RMBP showed significant increases (p < 0.001) only between T1-T2 and T1-T3. The 4RMPS increased significantly between all testing trials. After the DT, THPs showed no significant losses in CMJ performance. However, they declined significantly in BTv (p = 0.023). The results suggest that elite THPs can optimize important physical parameters over 12 weeks in-season and that 7 weeks of DT, although insufficient to produce significant decreases in CMJ, are sufficient to induce significant decreases in BTv. It is concluded that after RT cessation THPs reduced BTv performance.
Drinkwater, E.J., T.W. Lawton, R.P. Lindsell, D.B. Pyne, P.H. Hunt, and M.J. McKenna. Training leading to repetition failure contributes to bench press strength gains in elite junior athletes. J. Strength Cond. Res. 19(2):382-388. 2005. The purpose of this study was to investigate the importance of training leading to repetition failure in the performance of 2 different tests: 6 repetition maximum (6RM) bench press strength and 40-kg bench throw power in elite junior athletes. Subjects were 26 elite junior male basketball players (n 12; age = 18.6 +/- 0.3 years; height = 202.0 +/- 11.6 cm; mass = 97.0 +/- 12.9 kg; mean SD) and soccer players (n = 14; age = 17.4 +/- 0.5 years; height = 179.0 +/- 7.0 cm; mass = 75.0 +/- 7.1 kg) with a history of greater than 6 months' strength training. Subjects were initially tested twice for 6RM bench press mass and 40-kg Smith machine bench throw power output (in watts) to establish retest reliability. Subjects then undertook bench press training with 3 sessions per week for 6 weeks, using equal volume programs (24 repetitions X 80-105% 6RM in 13 minutes 20 seconds). Subjects were assigned to one of two experimental groups designed either to elicit repetition failure with 4 sets of 6 repetitions every 260 seconds (RF4x6) or allow all repetitions to be completed with 8 sets of 3 repetitions every 113 seconds (NF8x3). The RF4X6 treatment elicited substantial increases in strength (7.3 +/- 2.4 kg, + 9.5%, p < 0.001) and power (40.8 +/- 24.1 W, + 10.6%, p < 0.001), while the NF8X3 group elicited 3.6 +/- 3.0 kg (+ 5.0%, p < 0.005) and 25 +/- 19.0 W increases (+ 6.8%, p < 0.001). The improvements in the RF4x6 group were greater than those in the repetition rest group for both strength (p < 0.005) and power (p < 0.05). Bench press training that leads to repetition failure induces greater strength gains than nonfailure training in the bench press exercise for elite junior team sport athletes.
The present investigation compared the effects of three selected mesocycle-length weight training programs using partially equated volumes on upper and 10wer body strength. Ninety-two previously weight-trained males were tested at five intervals (T1 through T5) on free- weight bench press and parallel back squat strength before, during, and after 16 weeks of training. Groups 1 and 2 trained with programs consisting of 5×10-RM at 78.9% of 1-RM and 6×8-RM at 83.3% of 1-RM, respectively, while keeping the amount of sets, repetitions, and training resistance (relative intensity) constant. Group 3 trained with a periodization program involving 4 weeks of 5×10-RM at 78.9% of 1-RM, 4 weeks of 6×8-RM with 83.3% of 1-RM, 4 weeks of 3×6-RM with 87.6% of 1-RM, and 4 weeks of 3×4-RM with 92.4% of 1-RM. Group 4 served as a non-weight-training control group. A 4×5 (Group × Test) MANOVA with repeated measures on test revealed that pretest normalized bench press and squat strength values were statistically equal when the study began. For the bench press at T2, results revealed that Groups 1,2, and 3 were significantly different from Group 4 but not from each other. At T3, T4, and T5, Group 3 demonstrated significantly different strength levels in the bench press from Groups 1,2, and 4. Groups 1 and 2 were not significantly different from Group 4. For the squat exercise at T2, T3, and T4, Groups 2 and 3 were significantly different from Groups 1 and 2 but not from each other. At T5, Group 3 was significantly different from Groups 1, 2, and 4. Group 2 was significantly different from Groups 1 and 4, and Group 1 was only significantly different from Group 4. It was concluded that a mesocycle-length weight training program incorporating periodization is superior in eliciting upper. and 10wer body strength gains when compared to programs with partially equated volumes.
D. BISHOP, D. BONETTI, and B. DAWSON. The influence of pacing strategy on V̇O2 and supramaximal kayak performance. Med. Sci. Sports Exerc., Vol. 34, No. 6, pp. 1041–1047, 2002. Purpose: The purpose of this study was to investigate the effects of manipulating pacing strategy on V̇O2 and kayak ergometer performance in well-trained paddlers. Methods: Eight well-trained kayak paddlers (500-m time = 115-125 s) first performed a graded exercise test for determination of V̇O2max and lactate (La−) parameters. On subsequent days and in a random, counterbalanced order, subjects performed a 2-min, kayak ergometer test using either an all-out start or even pacing strategy. Results: There was a significantly greater peak power (747.6 ± 152.0 vs 558.3 ± 110.1 W) and average power (348.5 ± 47.6 vs 335.5 ± 44.8 W) using the all-out start strategy, when compared with the even-paced strategy. There was however, no significant difference between the two pacing strategies for peak V̇O2, accumulated oxygen deficit (AOD), peak [La−], or posttest pH. Using the all-out start, total V̇O2 was significantly greater (7.3 ± 0.8 vs 6.9 ± 0.8 L). Conclusion: The results of this study indicate that 2-min kayak ergometer performance is significantly greater following an all-out start strategy when compared with an even-paced strategy. The improved performance appears to be attributable to faster V̇O2 kinetics, without a significant change in the total AOD (although the AOD distribution was altered).
The body of knowledge is the sum total of our human understanding of the world around us. Studies in the area of strength and conditioning make up one of the many fields of knowledge, and strength and conditioning professionals must understand how our understanding is created to successfully use it to optimize their professional practices, approaches, and exercise prescriptions.
The purpose of this study was to determine how different training modes would influence blood levels of growth hormone (hGH) and selected physiological parameters. Three training groups were established: LIFT, in which subjects trained with free weights and a Universal Gym three times per week with three sets at six to eight repetitions per lift (75 percent of one-repetition maximum) for 10 weeks; RUN, in which subjects ran at 75 percent of HR max three times per week; and COMBO, in which subjects underwent both LIFT and RUN training. Resting hGH levels were determined before and after training, and the hGH response to a single bout of exercise was determined at one, four, eight and 10 weeks. Each subject was tested for one-repetition (1 RM) strength in the bench and leg press during weeks one and 10 of training. Resting and exercise response blood samples were taken from an anticubital vein and centrifuged, and the serum was analyzed for hGH by radioimmunoassay techniques. The results of the hormonal measurements indicate that except for a significant (p < 0.05) decrease in the resting levels of hGH in the LIFT group, training did not alter hGH levels at rest. The 10 weeks of exercise training did not change the basic hGH response to a single bout of exercise in the LIFT and COMBO groups, but did shift the hGH peak of RUN subjects from four to eight minutes by the eighth week of training. The non-hormonal factors affected were: [latin capital V with dot above]O2 max of RUN and COMBO was significantly higher (p < 0.05) above LIFT; LBM and upper body strength of LIFT and COMBO was significantly elevated (p < 0.05) than RUN; and significant gains (p < 0.05) in lower body strength occurred only in LIFT, The data indicate that 10 weeks of exercise training does not significantly alter the basic hGH response to a single bout of exercise, but can influence the appearance of the hormonal peak. The results also show that a training program involving both running and lifting can produce the same gains in [latin capital V with dot above]O2 max and upper body strength as single-activity programs, but does not produce lower body strength gains.
(C) 1991 National Strength and Conditioning Association
This study examined the effects of manipulating volume and intensity on strength and power in experienced male athletes. Subjects (N = 22) were tested for maximum strength in the squat and bench press lifts, vertical jump (VJ), lean body mass (LBM), and neural activation levels (IEMG). They trained 3 days a week for 12 weeks according to a linear periodization model (n = 8), an undulating periodization model (n = 5), or a nonperiodized control model (n = 9). Training volume and relative intensity were equated for all groups. Maximal squat, bench press, and LBM all improved significantly in each group, and changes in maximal strength correlated significantly with changes in LBM. IEMG levels were generally unchanged and did not correlate with changes in strength. The VJ increased significantly through training, but there were no differences between groups. Changes in VJ were not significantly correlated with changes in squat, LBM, or IEMG levels. The results indicate that in short-term training using previously trained subjects, no differences in maximal strength are seen when training volume and relative intensity are equated.
(C) 1994 National Strength and Conditioning Association
Variation or periodization of training is an important concept in designing weight-training programs. To date, the majority of studies examining periodization of weight training have used a traditional strength/power training model of decreasing training volume and increasing training intensity as the program progresses. The majority of these studies have used males as subjects and do support the contention that periodized programs can result in greater changes in strength, motor performance, total body weight, lean body mass, and percent body fat than nonperiodized programs. However, studies are needed examining why periodized training is more beneficial than nonperiodized training. Studies are also needed examining the response of females, children, and seniors to periodized weight-training programs and the response to periodized models other than the traditional strength/power training model.
(C) 1999 National Strength and Conditioning Association
The present investigation compared the effects of three selected mesocycle-length weight training programs using partially equated volumes on upper and lower body strength. Ninety-two previously weight-trained males were tested at five intervals (T1 through T5) on freeweight bench press and parallel back squat strength before, during, and after 16 weeks of training. Groups 1 and 2 trained with programs consisting of 5x10-RM at 78.9% of 1-RM and 6x8-RM at 83.3% of 1-RM, respectively, while keeping the amount of sets, repetitions, and training resistance (relative intensity) constant. Group 3 trained with a periodization program involving 4 weeks of 5x10-RM at 78.9% of 1-RM, 4 weeks of 6x8-RM with 83.3% of 1-RM, 4 weeks of 3x6-RM with 87.6% of 1-RM, and 4 weeks of 3x4-RM with 92.4% of 1-RM. Group 4 served as a non-weight-training control group. A 4x5 (Group x Test) MANOVA with repeated measures on test revealed that pretest normalized bench press and squat strength values were statistically equal when the study began. For the bench press at T2, results revealed that Groups 1, 2, and 3 were significantly different from Group 4 but not from each other. At T3, T4, and T5, Group 3 demonstrated significantly different strength levels in the bench press from Groups 1, 2, and 4. Groups 1 and 2 were not significantly different from Group 4. For the squat exercise at T2, T3, and T4, Groups 2 and 3 were significantly different from Groups 1 and 2 but not from each other. At T5, Group 3 was significantly different from Groups 1, 2, and 4. Group 2 was significantly different from Groups 1 and 4, and Group 1 was only significantly different from Group 4. It was concluded that a mesocycle-length weight training program. incorporating periodization is superior in eliciting upper and lower body strength gains when compared to programs with partially equated volumes.
(C) 1993 National Strength and Conditioning Association
This study compared the effects of three preseason training programs on endurance, strength, power, and speed. Subjects were divided into four groups: the endurance (E) group completed a running endurance program 4 days [middle dot] week-1; the strength (S) group trained 3 days [middle dot] week-1; the S+E group combined S and E training programs 5 days [middle dot] week-1; the control (C) group did not train. After 8 weeks, the E and S+E groups had similar gains in endurance running performance, the S group had no change, while the C group showed a decline. No strength gains were noted in the C or E groups, but strength gains were made in the S+E and S groups. Power (vertical jump performance) and speed (20-m sprint time) gains were noted only for the S group. These findings show that training for strength alone results in gains in strength, power, and speed while maintaining endurance. S+E training, while producing gains in endurance and upper body strength, compromises gains in lower body strength and does not improve power or speed.
(C) 1994 National Strength and Conditioning Association
Maximal as well as submaximal heart rate and oxygen uptake were measured during paddling and other types of arm and leg exercise in Swedish elite canoeists. Muscle fiber composition was determined in the canoeists: 4 seniors (22-28 year old) as well as 2 juniors (18 years). Vo2max during treadmill running averaged in the seniors 5.4 1 x min -1 and during arm exercise. Corresponding values for the juniors were 4.7 1 x min -1 and 4.21 x min -1 or 88%. Paddling 500 m resulted in relatively low oxygen uptake, but the highest blood lactate concentrations, whereas 1,000 m gave the highest oxygen uptake but also high blood lactate concentrations. During a 10,000 m race the heart rate was approximately 97% (range 96-98%) of the maximum measured. In nine present and former winners of World Championships or Olympic medals, fiber types were determined in the deltoid muscle. These data indicated that canoeists, who were successful in 500 m races, had a higher percentage of fast twitch (FT) muscle fibers (range 50-59%) than medalists, who competed in 10,000 m races (26-52% FT).
Physical and physiological factors accounting for the variability of performance in 500, 1000, 10,000, and 42,000 m flatwater kayaking were investigated using linear regression. Times achieved for each distance were used as the dependent variable for analysis while the independent variables were the parameters derived from the test battery. The 38 kayakists who participated were categorized as either state team members or nonselected paddlers, based on an objective selection policy. Several of the participant subjects were Australian international representatives. All selected paddlers were grouped together and Student's t-tests performed to determine which variables could distinguish between selected and nonselected paddlers. Simple regression was used to determine the strength of association of each parameter with performance time over each race distance, and multiple regression was used to generate equations for the prediction of performance times. Aerobic power and variables related to the aerobic-anaerobic transition were examined using gas analysis during an incremental workload test on a kayak ergometer. A 1-min all-out test also on a kayak ergometer was used to obtain an indication of anaerobic capacity and power. Muscular strength and fatigue were assessed using a simulated kayak stroke on a Cybex isokinetic dynamometer. Physical characteristics were determined using kinanthropometric tests. Aerobic power, anaerobic power and capacity, muscular strength, resistance to muscular fatigue, and measures of body size were significantly greater in more successful kayakists. All of the parameters measured correlated significantly with performance time over at least one of the four race distances.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS)
To assess the effects of concurrent strength (S) and endurance (E) training on S and E development, one group (4 young men and 4 young women) trained one leg for S and the other leg for S and E (S+E). A second group (4 men, 4 women) trained one leg for E and the other leg for E and S (E+S). E training consisted of five 3-min bouts on a cycle ergometer at a power output corresponding to that requiring 90-100% of oxygen uptake during maximal exercise (VO2 max). S training consisted of six sets of 15-20 repetitions with the heaviest possible weight on a leg press (combined hip and knee extension) weight machine. Training was done 3 days/wk for 22 wk. Needle biopsy samples from vastus lateralis were taken before and after training and were examined for histochemical, biochemical, and ultrastructural adaptations. The nominal S and E training programs were "hybrids", having more similarities as training stimuli than differences; thus S made increases (P less than 0.05) similar to those of S+E in E-related measures of VO2max (S, S+E: 8%, 8%), repetitions with the pretraining maximal single leg press lift [1 repetition maximum (RM)] (27%, 24%), and percent of slow-twitch fibers (15%, 8%); and S made significant, although smaller, increases in repetitions with 80% 1 RM (81%, 152%) and citrate synthase (CS) activity (22%, 51%). Similarly, E increased knee extensor area [computed tomography (CT) scans] as much as E+S (14%, 21%) and made significant, although smaller, increases in leg press 1 RM (20%, 34%) and thigh girth (3.4%, 4.8%). When a presumably stronger stimulus for an adaptation was added to a weaker one, some additive effects occurred (i.e., increases in 1 RM and thigh girth that were greater in E+S than E; increases in CS activity and repetitions with 80% 1 RM that were greater in S+E than S). When a weaker, although effective, stimulus was added to a stronger one, addition generally did not occur. Concurrent S and E training did not interfere with S or E development in comparison to S or E training alone.
To compare the responses to doing strength (S) training on alternate days with endurance (E) training vs doing both types of training on the same days per week, seven young men (group A-2 d) did S and E training together in single sessions 2 d.wk-1 for 20 wk. A second group (B-4 d, N = 8) did the S training on 2 d.wk-1 and E training on 2 other d.wk-1. S training was six to eight sets of 15-20 RM on a leg press weight machine. E training was six to eight 3-min bouts of cycle ergometer exercise at 90-100% VO2max. B-4 d (25%) increased leg press 1 RM more (P less than 0.05) than A-2 d (13%), but the groups increased similarly (A-2 d, B-4 d) in knee extensor (31%, 34%) and flexor (12%, 14%) cross-sectional area and vastus lateralis mean fiber area (33%, 25%). Increases in VO2max (7%, 6%), repetitions with 80% 1 RM (39%, 64%), repetitions with the pre-training 1 RM (33, 55), and PFK (19%, 10%) and LDH (15%, 23%) activity did not differ (P greater than 0.05) between groups. CS activity increased significantly only in A-2 d (26%; B-4 d, 6%). It is concluded that same day (vs different day) concurrent strength and endurance training may impede strength development without impeding hypertrophy. On the other hand, same day training may enhance increases in CS activity but not VO2max or weight lifting endurance.
Twenty-two male and female subjects trained for 7 wk for endurance (group E), for strength (group IS), or for both strength and endurance (group C) to evaluate the effect of concurrent performance of both modes of training on the in vivo force-velocity relationship of human muscle and on aerobic power. Endurance training consisted of five 5-min sessions three times a week on cycle ergometer with a work load that approached the subject's peak cycle-ergometer O2 uptake (peak CE VO2). Strength training consisted of two 30-s sets of maximal knee extensions per day performed on an isokinetic dynamometer three times a week at a velocity of 4.19 rad X s-1. Group C performed the same training as groups IS and E, alternating days of strength and endurance training. Subjects (groups C and IS) were tested pre- and posttraining for maximal knee-extension torque at a specific joint angle (0.52 rad below horizontal) for seven specific angular velocities (0, 0.84, 1.68, 2.81, 3.35, 4.19, and 5.03 rad X s-1). Groups C and E were tested for peak CE VO2 pretraining, at 14-day intervals, and posttraining. Group IS showed significant increases in angle-specific maximal torque at velocities up to and including the training speed (4.19 rad X s-1). Group C showed increases (P less than 0.05) at velocities of 0, 0.84, and 1.68 rad X s-1 only. Peak CE VO2, when expressed in relative or absolute terms, increased (P less than 0.05) approximately 18% for both groups E and C.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS)
The purpose of this study was to determine how individuals adapt to a combination of strength and endurance training as compared to the adaptations produced by either strength or endurance training separately. There were three exercise groups: a strength group (S) that exercised 30--40 min . day-1, 5 days . week-1, and endurance group (E) that exercised 40 min . day-1, 6 days . week-1; and an S and E group that performed the same daily exercise regimens as the S and E groups. After 10 weeks of training, VO2max increased approx. 25% when measured during bicycle exercise and 20% when measured during treadmill exercise in both E, and S and E groups. No increase in VO2max was observed in the S group. There was a consistent rate of development of leg-strength by the S group throughout the training, whereas the E group did not show any appreciable gains in strength. The rate of strength improvement by the S and E group was similar to the S group for the first 7 weeks of training, but subsequently leveled off and declined during the 9th and 10th weeks. These findings demonstrate that simultaneously training for S and E will result in a reduced capacity to develop strength, but will not affect the magnitude of increase in VO2max.
Concurrent strength and endurance training appears to inhibit strength development when compared with strength training alone. Our understanding of the nature of this inhibition and the mechanisms responsible for it is limited at present. This is due to the difficulties associated with comparing results of studies which differ markedly in a number of design factors, including the mode, frequency, duration and intensity of training, training history of participants, scheduling of training sessions and dependent variable selection. Despite these difficulties, both chronic and acute hypotheses have been proposed to explain the phenomenon of strength inhibition during concurrent training. The chronic hypothesis contends that skeletal muscle cannot adapt metabolically or morphologically to both strength and endurance training simultaneously. This is because many adaptations at the muscle level observed in response to strength training are different from those observed after endurance training. The observation that changes in muscle fibre type and size after concurrent training are different from those observed after strength training provide some support for the chronic hypothesis. The acute hypothesis contends that residual fatigue from the endurance component of concurrent training compromises the ability to develop tension during the strength element of concurrent training. It is proposed that repeated acute reductions in the quality of strength training sessions then lead to a reduction in strength development over time. Peripheral fatigue factors such as muscle damage and glycogen depletion have been implicated as possible fatigue mechanisms associated with the acute hypothesis. Further systematic research is necessary to quantify the inhibitory effects of concurrent training on strength development and to identify different training approaches that may overcome any negative effects of concurrent training.
The purpose of this study was to investigate the effect of concurrent strength and endurance training on strength, endurance, endocrine status and muscle fibre properties. A total of 45 male and female subjects were randomly assigned to one of four groups; strength training only (S), endurance training only (E), concurrent strength and endurance training (SE), or a control group (C). Groups S and E trained 3 days a week and the SE group trained 6 days a week for 12 weeks. Tests were made before and after 6 and 12 weeks of training. There was a similar increase in maximal oxygen consumption (VO2max) in both groups E and SE (P < 0.05). Leg press and knee extension one repetition maximum (1 RM) was increased in groups S and SE (P < 0.05) but the gains in knee extension 1 RM were greater for group S compared to all other groups (P < 0.05). Types I and II muscle fibre area increased after 6 and 12 weeks of strength training and after 12 weeks of combined training in type II fibres only (P < 0.05). Groups SE and E had an increase in succinate dehydrogenase activity and group E had a decrease in adenosine triphosphatase after 12 weeks of training (P < 0.05). A significant increase in capillary per fibre ratio was noted after 12 weeks of training in group SE. No changes were observed in testosterone, human growth hormone or sex hormone binding globulin concentrations for any group but there was a greater urinary cortisol concentration in the women of group SE and decrease in the men of group E after 12 weeks of training (P < 0.05). These findings would support the contention that combined strength and endurance training can suppress some of the adaptations to strength training and augment some aspects of capillarization in skeletal muscle.
The aim of this study was to determine the effects of a single bout of endurance exercise on subsequent strength performance. Eight males with a long history of resistance training performed isokinetic, isometric and isotonic leg extension strength tests 8 and 32 h after 50 min of cycle ergometry at 70-110% of critical power. The participants also completed a control condition in which no cycling was performed. Plasma lactate and ammonia were measured before and immediately after each strength test. Isokinetic, isometric and isotonic leg extension torques were not significantly different 8 or 32 h after endurance exercise compared with the control condition (P > 0.05). A large (50.3%), but not statistically significant, increase in plasma ammonia was evident during the strength tests performed 8 h after endurance exercise, while a significant (P < 0.05) increase in ammonia was also seen 32 h after endurance exercise. No significant changes in plasma ammonia were evident in the control condition. Our results suggest that leg extension strength was not compromised by an earlier bout of endurance cycling. However, metabolic activity during the strength tests might have been altered by the preceding bout of endurance exercise.
Fourteen professional (NRL) and 15 college-aged (SRL) rugby league players were observed during a lengthy in-season period to monitor the possible interfering effects of concurrent resistance and energy-system conditioning on maximum strength and power levels. All subjects performed concurrent training aimed at increasing strength, power, speed, and energy-system fitness, as well as skill and team practice sessions, before and during the in-season period. The SRL group significantly improved 1 repetition maximum bench press (1RM BP) strength, but not bench throw (BT Pmax) or jump squat maximum power (JS Pmax) over their 19-week in-season. The results for the NRL group remained unchanged in all tests across their 29-week in-season. The fact that no reductions in any tests for either group occurred may be due to the prioritization, sequencing, and timing of training sessions, as well as the overall periodization of the total training volume. Having athletes better conditioned to perform concurrent training may also aid in reducing the possible interfering effects of concurrent training. Correlations between changes in 1RM BP and BT Pmax suggest differences in the mechanisms to increase power between stronger, more experienced and less strong and experienced athletes.
The aim of this study was to investigate the use of incremental ergometry determined heart rate training intensities for the control of kayak ergometer and open water kayak training. Eight well-trained male kayakers completed a maximal incremental exercise test on an air-braked kayak ergometer for the determination of LT(1) (the power output at which blood lactate concentration increased by > or = 1 mmol x L(-1)), the associated heart rate (HR-LT(1)), VO(2)peak, maximal heart rate and maximal aerobic power. Subjects then performed 20 min trials of kayak ergometry (E), open water kayaking in a single kayak (K1) and open water kayaking in a four-seat kayak (K4) at HR-LT(1). During the three trials, heart rate was continuously measured, and blood lactate concentration, rating of perceived exertion (RPE) and stroke rate were determined every 5 min. In all trials, exercise at HR-LT(1) resulted in stable blood lactate concentrations and a stable RPE. Comparison of the three trials demonstrated that the only difference was for RPE, which was lower in (K4) than in (E), (p < 0.05). The results demonstrate that the prescription of HR-LT(1) elicits similar blood lactate concentrations during kayak ergometer and open water kayak training in both single and team boats.
The purpose of this study was to investigate the effects of manipulating pacing strategy on VO2 and kayak ergometer performance in well-trained paddlers.
Eight well-trained kayak paddlers (500-m time = 115-125 s) first performed a graded exercise test for determination of VO2max and lactate (La-) parameters. On subsequent days and in a random, counterbalanced order, subjects performed a 2-min, kayak ergometer test using either an all-out start or even pacing strategy.
There was a significantly greater peak power (747.6 +/- 152.0 vs 558.3 +/- 110.1 W) and average power (348.5 +/- 47.6 vs 335.5 +/- 44.8 W) using the all-out start strategy, when compared with the even-paced strategy. There was however, no significant difference between the two pacing strategies for peak VO2, accumulated oxygen deficit (AOD), peak [La-], or posttest pH. Using the all-out start, total VO2 was significantly greater (7.3 +/- 0.8 vs 6.9 +/- 0.8 L).
The results of this study indicate that 2-min kayak ergometer performance is significantly greater following an all-out start strategy when compared with an even-paced strategy. The improved performance appears to be attributable to faster VO2 kinetics, without a significant change in the total AOD (although the AOD distribution was altered).
Maximal concentric one repetition maximum half-squat (1RM(HS)), bench-press (1RM(BP)), power-load curves during concentric actions with loads ranging from 30% to 100% of 1RM(HS) and 1RM(BP)were examined in 70 male subjects divided into five groups: weightlifters (WL, n=11), handball players (HP, n=19), amateur road cyclists (RC, n=18), middle-distance runners (MDR, n=10) and age-matched control subjects (C, n=12). The 1RM(HS)values in WL, HP and RC were 50%, 29% and 28% greater, respectively, ( P<0.001-0.01) than those recorded for MDR and C. The half-squat average power outputs at all loads examined (from 30% to 100%) in WL and HP ( P<0.001 at 45% and 60% with HP) were higher ( P<0.05-0.001) than those in MDR, RC and C. Average power output at the load of 30% of 1RM(HS) in RC was higher ( P<0.05) than that recorded in MDR and C. Maximal power output was produced at the load of 60% for HP, MDR and C, and at the load of 45% for WL and RC. The 1RM(BP) in WL was larger ( P<0.05) than those recorded in HP, RC, MDR and C. In the bench press, average muscle power outputs in WL and HP were higher ( P<0.05-0.001) than those in MDR, RC and C, and were maximized at a load of 30% of 1RM for WL and HP, and at 45% for RC, MDR and C. In addition, the velocities that elicited the maximal power in the lower extremities were lower ( approximately 0.75 m.s(-1)) than those occurring in the upper extremities ( approximately 1 m.s(-1)). The data suggest that the magnitude of the sport-related differences in strength and/or muscle power output may be explained in part by differences in muscle cross-sectional area, fibre type distribution and in the muscle mechanics of the upper and lower limbs as well as by training background.
It has been suggested that endurance training influences the running economy (CR) and the oxygen uptake (.VO(2)) kinetics in heavy exercise by accelerating the primary phase and attenuating the .VO(2) slow component. However, the effects of heavy weight training (HWT) in combination with endurance training remain unclear. The purpose of this study was to examine the influence of a concurrent HWT+endurance training on CR and the .VO(2) kinetics in endurance athletes.
Fifteen triathletes were assigned to endurance+strength (ES) or endurance-only (E) training for 14 wk. The training program was similar, except ES performed two HWT sessions a week. Before and after the training period, the subjects performed 1) an incremental field running test for determination of .VO(2max) and the velocity associated (V(.VO2max)), the second ventilatory threshold (VT(2)); 2) a 3000-m run at constant velocity, calculated to require 25% of the difference between .VO(2max) and VT(2), to determine CR and the characteristics of the VO(2) kinetics; 3) maximal hopping tests to determine maximal mechanical power and lower-limb stiffness; 4) maximal concentric lower-limb strength measurements.
After the training period, maximal strength were increased (P < 0.01) in ES but remained unchanged in E. Hopping power decreased in E (P < 0.05). After training, economy (P < 0.05) and hopping power (P < 0.001) were greater in ES than in E. .VO(2max), leg hopping stiffness and the .VO(2) kinetics were not significantly affected by training either in ES or E.
Additional HWT led to improved maximal strength and running economy with no significant effects on the .VO(2) kinetics pattern in heavy exercise.
The effects of a 16-week training period (2 days per week) of resistance training alone (upper- and lower-body extremity exercises) (S), endurance training alone (cycling exercise) (E), or combined resistance (once weekly) and endurance (once weekly) training (SE) on muscle mass, maximal strength (1RM) and power of the leg and arm extensor muscles, maximal workload (W
max) and submaximal blood lactate accumulation by using an incremental cycling test were examined in middle-aged men [S, n=11, 43 (2) years; E, n=10, 42 (2) years; SE, n=10, 41 (3) years]. During the early phase of training (from week 0 to week 8), the increase 1RM leg strength was similar in both S (22%) and SE (24%) groups, while the increase at week 16 in S (45%) was larger (P<0.05) than that recorded in SE (37%). During the 16-week training period, the increases in power of the leg extensors at 30% and 45% of 1RM were similar in all groups tested. However, the increases in leg power at the loads of 60% and 70% of 1RM at week 16 in S and SE were larger (P<0.05) than those recorded in E, and the increase in power of the arm extensors was larger (P<0.05) in S than in SE (P<0.05) and E (n.s.). No significant differences were observed in the magnitude of the increases in W
max between E (14%), SE (12%) and E (10%) during the 16-week training period. During the last 8 weeks of training, the increases in W
max in E and SE were greater (P<0.05–0.01) than that observed in S (n.s.). No significant differences between the groups were observed in the training-induced changes in submaximal blood lactate accumulation. Significant decreases (P<0.05–0.01) in average heart rate were observed after 16 weeks of training in 150 W and 180 W in SE and E, whereas no changes were recorded in S. The data indicate that low-frequency combined training of the leg extensors in previously untrained middle-aged men results in a lower maximal leg strength development only after prolonged training, but does not necessarily affect the development of leg muscle power and cardiovascular fitness recorded in the cycling test when compared with either mode of training alone.
The ability to optimise muscular power output is considered fundamental to successful performance of many athletic and sporting activities. Consequently, a great deal of research has investigated methods to improve power output and its transference to athletic performance. One issue that makes comparisons between studies difficult is the different modes of dynamometry (isometric, isokinetic and isoinertial) used to measure strength and power. However, it is recognised that isokinetic and isometric assessment bear little resemblance to the accelerative/decelerative motion implicit in limb movement during resistance training and sporting performance. Furthermore, most people who train to increase power would have limited or no access to isometric and/or isokinetic dynamometry. It is for these reasons and for the sake of brevity that the findings of isoinertial (constant gravitational load) research will provide the focus of much of the discussion in this review.
One variable that is considered important in increasing power and performance in explosive tasks such as running and jumping is the training load that maximises the mechanical power output (Pmax) of muscle. However, there are discrepancies in the research as to which load maximises power output during various resistance exercises and whether training at Pmax improves functional performance is debatable. There is also some evidence suggesting that Pmax is affected by the training status of the individuals; however, other strength variables could quite possibly be of greater importance for improving functional performance. If Pmax is found to be important in improving athletic performance, then each individual’s Pmax needs to be determined and they then train at this load. The predilection of research to train all subjects at one load (e.g. 30% one repetition maximum [1RM]) is fundamentally flawed due to inter-individual Pmax differences, which may be ascribed to factors such as training status (strength level) and the exercise (muscle groups) used. Pmax needs to be constantly monitored and adjusted as research suggests that it is transient. In terms of training studies, experienced subjects should be used, volume equated and the outcome measures clearly defined and measured (i.e. mean power and/or peak power). Sport scientists are urged to formulate research designs that result in meaningful and practical information that assists coaches and strength and conditioning practitioners in the development of their athletes.
The purpose of this study was to investigate the importance of training leading to repetition failure in the performance of 2 different tests: 6 repetition maximum (6RM) bench press strength and 40-kg bench throw power in elite junior athletes. Subjects were 26 elite junior male basketball players (n = 12; age = 18.6 +/- 0.3 years; height = 202.0 +/- 11.6 cm; mass = 97.0 +/- 12.9 kg; mean +/- SD) and soccer players (n = 14; age = 17.4 +/- 0.5 years; height = 179.0 +/- 7.0 cm; mass = 75.0 +/- 7.1 kg) with a history of greater than 6 months' strength training. Subjects were initially tested twice for 6RM bench press mass and 40-kg Smith machine bench throw power output (in watts) to establish retest reliability. Subjects then undertook bench press training with 3 sessions per week for 6 weeks, using equal volume programs (24 repetitions x 80-105% 6RM in 13 minutes 20 seconds). Subjects were assigned to one of two experimental groups designed either to elicit repetition failure with 4 sets of 6 repetitions every 260 seconds (RF(4 x 6)) or allow all repetitions to be completed with 8 sets of 3 repetitions every 113 seconds (NF(8 x 3)). The RF(4 x 6) treatment elicited substantial increases in strength (7.3 +/- 2.4 kg, +9.5%, p < 0.001) and power (40.8 +/- 24.1 W, +10.6%, p < 0.001), while the NF(8 x 3) group elicited 3.6 +/- 3.0 kg (+5.0%, p < 0.005) and 25 +/- 19.0 W increases (+6.8%, p < 0.001). The improvements in the RF(4 x 6) group were greater than those in the repetition rest group for both strength (p < 0.005) and power (p < 0.05). Bench press training that leads to repetition failure induces greater strength gains than nonfailure training in the bench press exercise for elite junior team sport athletes.
The purpose of this study was to examine the efficacy of 11 wk of resistance training to failure vs. nonfailure, followed by an identical 5-wk peaking period of maximal strength and power training for both groups as well as to examine the underlying physiological changes in basal circulating anabolic and catabolic hormones. Forty-two physically active men were matched and then randomly assigned to either a training to failure (RF; n = 14), nonfailure (NRF; n = 15), or control groups (C; n = 13). Muscular and power testing and blood draws to determine basal hormonal concentrations were conducted before the initiation of training (T0), after 6 wk of training (T1), after 11 wk of training (T2), and after 16 wk of training (T3). Both RF and NRF resulted in similar gains in 1-repetition maximum bench press (23 and 23%) and parallel squat (22 and 23%), muscle power output of the arm (27 and 28%) and leg extensor muscles (26 and 29%), and maximal number of repetitions performed during parallel squat (66 and 69%). RF group experienced larger gains in the maximal number of repetitions performed during the bench press. The peaking phase (T2 to T3) after NRF resulted in larger gains in muscle power output of the lower extremities, whereas after RF it resulted in larger gains in the maximal number of repetitions performed during the bench press. Strength training leading to RF resulted in reductions in resting concentrations of IGF-1 and elevations in IGFBP-3, whereas NRF resulted in reduced resting cortisol concentrations and an elevation in resting serum total testosterone concentration. This investigation demonstrated a potential beneficial stimulus of NRF for improving strength and power, especially during the subsequent peaking training period, whereas performing sets to failure resulted in greater gains in local muscular endurance. Elevation in IGFBP-3 after resistance training may have been compensatory to accommodate the reduction in IGF-1 to preserve IGF availability.
The purpose of this study was to examine the effect of different loads on repetition speed during single sets of repetitions to failure in bench press and parallel squat. Thirty-six physical active men performed 1-repetition maximum in a bench press (1 RM (BP)) and half squat position (1 RM (HS)), and performed maximal power-output continuous repetition sets randomly every 10 days until failure with a submaximal load (60 %, 65 %, 70 %, and 75 % of 1RM, respectively) during bench press and parallel squat. Average velocity of each repetition was recorded by linking a rotary encoder to the end part of the bar. The values of 1 RM (BP) and 1 RM (HS) were 91 +/- 17 and 200 +/- 20 kg, respectively. The number of repetitions performed for a given percentage of 1RM was significantly higher (p < 0.001) in half squat than in bench press performance. Average repetition velocity decreased at a greater rate in bench press than in parallel squat. The significant reductions observed in the average repetition velocity (expressed as a percentage of the average velocity achieved during the initial repetition) were observed at higher percentage of the total number of repetitions performed in parallel squat (48 - 69 %) than in bench press (34 - 40 %) actions. The major finding in this study was that, for a given muscle action (bench press or parallel squat), the pattern of reduction in the relative average velocity achieved during each repetition and the relative number of repetitions performed was the same for all percentages of 1RM tested. However, relative average velocity decreased at a greater rate in bench press than in parallel squat performance. This would indicate that in bench press the significant reductions observed in the average repetition velocity occurred when the number of repetitions was over one third (34 %) of the total number of repetitions performed, whereas in parallel squat it was nearly one half (48 %). Conceptually, this would indicate that for a given exercise (bench press or squat) and percentage of maximal dynamic strength (1RM), the pattern of velocity decrease can be predicted over a set of repetitions, so that a minimum repetition threshold to ensure maximal speed performance is determined.
The purpose of this study was to determine if the type and intensity of aerobic training affects performance in a subsequent strength-training session after varying periods of recovery. Sixteen male subjects participated in the study and were divided into 2 groups based on aerobic training, high-intensity intervals (MAX n = 8) and continuous submaximal (SUB n = 8). Each subject performed 4 sets of both bench press and leg press at approximately 75% 1 repetition maximum (1RM) following aerobic training with recovery periods of 4, 8, and 24 hours, as well as once in a control condition. Both the 4- and 8-hour conditions resulted in fewer total leg press repetitions than the control and 24-hour conditions. There was no difference between both the control and 24-hour conditions. No main effect was shown with respect to the type of aerobic training. It was concluded that when aerobic training precedes strength training, the volume of work that can be performed is diminished for up to 8 hours. This impairment appears to be localized to the muscle groups involved in the aerobic training.
Strength and endurance training produce widely diversified adaptations, with little overlap between them. Strength training typically results in increases in muscle mass and muscle strength. In contrast, endurance training induces increases in maximal oxygen uptake and metabolic adaptations that lead to an increased exercise capacity. In many sports, a combination of strength and endurance training is required to improve performance, but in some situations when strength and endurance training are performed simultaneously, a potential interference in strength development takes place, making such a combination seemingly incompatible. The phenomenon of concurrent training, or simultaneously training for strength and endurance, was first described in the scientific literature in 1980 by Robert C. Hickson, and although work that followed provided evidence for and against it, the interference effect seems to hold true in specific situations. At the molecular level, there seems to be an explanation for the interference of strength development during concurrent training; it is now clear that different forms of exercise induce antagonistic intracellular signaling mechanisms that, in turn, could have a negative impact on the muscle's adaptive response to this particular form of training. That is, activation of AMPK by endurance exercise may inhibit signaling to the protein-synthesis machinery by inhibiting the activity of mTOR and its downstream targets. The purpose of this review is to briefly describe the problem of concurrent strength and endurance training and to examine new data highlighting potential molecular mechanisms that may help explain the inhibition of strength development when strength and endurance training are performed simultaneously.
The purpose of this experiment was to examine the effects of concurrent endurance and explosive strength training on electromyography (EMG) and force production of leg extensors, sport-specific rapid force production, aerobic capacity, and work economy in cross-country skiers. Nineteen male cross-country skiers were assigned to an experimental group (E, n = 8) or a control group (C, n = 11). The E group trained for 8 weeks with the same total training volume as C, but 27% of endurance training in E was replaced by explosive strength training. The skiers were measured at pre- and post training for concentric and isometric force-time parameters of leg extensors and EMG activity from the vastus lateralis (VL) and medialis (VM) muscles. Sport-specific rapid force production was measured by performing a 30-m double poling test with the maximal velocity (V(30DP)) and sport-specific endurance economy by constant velocity 2-km double poling test (CVDP) and performance (V(2K)) by 2-km maximal double poling test with roller skis on an indoor track. Maximal oxygen uptake (Vo(2)max) was determined during the maximal treadmill walking test with the poles. The early absolute forces (0-100 ms) in the force-time curve in isometric action increased in E by 18 +/- 22% (p < 0.05), with concomitant increases in the average integrated EMG (IEMG) (0-100 ms) of VL by 21 +/- 21% (p < 0.05). These individual changes in the average IEMG of VL correlated with the changes in early force (r = 0.86, p < 0.01) in E. V(30DP) increased in E (1.4 +/- 1.6%) (p < 0.05) but not in C. The V(2K) increased in C by 2.9 +/- 2.8% (p < 0.01) but not significantly in E (5.5 +/- 5.8%, p < 0.1). However, the steady-state oxygen consumption in CVDP decreased in E by 7 +/- 6% (p < 0.05). No significant changes occurred in Vo(2)max either in E or in C. The present concurrent explosive strength and endurance training in endurance athletes produced improvements in explosive force associated with increased rapid activation of trained leg muscles. The training also led to more economical sport-specific performance. The improvements in neuromuscular characteristics and economy were obtained without a decrease in maximal aerobic capacity, although endurance training was reduced by about 20%.
Some research suggests that strength improvements are greater when resistance training continues to the point at which the individual cannot perform additional repetitions (i.e., repetition failure). Performing additional forced repetitions after the point of repetition failure and thus further increasing the set volume is a common resistance training practice. However, whether short-term use of this practice increases the magnitude of strength development with resistance training is unknown and was investigated here. Twelve basketball and 10 volleyball players trained 3 sessions per week for 6 weeks, completing either 4 x 6, 8 x 3, or 12 x 3 (sets x repetitions) of bench press per training session. Compared with the 8 x 3 group, the 4 x 6 protocol involved a longer work interval and the 12 x 3 protocol involved higher training volume, so each group was purposefully designed to elicit a different number of forced repetitions per training session. Subjects were tested on 3- and 6-repetition maximum (RM) bench press (81.5 +/- 9.8 and 75.9 +/- 9.0 kg, respectively, mean +/- SD), and 40-kg Smith Machine bench press throw power (589 +/- 100 W). The 4 x 6 and 12 x 3 groups had more forced repetitions per session (p < 0.01) than did the 8 x 3 group (4.1 +/- 2.6, 3.1 +/- 3.5, and 1.2 +/- 1.8 repetitions, respectively), whereas the 12 x 3 group performed approximately 40% greater work and had 30% greater concentric time. As expected, all groups improved 3RM (4.5 kg, 95% confidence limits, 3.1- 6.0), 6RM (4.7 kg, 3.1-6.3), bench press throw peak power (57 W, 22-92), and mean power (23 W, 4-42) (all p < or = 0.02). There were no significant differences in strength or power gains between groups. In conclusion, when repetition failure was reached, neither additional forced repetitions nor additional set volume further improved the magnitude of strength gains. This finding questions the efficacy of adding additional volume by use of forced repetitions in young athletes with moderate strength training experience.
Athletes experienced in maximal-power and power-endurance training performed 1 set of 2 common power training exercises in an effort to determine the effects of moderately high repetitions upon power output levels throughout the set. Twenty-four and 15 athletes, respectively, performed a set of 10 repetitions in both the bench throw (BT P60) and jump squat exercise (JS P60) with a resistance of 60 kg. For both exercises, power output was highest on either the second (JS P60) or the third repetition (BT P60) and was then maintained until the fifth repetition. Significant declines in power output occurred from the sixth repetition onwards until the 10th repetition (11.2% for BT P60 and 5% for JS P60 by the 10th repetition). These findings suggest that athletes attempting to increase maximal power limit their repetitions to 2 to 5 when using resistances of 35 to 45% 1RM in these exercises.