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Investigating horse-human interactions: The effect of a nervous human
Abstract
The heart rates (HR) of horses and the people leading them (10 horses, 20 people), and riding them (17 horses, 17 people), were recorded in an indoor arena. The horses were Swedish leisure horses of mixed ages, sex and breed. All except two of the people were female and all were of mixed age and riding experience. Each horse-human pair walked or rode between points A and B (30m) four times on each test occasion. However, just before the fourth pass, participants were told that an umbrella would be opened as they rode, or led, the horse past the assistant. The umbrella was not opened, so this pass was no different to the previous control occasions, but nevertheless there was an increase in HR for both the person (leading, P=0.06; riding, P<0.05) and the horse (being led, P<0.05; being ridden, P<0.05). The findings indicate that analysis of HR recorded simultaneously from people and horses under different experimental handling or riding conditions presents a useful tool to investigate horse-human interactions.
... The measurements selected in this study have assessed the potential calmative effects of humidified essential oils on domesticated horses. This has been the focus of this study since fearful reactions in horses are a major cause of accidents to riders [21], moreover, they can result in uncooperative horses, which at times can even be threatening towards equine practitioners such as veterinarians and farriers [22]. It is also worth mentioning, that fear can have a negative impact on the welfare, reproduction and performance of a horse [23] [24]. ...
... Even when a horse has only been handled previously the experiment, S. Kosiara, A. P. Harrison Open Journal of Veterinary Medicine one cannot be certain that subsequent decisions made by that horse are not somehow influenced by the body language of the handler [19]. Keeling and colleagues [21] showed that the heart rate significantly increased for both human and horse when a handler was told that an umbrella would be opened as they rode or led a horse past an assistant. Even when an umbrella was never opened, the heart rate of the horse increased when the human "thought" the horse might be frightened [21]. ...
... Keeling and colleagues [21] showed that the heart rate significantly increased for both human and horse when a handler was told that an umbrella would be opened as they rode or led a horse past an assistant. Even when an umbrella was never opened, the heart rate of the horse increased when the human "thought" the horse might be frightened [21]. Semin and colleagues [26] discuss the possibility of emotion transfer from human to other species via interspecies chemosignaling of which synanthropic species, such as dogs and horses, seem to be particularly affected due to their long domestication process. ...
... In this context, previous studies investigated how perception of humans by horses may be based on repeated interactions [3], [4], also involving changes in cardiovascular dynamics occurring both in humans and horses [4]. Housetrained horses are able to recognize familiar handlers in a specific cross-modality [5]. ...
... In this context, previous studies investigated how perception of humans by horses may be based on repeated interactions [3], [4], also involving changes in cardiovascular dynamics occurring both in humans and horses [4]. Housetrained horses are able to recognize familiar handlers in a specific cross-modality [5]. ...
... Housetrained horses are able to recognize familiar handlers in a specific cross-modality [5]. Horses that are in discomfort tend to be aggressive towards humans, showing also increased heart rate, and motor activity [4]. Of note, gender differences during HH-I were investigated as well [6]. ...
This study focuses on the analysis of human-horse dynamic interaction using cardiovascular information exclusively. Specifically, the Information Theoretic Learning (ITL) approach has been applied to a Human-Horse Interaction paradigm, therefore accounting for the nonlinear information of the heart-heart interplay between humans and horses. Heartbeat dynamics was gathered from humans and horses during three experimental conditions: absence of interaction, visual-olfactory interaction, and brooming. Cross Information Potential, Cross Correntropy, and Correntropy Coefficient were computed to quantitatively estimate nonlinear coupling in a group of eleven subjects and one horse. Results showed a statistical significant difference on all of the three interaction phases. Furthermore, a Support Vector Machine classifier recognized the three conditions with an accuracy of 90:9%. These preliminary and encouraging results suggest that ITL analysis provides viable metrics for the quantitative evaluation of human-horse interaction.
... The unintentional signals of riders are often neglected to be studied. Keeling, Jonare and Lambourn (2009) state that less experienced riders are less aware and less capable of controlling the signals they send to the horse. These unintentional signals are especially important in horse-human interactions, as a person may communicate their anxiety about a particular situation to the horse (von Borstel, et al., 2005;. ...
... Shortened reins and tension could be perceived by the horse as a potential danger and therefore an increase in heart rate. They concluded that a nervous person leading or riding a horse may increase the likelihood of the startle reaction that they are anxious to avoid (Keeling, Jonare and Lambourn, 2009). state that effective communication between a horse and rider undoubtedly depends to some considerable degree on the rider's level of experience and skill, especially with a view to reacting to unforeseen movements or reactions from the horse. ...
Abstract:
Equestrianism is both a popular sport and leisure time activity with leisure horses being the largest component of the UK horse population, and having a high prevalence of owner reported ridden behaviour problems. The Competitive State Anxiety Inventory (CSAI-2) is the most well-know sports psychology tool for measuring levels of anxiety within athletes and it has previously been used in equestrian sport to determine the difference in anxiety levels between novice and elite athletes. Horse riding is the only sport which involves human and horse in equal parts with horse rider confidence presenting an important moderating variable in the experience of anxiety symptoms. This is supported by many studies and it has been noted that a horse riders's emotional state has an affect on the horse they are riding. A total number of 360 leisure riders were asked to complete an online questionnaire which included the CSAI-2 and each rider was asked to classify themselves as either Confident or Unconfident, as well as to answer each question focusing on the next time they would be riding. It was hypothesised that there would be a difference in the anxiety levels between a confident and unconfident leisure rider and results confirmed the hypothesis with confident riders showing a lower mean and a larger standard deviation.
Mann Whitney U: Cognitive Anxiety U=10558.5, nC=166, nU=194, P<0.000; Somatic Anxiety U=4008.5, nC=166, nU=194, P<0.00; Self-Confidence U=3557.0, nC=166, nU=194, P<0.000.
Results also showed that riders who classified themselves as confident but scored high in somatic anxiety could use their experience as facilitative rather than debilitative. It can be concluded that the CSAI-2 can be used as a coaching tool for training leisure riders in the following ways; 1) to enable the rider to understand their own base level of anxiety in riding situations. This may increase their perception of how they are affecting their horse. 2) As an aid for coaches to understand how to train an unconfident rider through evidence of cognitive and somatic anxiety levels. 3) Create a suitable horse-rider partnership which will impact on rider safety and horse welfare.
... Eventually, the rider's motion becomes phase-matched with that of the horse, developing in a synchronized gait [28,29]. As for the second case mentioned, investigating horse-human interaction by simultaneously recording their physiological activities (such as heart rate or hormones levels) has been widely employed in the last decades, even though studies mostly focused on equitation disciplines or training [30,31]. Inter-subjects coordination is positively affected by the affiliative nature of the encounter since social interaction and the processing of affective information are suggested to facilitate the mechanism of embodiment (i.e., when body postures and facial expressions arising during social interaction play central roles in social information processing, [32]) [33]. ...
... Several studies, most of them conducted by veterinaries and animal physiologists, analyzed the heart rate of horses to investigate how they perceive human psycho-physiological state [163] and how mood changes could be transmitted from humans to horses under different handling and riding conditions [30]. An indicative example of human-horse emotional transfer is provided by the possibility of characterizing the effect of human actions, such as posture and voice, on horse autonomic responses and hormone/pheromone secretion [60,96]. ...
Equine assisted interventions (EAIs) include all therapeutic interventions aimed at improving human wellbeing through the involvement of horses. Due to the prominent emotional involvement traditionally characterizing their relation with humans, horses developed sophisticated communicative skills, which fostered their ability to respond to human emotional states. In this review, we hypothesize that the proximate causation of successful interventions could be human–animal mutual coordination, through which the subjects bodily and, most importantly, emotionally come into contact. We propose that detecting emotions of other individuals and developing the capacity to fine-tune one’s own emotional states accordingly (emotional transfer mechanism), could represent the key engine triggering the positive effects of EAIs. We provide a comprehensive analysis of horses’ socio-emotional competences according to recent literature and we propose a multidisciplinary approach to investigate this inter-specific match. By considering human and horse as a unique coupling system during the interaction, it would be possible to objectively measure the degree of coordination through the analysis of physiological variables of both human and animal. Merging the state of art on human–horse relationship with the application of novel methodologies, could help to improve standardized protocols for animal assisted interventions, with particular regard to the emotional states of subjects involved.
... Interspecific interaction failures are most often the result of a misconception of the other species' behavioural cues as well as of that species' needs. For example, Keeling et al. [20] showed that being nervous (measured by the heart rate) influences horse-human interactions. Moreover, many authors have hypothesized a significant impact of humans' unintentional behavioural approaches on animals' behavioural responses, yet only few tested it. ...
... Another non-exclusive explanation may be that the GP's approach is too quick for ASD children, who have a difficulty interacting with so called "too fast" environments [37]. Reports have previously shown that humans' anxiety can influence animals' behaviours (e.g., this was shown with horses [20]). Moreover, a simple interaction with a patient can modify a GP behaviour, especially if it has no possibility to retreat or interact with other GPs [6]. ...
Some cues used by humans and animals during human-animal interactions may have significant effects, modulating these interactions (e.g., gaze direction, heart rate). This study aimed to determine whether an animal in human-animal interactions is capable of “perceiving” its human partner’s potential developmental “disabilities”. To test this hypothesis, we studied guinea pigs (GP) behaviours in the presence of 44 6-to-12-year-old children with either typical development (TD children) or with autism spectrum disorders (ASD children). Thus, we recorded the GP behaviours during the entire session (to establish their time budget) and focused in particular on the onset and end of physical interactions. The GP behaviours (e.g., feeding, resting, self-grooming, exploring) were not significantly different between the two groups of children during the whole session. GP behaviours in the presence of children differed slightly when encountering ASD children versus TD children: more positive behaviours toward ASD children at the onset, more feeding and resting in the presence of TD children toward the end of an interaction. TD children showed longer-lasting interactions. One could explain this by GP curiosity toward ASD children behaviours (e.g., no marked behaviours such as attempts to touch), whereas GPs seemed calmer at the end with TD children (i.e., interacting with ASD children may be a little stressful). This partly gave support to our study’s hypothesis. GPs seemed to perceive developmental disabilities during a first encounter with children and to adjust their behaviours to that of children. We discuss the issues of animal training, animals’ well-being and acute stress, whether they are pets or used in animal-assisted interventions. Further studies (on pets or animal-assisted interventions) are warranted.
... Heart rate increased in horses that were petted by humans who were thinking negative thoughts (Hama et al., 1996) and horses being led through a maze by a handler with a negative attitude were less cooperative (Chamove et al., 2002). Humans that were anticipating the occurrence of a frightening incidence while leading or riding a horse caused an increase in both their own and the horse's heart rate (Keeling et al., 2009), while humans that were nervous around horses caused a decreased heart rate in the horses themselves (Merkies et al., 2014). What is unclear is whether horses are responding to physical or emotional cues from the rider/handler. ...
... The importance of fully understanding the variables that affect the horse-human relationship is essential considering that the most significant factor contributing to the risk of human injury when working around horses is the relationship between the horse and the human (Hawson et al., 2010;Keeling et al., 2009). One study reported over 80% of equestrians experienced an injury due to horse riding (Mayberry et al., 2007), leading Gombeski et al. (2017) to recommend that safety around horses be reviewed with staff in all horse organizations. ...
The use of horses in equine-assisted activities may be stressful to the animals. This study hypothesised that horses exposed to humans with PTSD would display more signs of stress than with ‘neurotypical’ humans. After 5 minutes of baseline observation, 17 therapy horses (16.4±3.6 years) were individually subjected for 2 minutes in a round pen to each of four humans clinically diagnosed with Post Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD). A professional acting coach then instructed four neurotypical humans matched physically to the PTSD humans in emulating the physical movements of their paired PTSD subject, after which the neurotypical humans were tested in the same manner. Heart rate (HR; bpm) and behavioral observations indicative of stress in the horse (gait, head height, ear position, distance from the human, latency of approach to the human, vocalisations and chewing) were collected every 5 seconds throughout each trial and analysed using a repeated measures GLM with Sidak’s multiple comparisons between treatments and time periods. Horse behaviors did not differ between PTSD and neurotypical humans (F1,21864=2.63, P>0.1). However, a post-hoc analysis showed that horses approached quicker (F1,54=6.2, P<0.001), stood closer (F1,3756=9.14, P<0.01), and oriented their ears (F1,3704=13.07, P<0.0003) more toward humans who were experienced with horses (N=4). Horse HR was lower when paired with inexperienced humans (N=4; F1,21531=16.9, P<0.0001). Horses do not appear to respond differently to humans with PTSD than to those without, but they were more attentive to humans with more horse experience. Understanding horse responses can lead to improved welfare and horse and human safety.
Keywords: equine-assisted activities; PTSD; behavior; heart rate
... The interaction between humans and horses can be viewed in a spectrum, from short occasional interactions, such as those between veterinarians and horses, to long-term bonds that occur between an owner and their horse [60]. However, although there has been a growing scientific interest in human-equine interactions, and several studies examining the human-horse relationships are available [61][62][63][64], this field has received less attention compared to the human-livestock interactions [19,21]. In addition, most studies that address the human-equine interaction and equine welfare have been focused on how the animals perceive humans [13,52,53,55,65,66], and several authors have used diverse methods to assess the human-equine relationship from the animal's perspective. ...
... Scientific interest in human-equine interactions is becoming increasingly popular [60][61][62][63][64][65], and it has been suggested that the welfare of equines may depend on people's attitudes towards animals [34,125]. To date, there are still only a limited number of studies that have addressed the relationship between human attitudes and equine welfare [34,120,126,127]. ...
The livelihood of working horses’ owners and their families is intimately linked to the welfare of their equids. A proper understanding of human-animal interactions, as well as the main factors that modulate them, is essential for establishing strategies oriented to improve the welfare of animals and their caretakers. To date, there is still a paucity of research dedicated to the identification and assessment of the human psychological attributes that affect the owner–equine interaction, and how these could affect the welfare of working equids. However, some studies have shown that empathy, attitudes towards animals, human perception of animal pain and the owner´s locus of control are some of the psychological attributes that participate in human-equine interactions and that these can result in poor welfare of working equids. A better understanding of the relationship between human attributes and equids’ welfare can provide an opportunity to improve the quality of interactions between owners and their working equids and thus improve their welfare. This review aims to explain why the inclusion of human psychological attributes that modulate the human-animal interactions can benefit welfare research in working equids. The role that empathy, perception of animal pain and locus of control play in the promotion of good welfare in working equids is emphasized.
... Assumed close cooperation full of understanding between the horse and the rider, especially comes forth in sports and in the random context in the function of the good actors (Thompson, McGreevy, & McManus, 2015). Positive context of the human relation towards the horse, with the award outcome, may be a significant contribution to the reduction of the stress level during the training period of the horse (Keeling, Jonare, & Lanneborn, 2009). The state of stress indicates the conflict behavior, which was not manifested by any of the horses in this study. ...
... For example, when exposed to a novel stimulus [53] or mounted for the first time by a novel rider [54], horses respond with an increase in heart rate. When the rider, but not horse, knows in advance that a novel stimulus/object that is known to cause the horse to startle is about to be encountered, the increment in rider heart rate, in anticipation, is matched by an increment in the horses heart rate [55]. Such acute fight-or-flight responses, most likely mediated by catecholamines and the stress hormone, cortisol, may facilitate improved training responses via energy mobilisation [56] and/or activated behavioural responses [57]. ...
The racing industry is supported by a predominance of female stablehands and work riders, but few become professional jockeys. Female jockeys have recently had notable race success. No study has assessed whether the sex of the rider may subtly influence racehorse physiology to affect performance. Here, using a validated exercise tracking system (the ‘Equimetre’™) that records many physiological parameters simultaneously, this study characterised racehorse cardiovascular (heart rate, heart rate recovery) and biomechanical (stride length and frequency) parameters at various exercise intensities (slow canter to hard gallop) to address the question whether any parameter varied according to sex of the rider. A total of 530 Thoroughbreds, varying in age (2–7 years old) and sex (including geldings), from one racing yard in Australia, completed a total of 3,568 exercise sessions, monitored by a single trainer, on varying track surfaces (sand, turf, or fibre). Different work riders,103 in total (male, n = 66; female, n = 37) of which n = 43 were current or past registered professional jockeys, participated in the study. Data were analysed using analysis of variation (ANOVA) or mixed-effect models, as appropriate. Sex of the rider did not influence ( P > 0.05) racehorse speed nor stride length at any training intensity. Racehorse heart rate and peak heart rate increased with training intensity (P < .001), with no difference according to sex of rider ( P > 0.05). Racehorse heart rate recovery was influenced by sex of the rider, but only at the extremes of the reversed, usual training intensity on each surface (e.g. heart rate after galloping on sand was significantly lower with male riders, P = 0.03). Finally, analysis of 52,464 race results indicated a similar chance of a top-three placing for male and female jockeys. In conclusion, this study, using objectively obtained data, demonstrates for the first time no overt effect of the rider’s sex on racehorse physiology in training and performance in racing. Such data could encourage greater female participation in racing and improve access of female jockeys to better quality mounts in racing events.
... Codysregulation, on the other hand, means that the emotions of both individuals are amplified and move away from homeostatic equilibrium (79). For example, through the process of emotional contagion, an interspecies emotional codysregulation can be observed: fear experienced by the human can be transmitted to the animal which, in turn, undergoes a fear-related sympathetic activation, observable at the physiological and behavioral level (80). Repeated experiences of codysregulation lead to difficulties in the establishment of a good relationship, and even to a rupture of bonds (81). ...
The Integrative Model of Human-Animal Interactions (IMHAI) described herewith provides a conceptual framework for the study of interspecies interactions and aims to model the primary emotional processes involved in human-animal interactions. This model was developed from theoretical inputs from three fundamental disciplines for understanding interspecies interactions: neuroscience, psychology and ethology, with the objective of providing a transdisciplinary approach on which field professionals and researchers can build and collaborate. Seminal works in affective neuroscience offer a common basis between humans and animals and, as such, can be applied to the study of interspecies interactions from a One Health-One Welfare perspective. On the one hand, Jaak Panksepp's research revealed that primary/basic emotions originate in the deep subcortical regions of the brain and are shared by all mammals, including humans. On the other hand, several works in the field of neuroscience show that the basic physiological state is largely determined by the perception of safety. Thus, emotional expression reflects the state of an individual's permanent adaptation to ever-changing environmental demands. Based on this evidence and over 5 years of action research using grounded theory, alternating between research and practice, the IMHAI proposes a systemic approach to the study of primary-process emotional affects during interspecies social interactions, through the processes of emotional transfer, embodied communication and interactive emotional regulation. IMHAI aims to generate new hypotheses and predictions on affective behavior and interspecies communication. Application of such a model should promote risk prevention and the establishment of positive links between humans and animals thereby contributing to their respective wellbeing.
... To investigate potential impacts of the handler's emotional state on the dog's emotional state, during each research session, each handler and dog pair completed three identical sets of handling exercises, with a short (2-min) break between sets (detailed description of these exercises is provided below). Just prior to the start of the third set of handling exercises, a mild verbal stressor was introduced by the researcher (Figure 1); the intent was to influence the emotional state of the handler, by putting the handler on alert for a potentially stressful or aversive event, without the stressor directly impacting the dog [see (47) for a similar experimental design involving horses]. ...
Negative stress due to human handling has been reported for a number of domestic animals, including dogs. Many companion dogs display significant stress during routine care in the veterinary clinic, risking injury to staff and potentially compromising the quality of care that these dogs receive. On the other hand, positive interactions with humans can have a beneficial effect on dogs, particularly in stressful situations such as animal shelters. Research has shown that dogs can detect human emotions through visual, auditory, and chemical channels, and that dogs will exhibit emotional contagion, particularly with familiar humans. This study investigated relationships between emotional states of dogs and unfamiliar human handlers, using simultaneous measures of cardiac activity and behavior, during two sessions of three consecutive routine handling sets. Measures of cardiac activity included mean heart rate (HR mean ), and two measures of heart rate variability (HRV): the root mean square of successive differences between normal heartbeats (RMSSD); and the high frequency absolute power component of HRV, log transformed (HF log ). We also assessed human handlers' emotional state during handling sessions following an intervention designed to reduce stress, compared with sessions conducted on a different day and following a control activity. Polar H10 cardiac sensors were used to simultaneously record cardiac activity for both canine and human participants, and behavioral data were collected via digital video. The strongest influence on the dogs' stress levels in our study was found to be increasing familiarity with the setting and the handler; HR mean and SI decreased, and HRV (as RMSSD) increased, significantly from the first to the third handling set. Canine HRV (as HF log ) was also highest in set 3, although the difference was not statistically significant. There were no strong patterns found in the human cardiac data across handling set, session, or by pre-handling activity. We did not find consistent support for emotional contagion between the dogs and their handlers in this study, perhaps due to the brief time that the dogs spent with the handlers. Recommendations for application to dog handling, and limitations of our methods, are described.
... For example, when exposed to a novel stimulus [39] or mounted for the rst time by a novel rider [40], horses respond with an increase in heart rate. When the rider, but not horse, knows in advance that a novel stimulus/object, that is known to cause the horse to startle, is about to be encountered, the increment in rider heart rate in anticipation is matched by an increment in the horses heart rate [41]. Such acute ght-or-ight responses, most likely mediated by catecholamines and the stress hormone, cortisol, will facilitate improved training responses via energy mobilisation [42] and activated behavioural responses [43]. ...
Background
Studies assessing the effect of the rider’s sex on racehorse performance and physiology during training have not been reported, mostly due to the paucity of available data for female participants within the sport. Here, using a validated system (the ‘Equimetre’™) that records all parameters simultaneously, we objectively report the effect of rider’s sex on racehorse cardiovascular (heart rate, heart rate recovery) and biomechanical parameters (stride length and frequency) at various exercise intensities (slow canter to hard gallop).
Methods
530 Thoroughbreds, varying in age (2-7 years old) and sex (including geldings), from one racing yard in Australia, completed a total of 3,568 exercise sessions, monitored by a single trainer, on varying track surfaces (sand, turf, or fibre). 103 different work riders (male, n=66; female, n=37) of which n=43 were current or past registered professional jockeys, were used. Data were analysed using analysis of variation (ANOVA) or mixed-effect models, as appropriate.
Results
Sex of the rider did not influence racehorse speed (P=0.06) nor stride length (P=0.42) at any training intensity. Heart rate and peak heart rate increased with training intensity (P<.001), with no difference according to sex of rider (P=0.73). Heart rate recovery after exercise appeared influenced by rider sex, but only when the usual training intensity on each surface was reversed, suggesting an interaction between racehorse anticipation of exercise and rider sex. Male jockeys had slightly higher strike rate in races in Australia, but not the UK.
Conclusions
This study demonstrates no overt effect of rider sex on racehorse performance and physiology.
... Additionally, horses are trained to suppress their natural reactions to perform behaviours desired by their riders [42]. The rider is likely to influence a horse's behavioural response [46]; an experienced rider is more likely to give appropriate ridden cues (such as leg or rein aids) and ask for specific behaviours to control their horse, and the horse may be affected by the riders' emotions and confidence [47]. Unfortunately, we were unable to explore this effect with data from the current study. ...
In Africa, wildlife-watching experiences create substantial revenue from tourists that can finance wildlife conservation. Horseback safaris, where an experienced guide takes guests through the bush on horseback to observe plains game species, are a popular activity. Close encounters between ridden horses and game species are unnatural and potentially stressful situations, and horseback safaris may have adverse impacts on both the horses and the wildlife they have come to observe. This study aims to provide a preliminary insight into the behavioural responses of horses and herbivorous plains game species, including giraffe, zebra and impala, as a proxy measure of the potential welfare implications of horseback safaris. Seventeen group safari rides were observed encompassing 72 encounters with plains game species. Game species differed in their response to encounters with the horseback safari ride. Equine response behaviour appeared to be influenced by the species of game encountered. Horses seemed more wary of giraffe than other species, with a higher percentage of horses showing stationary and retreat behaviour at the start of giraffe encounters. They were also most likely to shy at giraffe. The behavioural responses suggest that game encounters can elicit a stress response in both animal groups, although it is not usually extreme, potentially indicating that some degree of habituation has occurred. Balancing the welfare of both the horses and the plains game species along with tourist preferences may be challenging in this context.
... In a ridden or hand-leading situation, in particular, when horses are restrained, the restraint per se may provoke a stress response [27]. Moreover, the emotions of riders may be transferred to horses [28,29], which can affect the perception of objects as more frightening [30]. This fact can be explanative of similar perception of the two stimuli and the experimenter's likelihood to expect a fear response when horses were led towards either stimulus. ...
Ridden horses have been reported to be fearful of cows. We tested whether cows could provoke behavioural and cardiac fear responses in horses, and whether these responses differ in magnitude to those shown to other potential dangers. Twenty horses were exposed to cow, a mobile object or no object. The time spent at different distances from the stimulus was measured. In a separate test, heart rate (HR), root mean square of successive differences between heartbeats (RMSSD) and the horses' perceived fear were assessed at various distances from the stimuli. The horses avoided the area nearest to all stimuli. During hand-leading, the cow elicited the highest HR and lowest RMSSD. Led horses' responses to the cow and box were rated as more fearful as the distance to the stimulus decreased. Mares had a higher HR than geldings across all tests. HR positively correlated with the fearfulness rating at the furthest distance from the cow and box, and RMSSD negatively correlated with this rating in cow and control conditions. Our results show that these horses' avoidance response to cows was similar or higher to that shown towards a novel moving object, demonstrating that potentially, both neophobia and heterospecific communication play a role in this reaction.
... Furthermore, horses have been found to react particularly to human emotions (Smith et al. 2016). They are able to categorize human facial expressions into positive and negative emotional areas (Smith et al. 2016;Trösch et al. 2019), react to human nervousness (Keeling et al. 2009;von Borstel et al. 2007) and have been used in psychotherapeutic contexts and coaching for several decades, among other things due to their mirror function. Horses are able to mirror, for example, human relaxation and tension as well as emotions (Gomolla et al. 2011;Meyer 2009;Serad 2010). ...
The present study examines whether horses can be implemented in coaching in order to change individuals’ positive and negative affects. To this end, an experimental group ( n = 46) received a horse-assisted coaching, whereas the control group ( n = 46) did not receive any coaching. The short-time intervention consisted of one coaching session with a horse for a duration of two hours. Positive and negative affects were measured with the PANAS (Positive and Negative Affect Schedule) in both groups using a pre-post-test-design. Results reveal that the level of positive affects increased, and the level of negative affects decreased significantly in the intervention group when compared to the control group. This outcome suggests the possibility of improving emotions and states of mood in humans through horse-assisted coaching.
... Assumed close cooperation full of understanding between the horse and the rider, especially comes forth in sports and in the random context in the function of the good actors (Thompson, McGreevy, & McManus, 2015). Positive context of the human relation towards the horse, with the award outcome, may be a significant contribution to the reduction of the stress level during the training period of the horse (Keeling, Jonare, & Lanneborn, 2009). The state of stress indicates the conflict behavior, which was not manifested by any of the horses in this study. ...
The research aims to obtain the results of the impact of an application of microbial fertilizers in combination with mineral fertilizers on the health and chemical composition of tomatoes. The study was conducted in 2013 and 2014 on the basic experimental plots in two variants (1. inorganic fertilizer and chemical crop protection + microbial fertilizer Slavol, 2. inorganic fertilizer and chemical crop protection-control). In the year 2013, there was no significant presence of diseases and pests, except for the occurrence of Tetranychus urticae. In early June 2014, the symptoms of Phytophthora infestans appeared only in the control variant. In both years of the study, the average total soluble solids, total acidity, and content of N, Mg, K, Cu were higher in the variant with applied microbial fertilizer. Content of nitrates, lycopene, P, Fe and Zn varied depending on the year and treatment. The application of microbial fertilizer has contributed to better health, and the contents of some tomato fruit quality parameters were increased.
Key words: tomato, Slavol, diseases, pests, quality
... Common belief in the equine community is that horses will sense their rider's nervousness and become nervous in turn, which will impact their overall performance [73], but this notion has been refuted by other researchers. Through the examination of cortisol release, heart rate, and heart rate variability in the horse and the rider, von Lewinski et al. [74] found that the presence of spectators caused more pronounced changes of cardiac activity in the riders than it did in their horses during a performance. ...
Horses (Equus caballus) have been domesticated for millennia and are regularly utilized for work, sport, and companionship. Enhanced understanding of human–horse interactions can create avenues to optimize their welfare. This review explores the current research surrounding many aspects of human–horse interactions by first highlighting the horse’s sensory capabilities and how they pertain to human interactions. Evidence exists that suggests that horses can read humans in various ways through our body odours, posture, facial expressions, and attentiveness. The literature also suggests that horses are capable of remembering previous experiences when working with humans. The interrelatedness of equine cognition and affective states within the horse’s umwelt is then explored. From there, equine personality and the current literature regarding emotional transfer between humans and horses is examined. Even though horses may be capable of recognizing emotional states in humans, there remains a gap in the literature of whether horses are capable of empathizing with human emotion. The objective of this literature review is to explore aspects of the relationship between humans and horses to better understand the horse’s umwelt and thereby shed new light on potential positive approaches to enhance equine welfare with humans.
... Hama et al. (1996) found an elevation in equine heart rate initially when being stroked by study participants who had negative attitudes toward companion animals, but that heart rate subsequently decreased. Keeling et al. (2009) found corresponding elevations in equine and human heart rates during a leading and riding task as a result of anticipatory stress in the human created for the purpose of the study. Gehrke et al. (2011) found no difference in heart rate variability during a 24-h period between horses engaging in unspecified activities labeled as "equine-assisted therapy" and thoroughbreds used for racing. ...
When including horses in therapy or education services, the practitioner is responsible for carefully considering the ethical implications and the potential for unintended consequences, for both humans and horses. By employing strategies to reduce risk and increase comfort for all involved, by preparing horses for their work role, and by considering the needs and experiences of horses during and beyond the session, it may be possible to create interactions with horses in human services where their welfare is not negatively affected. No studies to date have specifically evaluated the capacity of the professionals providing these services to correctly assess affective states in horses. As is common in other areas of human-horse interactions, misinterpretation of behaviors, and a lack of awareness for pain and stress indicators, along with misjudgment of the cognitive capacities of horses can lead to outcomes that are in direct contradiction to the intentions of health and wellness inherent in the services where horses are included. Appropriate conceptualization of the horse’s role in therapy and education, a more consistent application of science-based information regarding equine communication, needs, and cognition, and a greater focus on appropriate management practices and the equine living environment are needed to improve welfare for horses in this area of work.
... Furthermore, human anxiety might be contagious to horses. A study reported that when a person accompanying a horse became aroused about a possible future event both, horses and humans, displayed an increased HR (Keeling et al., 2009). In another study, horses' behavioral and physiological responses were registered while they watched videos of positive and negative interactions of a conspecific with a human (grooming and veterinary procedures respectively) (Trösch et al., 2020). ...
Emotional contagion, the emotional state‐matching of an individual with another, seems to be crucial for many social species. In recent years evidence on emotional contagion in different animal species has accumulated. However, despite its adaptative advantages and its presumed simplicity, the study and direct demonstration of this phenomenon present more complexities than previously thought. For these reasons, a review of the literature on emotional contagion in nonhuman species is timely to integrate current findings. In this paper thus, we carry out a comprehensive review of the most relevant studies on emotional contagion in animals and discuss the main problems and challenges of the field. We conclude that more research is needed to broaden our understanding of the mechanisms and functions of emotional contagion and the extent to which this process is present in a wide variety of species. Furthermore, the comparative study of emotional contagion would benefit from the use of systematized paradigms including both behavioral and physiological measures and the simultaneous recording of the responses of the interacting individuals to reliably assess an emotional state‐matching between them and reliable controls.
This article is categorized under:
• Cognitive Biology > Evolutionary Roots of Cognition
• Psychology > Comparative Psychology
• Psychology > Emotion and Motivation
Abstract
Emotional contagion involves matching the perceived emotion of a nearby individual, positive or negative. It is found in all sorts of social species suggesting its importance as a mechanism of coordination.
... One particularly interesting finding in this study was that higher levels of human anxiety were related to a higher risk of having had a near-miss or injury-causing incident in the past year, although the direction of this association requires further investigation. It is known that rider/handler anxiety can transmit to the horse [49], who may then become more fearful-potentially increasing the risk of behaviour, such as spooking or bolting. This could lead to an accident for the rider or other road users. ...
Real or perceived traffic risk is a significant barrier to walking and cycling. To understand whether similar barriers influence equestrians, this study obtained exercise behaviours, road use and experiences of road-related incidents from UK equestrians (n = 6390) via an online questionnaire. Multivariable logistic regression models were used to identify factors associated with road use and experiencing a near-miss or injury-causing incident in the previous year. Content analysis identified themes around equestrians’ decisions not to use roads. Our results show that most equestrians (84%) use roads at least once weekly, and in the previous year, 67.7% had a near-miss and 6.1% an injury-causing incident. Road use differs regionally, with exercise type and off-road route availability. Road-using equestrians covered greater daily distances and were younger. However, younger equestrians were at higher risk of near-misses. Respondents’ decisions not to use roads were based on individualised risk assessments arising from: the road itself, perceptions of other road users, the individual horse and the handler’s own emotional management. Roads were perceived as extremely dangerous places with potentially high conflict risk. Injury-causing incidents were associated with increasing road-use anxiety or ceasing to use roads, the proximity of off-road routes, having a near-miss and type of road use. Targeted road-safety campaigns and improved off-road access would create safer equestrian spaces.
... Furthermore, horses in pasture vary their reactions based on differences in human approach speed and behaviors (Birke et al., 2011). These studies support the idea that horses respond to observed changes in human behaviors, but there is also some evidence to suggest that horses may respond to human moods as well (Keeling, Jonare, & Lanneborn, 2009;Merkies et al., 2014). Considering the emotional and behavioral variations in individuals participating in EAAT, more research is needed to look at correlations between equine behaviors and different emotional or behavioral changes in humans. ...
Practitioners of Equine Assisted Activities and Therapies (EAAT) use it to help individuals suffering from a wide range of physical and psychological disorders as an alternative practice in physical and psychotherapy. Although there is plenty of research to support the benefits of these therapies, there is little research in equine behavior in this context, specifically how equine behaviors can best be utilized to improve the health of the human component. Although much of EAAT uses horses in physical therapy, newer practices in EAAT focus on assisting individuals in building and improving interpersonal skills through practicing those skills with horses. To fully understand and develop this area of EAAT, researchers need to look at the behavioral patterns of horses, how they learn and adapt to changes in human emotions and behaviors, and how these behaviors correspond to bonding with regards to friendships and relationships within the context of equine-human interactions. To do this, scientists need to rely upon the principles of learning theory and behavioral sciences associated with comparative psychology. The scientific methods used in comparative psychology are critical for researching these areas of EAAT.
... Assumed close cooperation full of understanding between the horse and the rider, especially comes forth in sports and in the random context in the function of the good actors (Thompson, McGreevy, & McManus, 2015). Positive context of the human relation towards the horse, with the award outcome, may be a significant contribution to the reduction of the stress level during the training period of the horse (Keeling, Jonare, & Lanneborn, 2009). The state of stress indicates the conflict behavior, which was not manifested by any of the horses in this study. ...
Persimmon is beloved fruit of warmer southern European areas. It is edible when it softens and astringency is naturally removed but many consumers want to eat hard fruits with astringency removed artificially. Astringency from the hard fruits can be removed by several methods of which exposure to extreme concentrations of CO2 (>90%) seem to be the most user friendly. In this study, we investigated the effect of extreme CO2 concentrations on astringency removal, taste, soluble solids and fruit flesh firmness. Our results show astringency removal can be sufficiently initiated by 24-hour exposure to extreme CO2 concentrations and process is finished within the next three days. Lower CO2 concentrations (70%) need some longer exposure but may have benefit in taste. We observed temporal decrease of soluble solids in the CO2 exposed persimmon fruits probably due to fixation of the astringent soluble tannins. Following changes in fruits flesh firmness during and after exposure to extreme CO2 concentrations reveal a temporal increase in exposed fruits followed by a slower softening process.
... When respondents reported on similar behaviours observed in the same horse when separated from other horses at home, their scores showed moderate alignment (ĸ = 0.458). This may reflect an operator effect on behaviour, in that it supports the findings of other researchers [53] that horses react differently when handlers and riders are anxious. Horses can be taken away from home for a variety of reasons, from high-level competition to pleasure riding outings, and these differences are likely reflected in the handlers' interaction with the horse at the time. ...
The Equine Behaviour Assessment and Research Questionnaire (E-BARQ) was developed to obtain quantitative data on the domestic equine triad: training, management and behaviour. It can be taken repeatedly, thus collecting longitudinal data to enable evaluation of how changes in a horse's training and management are reflected in that horse's behaviour over time and how these changes can impact horse welfare in the longer term. Questionnaire validation and reliability were tested by determining (a) whether an owner's subjective ratings of their horse's problematic behaviours or undesirable temperament traits were reflected in the questionnaire scores obtained for that horse (construct validity), (b) whether two respondents, equally familiar with a particular horse, reported comparable scores for that horse through the questionnaire (inter-rater reliability), and (c) whether the same respondent, scoring the same horse after a known interval of time, recorded similar responses (intra-rater reliability). Construct validity testing of 1923 responses showed significant alignment between owners' reported experience of focal horses' behaviour and those horses' E-BARQ scores, with scores varying from 1.13 to 1.34 for ridden horse behaviour (all p < 0.001) and from 1.06 to 1.43 for non-ridden horse behaviour (all p < 0.001). Inter-rater reliability testing of ten horse-rider pairs revealed that 203 of the 215 question items were significantly aligned (p < 0.001) when tested by two independent raters. Of the remaining 19 items, four had fair Animals 2020, 10, 1982 2 of 14 alignment (ĸ = 0.174-0.316; p = 0.281) and ten items, largely related to whether the horse shows behavioural signs related to anxiety when taken away from home, did not align (ĸ = 0; p = 1). Intra-rater reliability tests showed that the responses significantly aligned on all 215 question items tested (p < 0.001). The results of these tests confirmed the construct validity and reliability of E-BARQ as a standardised behavioural assessment tool for horses.
... Horses have shown to be emotional beings, and there is clear evidence on horses' ability to recognize human emotions and respond to them [33][34][35][36]. A horse will move away from a nervous person, because the situation causes him to feel anxious, but he will often come toward a calm person [37]. Horses tend to react to a person's body language [31,38] and, according to Smith, Proops, Grounds, Wathan, and McComb [39], horses possess the ability to recognize the difference between positive and negative human facial expressions. ...
Previous research has shown features of an attachment bond to be fulfilled in, for instance, human–dog dyads; however, there is a considerable lack of research on the potential attachment in human–horse relationships. Employing Bowlby’s criteria of an attachment bond and Pierce’s model of therapeutically powerful activity, this article studies whether short-term exposure to horses brings about elements of emerging attachment for adolescents and if this interaction holds potential in creating a favorable early-stage setting for professional care. It draws from group discussions carried out with nine 16–17-year-old adolescents who participated in an EASEL (Equine-Assisted Social and Emotional Learning) session when visiting a farm with a youth worker. A qualitative content analysis of the discussions revealed that some characteristics of the four principal criteria of an attachment bond—proximity maintenance, safe haven, secure base, and separation distress—were identifiable in the adolescents’ expressed experiences of observing and interacting with horses. Moreover, the three main sources of therapeutic power—appeal, accuracy, and intactness—intersected with the emerging development of the adolescents’ attachment to horses. Additionally, space for self-reflection was enhanced by the presence of the horses. The study offers insights into the potential of human–horse attachment in dealing with adolescents with and without special needs for various therapy and care purposes.
... It is commonly speculated that humans, when scared or stressed, secrete odorous compounds associated with fear, which can affect the horse (5). Several studies have shown an increase in heart rate of horses when either handled or ridden by a nervous person (104,105) and similar increases have been seen in horses when stroked by a negatively thinking person, which in this study were male subjects with a negative attitude toward companion animals in general (106). Contrary to these findings, and perhaps surprising to many, Merkies et al. (107) found that horses react more calmly (measured as both relaxed behavior and lowered heart rate) when accompanied by a stationary nervous or physically stressed person than a calm person. ...
Vision, hearing, olfaction, taste, and touch comprise the sensory modalities of most vertebrates. With these senses, the animal receives information about its environment. How this information is organized, interpreted, and experienced is known as perception. The study of the sensory abilities of animals and their implications for behavior is central not only to ethology but also to animal welfare. Sensory ability, perception, and behavior are closely linked. Horses and humans share the five most common sensory modalities, however, their ranges and capacities differ, so that horses are unlikely to perceive their surroundings in a similar manner to humans. Understanding equine perceptual abilities and their differences is important when horses and human interact, as these abilities are pivotal for the response of the horse to any changes in its surroundings. This review aims to provide an overview of the current knowledge on the sensory abilities of horses. The information is discussed within an evolutionary context and also includes a practical perspective, outlining potential ways to mitigate risks of injuries and enhance positive horse-human interactions. The equine sensory apparatus includes panoramic visual capacities with acuities similar to those of red-green color-blind humans as well as aural abilities that, in some respects exceed human hearing and a highly developed sense of smell, all of which influence how horses react in various situations. Equine sensitivity to touch has been studied surprisingly sparingly despite tactile stimulation being the major interface of horse training. We discuss the potential use of sensory enrichment/positive sensory stimulation to improve the welfare of horses in various situations e.g. using odors, touch or sound to enrich the environment or to appease horses. In addition, equine perception is affected by factors such as breed, individuality, age, and in some cases even color, emphasizing that different horses may need different types of management. Understanding the sensory abilities of horses is central to the emerging discipline of equitation science, which comprises the gamut of horse-human interactions. Therefore, sensory abilities continue to warrant scientific focus, with more research to enable us to understand different horses and their various needs.
... Pferde reagieren nachweislich auf menschliche Emotionen. Sie können deren Gesichtsausdrücke in positive und negative Emotionsbereiche kategorisieren (Smith et al. 2016;Trösch et al. 2019), reagieren auf menschliche Nervosität (Keeling et al. 2009;von Borstel et al. 2007) und werden u. a. aufgrund ihrer Spiegelfunktion seit mehreren Jahrzehnten in psychotherapeutischen Kontexten sowie im Coaching eingesetzt. Das Ziel der Untersuchung war es zu erforschen, wie sich positive und negative Körperhaltungen bzw. ...
Zusammenfassung
Die vorliegende experimentelle Studie untersucht, wie sich die eigene Körperhaltung und innere Bilder im Sinne der Imagination im pferdegestützten Coaching auf die Interaktion mit dem Pferd und die eigene Einschätzung auswirken. Dabei gehörten die Versuchspersonen (N = 91), die zwischen 17 und 62 Jahre alt waren (M = 36,33, SD = 13,25; 75 % weiblich), entweder der Experimentalgruppe (EG) an und erhielten ein pferdegestütztes Coaching mit drei Power Posing Übungen mit einem Pferd (neutrale, negative und positive Posen) oder der Kontrollgruppe (KG) mit nur einer Übung (neutrale Pose). Die Probanden durchliefen mit dem Pferd einen in allen Bedingungen identisch aufgebauten Slalom-Parcours, wobei die Zeit gemessen wurde. Zudem wurde qualitativ erhoben, wie die Personen die Übung(en) mit dem Pferd wahrnahmen und inwiefern Unterschiede (nur in der EG) zwischen den drei Runden festgestellt wurden. Die Ergebnisse zeigen, dass sich die Power Posing Runden der Probanden der EG in den einzelnen Runden signifikant voneinander unterschieden und das Pferd je nach Pose unterschiedlich auf die Personen reagierte. Die Runde in der positiven Haltung wurde signifikant schneller durchlaufen als die negative und die neutrale Runde. In der negativen Haltung benötigten die Personen am längsten und signifikant länger als in der neutralen und positiven Runde. Die Pferdeerfahrung der Teilnehmenden hatte dabei keinen Einfluss auf die Ergebnisse. Das Pferd reagierte unterschiedlich auf die menschlichen Interaktionspartner und die Runden wurden von den Teilnehmenden unterschiedlich wahrgenommen sowie auf den Alltag transferiert. Weitere Geschlechterunterschiede und die zugrundeliegenden Wirkfaktoren gilt es bei dem nach wie vor kaum erforschten Bereich des pferdegestützten Coachings in Folgestudien zu untersuchen.
... These results indicate that therapy horses were sensitive to behavioural and/or emotional differences associated with the human AS of adolescents participating in an EFL program. Previous results indicated that the physiological and behavioural response of horses can be affected by human traits [9,10,26,27]. Merkies and colleagues [9] reported that horses had a lower HR when in the presence of humans that ranked themselves as fearful around horses. Indeed, horses showed a lower stress response (slower gait and lower head position) when exposed to physically and psychologically stressed humans compared to calm humans [9]. ...
Equine-assisted activities (EAA) for human well-being and health rely on human–horse interactions for therapeutic effect. At-risk participants with mental and emotional difficulties can show poor social skills and functioning relationships, potentially leading to unsuccessful human–horse interaction in EAA. This study addresses the effect of the attachment style (AS) of at-risk adolescents on horse physiology and behaviour during an equine-facilitated learning (EFL) program. Thirty-three adolescents participated in a 10-week EFL program with nine therapy horses (the same therapy horse per adolescent throughout the program). Adolescent AS was categorized into secure (n = 7), preoccupied (n = 11), dismissing (n = 1), or fearful (n = 12) using an Experiences in Close Relationships – Relationship Structure questionnaire. Horse heart rate (HR) and behaviour (affiliative and avoidance behaviours) in response to adolescents were recorded during grooming and riding. Over time, horses with fearful AS adolescents showed consistently more affiliative behaviours compared to those with preoccupied AS adolescents during grooming, and more constant HR and avoidance behaviours compared to those with secure AS adolescents during riding. These results suggest that a more predictable and less stressful physiological and behavioural response of therapy horses toward participants in EAA with emotional and behavioural difficulties can be mediated by a human insecure attachment style.
... Emotional contagion has been shown in various species (for a review: de Waal 2007; Špinka 2012; Briefer 2018), including farm animals: some evidence has been found among sheep (e.g., Yonezawa et al. 2017), pigs (e.g., Goumon and Špinka 2016;Reimert et al. 2014), chickens (Edgar et al. 2011) and cattle (Boissy et al. 1998). Previous studies on horses have shown a transmission of emotions in negative contexts (e.g., Christensen et al. 2008;Keeling et al. 2009;Rørvang et al. 2015;Rørvang and Christensen 2018) but never in positive contexts. Our study suggests the emotional contagion of positive valence as well. ...
Animals can indirectly gather meaningful information about other individuals by eavesdropping on their third-party interactions. In particular, eavesdropping can be used to indirectly attribute a negative or positive valence to an individual and to adjust one’s future behavior towards that individual. Few studies have focused on this ability in nonhuman animals, especially in nonprimate species. Here, we investigated this ability for the first time in domestic horses (Equus caballus) by projecting videos of positive and negative interactions between an unknown human experimenter (a “positive” experimenter or a “negative” experimenter) and an actor horse. The horses reacted emotionally while watching the videos, expressing behavioral (facial expressions and contact-seeking behavior) and physiological (heart rate) cues of positive emotions while watching the positive video and of negative emotions while watching the negative video. This result shows that the horses perceived the content of the videos and suggests an emotional contagion between the actor horse and the subjects. After the videos were projected, the horses took a choice test, facing the positive and negative experimenters in real life. The horses successfully used the interactions seen in the videos to discriminate between the experimenters. They touched the negative experimenter significantly more, which seems counterintuitive but can be interpreted as an appeasement attempt, based on the existing literature. This result suggests that horses can indirectly attribute a valence to a human experimenter by eavesdropping on a previous third-party interaction with a conspecific.
... The level of activity that the horse was undertaking at the stage of rehabilitation would have to be factored into the outcome score, as early phase programmes may prohibit ridden activity, so pain and behaviour during handling tasks such as leading or ground work would need to be considered. As well as the task and the environment the assessment occurs in, an additional element that may alter horse's behaviour is the effect of the handler [57]. Therefore, the validity of pain assessment via facial expressions or whole horse behaviours during in-hand and groundwork with a handler and in different locations such as an indoor arena or an outside location needs to be studied further. ...
Outcome measures (OMs) are a requirement of professional practice standards in human and canine physiotherapy practice for measurement of health status. Measures such as pain and functional capacity of specific regions are used to track treatment impact and can be used to develop optimal management strategies. To achieve comparable patient care in equine physiotherapy, OMs must be incorporated into practice; however, no reliable and valid OMs exist for equine rehabilitation. This study utilised the experience and opinion of a panel of experts working in the equine rehabilitation sphere to gain consensus on the core areas (domains) to be included in a model, to lead to an OM scale for horses undergoing rehabilitation. The Delphi method and content validity ratio testing was used to determine agreement with domains reaching the critical value required for inclusion. The expert panel agreed on ten domains to be included in the OM scale: lameness, pain at rest, pain during exercise, behaviour during exercise, muscular symmetry, performance/functional capacity, behaviour at rest, palpation, balance and proprioception. An OM with these domains would provide a holistic objective assessment tool which could be used by equine rehabilitation professionals in clinical practice.
... Again, this builds on having established a partnership, but exceeds it. Animal science research has shown what any horse person knows: not only can horses remember humans in ways that impact their subsequent interaction (Fureix, Jego, Sankey, Hausberger 2009), a bond emerging from successive interactions that set 'positive' or 'negative' expectations (Hausberger, Roche, Henry, & Visser, 2008), but emotions like anxiety are communicated between human and equine bodies in real time when executing even simple tasks together (Keeling, Jonare, & Lanneborn, 2009). Grosz notes that the body schema is 'also comprised of various emotional and libidinal attitudes' and that 'the subject's experience of its own body is connected to and mediated by others' relations to their own bodies and to the subject's body' (1994, p. 67-68). ...
This article presents an auto-ethnography of the experience of sport horse riding. Drawing on phenomenological and anthropological theories of embodiment, I argue that the aspirational goal of sport riding is co-embodiment between horse and human, in which kinesthetic perception, intention, and volition merge. Co-embodiment requires time and practice to develop a shared multi-species culture in which bodies can be attuned to one another, and profound attention to both the immediate moment and the other being. I suggest that the interspecies component of sport riding, and the sport component of the interspecies engagement, is a significant part of what makes it appealing as a leisure activity. It invites (and requires) an experience of corporeal immediacy and intimacy that is both deeply satisfying and absent from many work or social environments in contemporary, wealthy, Western societies. Methodologically, this article draws from two decades of personal experience in sport horse riding, and engages auto-ethnography as a way to use the researcher’s body as phenomenological tool while keeping broader cultural contexts in mind.
... Notschaele (42) suggests that it is the horse's ability to provide moment-to-moment feedback on human's non-verbal communication that provides the framework for a feedback system that humans do not typically encounter. The underlying idea for this feedback loop is further supported by evidence that horses do in fact respond both physically and behaviorally to human's psychological and physical stress (43,44). With their knowledge of horse behavior, facilitators can thus provide valuable guidance to participants to assist them with downregulation following an arousing experience, by effectively utilizing the horse's behavior as an external feedback indicator. ...
This study examined associations between adolescents' (N = 59; Mage = 11.63) diurnal and momentary activity of the Hypothalamic Pituitary Adrenal (HPA) axis as marked by salivary cortisol, and affective and behavioral responses to their first, mounted equine assisted learning (EAL) activity. The introduction to riding occurred during the fifth week of an 11-week EAL program for at-risk and typically developing adolescents. Before the 11-week program began, participants collected 6 salivary cortisol samples at prescribed times (wakeup, 4 p.m., bedtime) over 2 days, from which indices of diurnal cortisol activity were derived. Six weeks later, on the day of their first mounted activity in week five, participants provided three salivary cortisol samples, reflecting their basal cortisol level at the end of their regular school day, and their cortisol levels linked to the beginning and end of their first ride. Participants reported on positive and negative emotion immediately before mounting the horse, and immediately after dismounting, using an 11-item survey. Using a 43-item checklist, three independent observers rated participants' behavior throughout the 90-min session. Regression analyses showed that adolescents with higher cortisol levels immediately before mounting reported higher levels of negative emotion (B = 0.350, p = 0.041) and lower levels of positive emotion (B = −0.697, p = 0.013), while basal levels and potential dysregulation of cortisol diurnal patterns were controlled. Greater cortisol reactivity in response to 10 min of riding was linked to higher negative (B = 2.95, p = 0.001), and lower positive emotion (B = −3.73, p = 0.007) after dismounting. Higher levels of pre-ride negative emotion (B = 5.50, p = 0.046), and lower levels of post-ride positive emotion (B = −5.17, p = 0.027), and an increase in cortisol reactivity in response to riding (B = 0.242, p = 0.049), predicted higher levels of negative behavior during the 90-min session that day. These findings show that participants' HPA axis activity informs their program experience and behavior. Results suggest that EAL facilitators need to employ strategies to down regulate adolescents' physiological and affective arousal during mounted sessions to prevent and redirect negative behavior.
... They have also been shown to discriminate socially relevant cues in human voices, such as voice identity characteristics during individual recognition 19 . Moreover, horses can distinguish human emotional states through other modalities such as through facial expression 20 , and are sensitive to changes in human anxiety levels 21 . As humans use their voices extensively during direct interaction with horses in riding, training, and groundwork it is likely that horses would also benefit from discriminating between different emotions expressed in human voices, as this would allow them to better predict the consequences of their interactions with humans. ...
The ability to discriminate between emotion in vocal signals is highly adaptive in social species. It may also be adaptive for domestic species to distinguish such signals in humans. Here we present a playback study investigating whether horses spontaneously respond in a functionally relevant way towards positive and negative emotion in human nonverbal vocalisations. We presented horses with positively- and negatively-valenced human vocalisations (laughter and growling, respectively) in the absence of all other emotional cues. Horses were found to adopt a freeze posture for significantly longer immediately after hearing negative versus positive human vocalisations, suggesting that negative voices promote vigilance behaviours and may therefore be perceived as more threatening. In support of this interpretation, horses held their ears forwards for longer and performed fewer ear movements in response to negative voices, which further suggest increased vigilance. In addition, horses showed a right-ear/left-hemisphere bias when attending to positive compared with negative voices, suggesting that horses perceive laughter as more positive than growling. These findings raise interesting questions about the potential for universal discrimination of vocal affect and the role of lifetime learning versus other factors in interspecific communication.
... Additionally, the experimenter who was standing beside the participant horse (E2) watched the HR receiver attached to the halter before the start of the trial in this study, which might have increased the horse's tension. These explanations are plausible because horses are sensitive to human attentional states 32,33 and human tension affects the HR of horses 34 . Therefore, their HRs might have started to decrease after the experimenter, who might have been nervous, stopped paying attention to the horses, which was the same time as the start of the trial. ...
Humans have domesticated many kinds of animals in their history. Dogs and horses have particularly close relationships with humans as cooperative partners. However, fewer scientific studies have been conducted on cognition in horses compared to dogs. Studies have shown that horses cross-modally distinguish human facial expressions and recognize familiar people, which suggests that they also cross-modally distinguish human emotions. In the present study, we used the expectancy violation method to investigate whether horses cross-modally perceive human emotions. Horses were shown a picture of a human facial expression on a screen, and they then heard a human voice from the speaker before the screen. The emotional values of the visual and auditory stimuli were the same in the congruent condition and different in the incongruent condition. Horses looked at the speaker significantly longer in the incongruent condition than in the congruent condition when they heard their caretaker's voices but not when they heard the stranger voice. In addition, they responded significantly more quickly to the voice in the incongruent condition than in the congruent one. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first study to show that horses cross-modally recognized the emotional states of their caretakers and strangers.
... Previous investigators simultaneously monitored the heart rates of horses and at-risk youth during EFL, but the study was too poorly designed to yield meaningful data (Drinkhouse, Birmingham, Fillman, & Jedlicka, 2012). Other studies suggest that psychological stress in humans may influence horse heart rate and behavior (Keeling, Jonare, & Lanneborn, 2009;Merkies et al., 2014). This is the first study to record HRV data simultaneously from horses and humans to determine how EFL affects HRV in older human subjects without diagnosed disabilities. ...
Equine-facilitated learning (EFL) helps people access their immediate sensations
and feelings because horses, as prey animals, are continually aware of their environment and provide instant feedback to human behaviors and emotions. We hypothesize that during EFL, older people become more aware of their bodily sensations and emotions, leading to increased heart rate variability (HRV), improved self-esteem (Rosenberg scale), and improved immune function. Twenty-four subjects (age > 55) participated in a single 15-minute EFL activity, Con Su Permiso, during which they focused on their bodily sensations and the responses of the horse as they moved toward and around the horse. Subjects served as their own control, interacting with a human. Pre and post measures of HRV were obtained from humans and horses; self-esteem score and immune response (salivary immunoglobulin A, sIgA) from humans. During equine and control interactions, the subject’s HRV (and the horse’s when present) was monitored, while being synchronized with a video recording. An exit interview was conducted after each interaction. Words and gestures relating to feelings and sensations were categorized as positive, neutral, or negative. Human heart and respiration rates as well as HRV (SDRR) increased significantly during interactions with horses and humans compared to baseline (paired t-test, p < 0.05). During equine interactions, human HRV frequency spectrum shifted somewhat to the very low frequency (VLF) range (p < 0.05). The four horses’ HR and HRV responses were varied, but in all cases HRV frequency peaks were predominantly in the VLF range. Human self-esteem increased during interactions with horses and humans (p < 0.05) but sIgA did not change. During exit interviews participants used more positive and fewer negative gestures (p < 0.05) describing the equine experience compared to control; words and gestures were more consistent with each other. These findings mostly support our hypothesis and suggest that engaging with horses benefits humans, indicating an enlivened state without stress.
... Heart rate increased in horses that were petted by humans who were thinking negative thoughts (Hama et al. 1996) and horses being led through a maze by a handler with a negative attitude were less cooperative (Chamove et al. 2002). Humans that were anticipating the occurrence of a frightening incidence while leading or riding a horse caused an increase in both their own and the horse's heart rate (Keeling et al. 2009), while humans that were nervous around horses caused a decreased heart rate in the horses themselves (Merkies et al. 2014). What is unclear is whether horses are responding to physical or emotional cues from the rider/handler. ...
... From this comes the nascent discipline of equitation science (McGreevy, 2007): the science of horse-handling and training. Studies within this discipline have shown how the power of suggestion can elevate not only a nervous rider's heart rate, but also the heart rate of the horse being ridden (Keeling et al., 2009). Other studies have provided a template for how to ride the trickiest of horses safely. ...
Equine-Assisted Services (EAS) gained a foothold in the healthcare industry as a unique modality addressing the physical, cognitive, and psychological health issues for people across the lifespan. These services require a team approach, with volunteer support playing a prominent role in service delivery. Volunteers are a precious resource for EAS programs and step into a variety of support roles, including preparation and handling. However, little is known about the horse-volunteer relationship or factors that influence their working relationships. Therefore, the purpose of this web-based survey was to characterize the volunteer experience and explore factors that may impact volunteers’ ability to accurately identify equine behavior. A total of 240 volunteers from 25 Professional Association for Therapeutic Horsemanship, International (PATH, Intl.) Premier Accredited Centers participated in this survey. The results of the correlational analyses and a general linear model suggested certain volunteer characteristics can be linked to accurate identification of horse behaviors. Horse leaders (p < 0.001) and volunteers who help with adaptive riding (p = 0.048) or therapeutic driving (p = 0.031) sessions more accurately recognized behaviors than those who held other roles. Volunteers who had any amount of horse experience prior to volunteering correctly identified more behaviors than those who came with none. A qualitative content analysis showed that volunteers felt most unprepared when a horse exhibited a behavior they were not trained to handle, and volunteers indicated their preparation to assist in EAS could be improved with more general training and education related to equine behavior.
Tiere und vor allem Pferde haben nachweislich eine positive Wirkung auf Menschen. Dabei kann es sich außerdem um Hunde, Delfine, aber auch um Vögel und viele weitere Tierarten handeln. Da es in diesem Buch um das pferdegestützte Coaching geht, wird nachfolgend nur auf Pferde eingegangen. Selbstverständlich sind die positiven Effekte anderer Tiere ebenso wichtig und sollten natürlich gleichermaßen beachtet werden.
The aim of this essay is to address the challenges and problems in communicating with horses and interpreting their communication in everyday handling and training situations. We seek ways to learn more about equine communication and agency in the prevention of cruelty against animals and in enhancing animal welfare. We ask how it would be possible to learn to read the subtle signs of equine communication and agency in a sensible, sensitive, and ethical way to increase the health and wellbeing of horses that humans interact with. We have placed this theoretical examination in a multidisciplinary framework that consists of humananimal studies, feminist posthumanities, cultural and literary studies, and equine social science, as well as applied insights from, for example, discussions on power, ethics, and politics. Our emphasis is on the need for situated knowledges, among scientific and tacit knowledges, in order to ‘become with’ a horse in a relationship based on mutual communication and trust. These different types of knowledges are central to an ‘animal politics’ that is organised politically on behalf of animals and motivated by an ethics of care and responsibility, echoing recent requests for a relational ethics in interactions with animals in multispecies societies and more-than-human worlds.
Female body image (BI) has been investigated in many sports yet, in female-dominated equestrianism, there is a paucity of BI research. This study aimed to identify self-perceptions of BI, rider perceptions of judge and coach bias, relationships between BI and self-consciousness and effect of breast size. A 4-part, 27 question survey (GoogleForms™) was completed by female equestrians (n=493). The second smallest BI was considered ideal for equestrianism (χ2=352.751, P<0.001) regardless of age, own BI or level of riding commitment. There was a perception judges favour riders with smaller frames (χ2=54.2111, P<0.001) and an association between riders with a larger BI feeling self-conscious when riding (χ2 =87.514, P<0.001). More respondents perceived the ideal equestrian BI to be smaller than theirs (Median= -1.5, W=7777.00, P<0.001) and an association between those dissatisfied with their BI and self-consciousness when riding was seen (χ2=83.649, P<0.001). Perception of the ideal equestrian frame is smaller than many riders' own BI, and a larger BI perception negatively impacts self-confidence, potentially hindering performance and participation. Female riders with a larger frame feel they are perceived negatively by judges and further study is indicated to investigate the extent of this potential bias on subjective judging in equestrian disciplines.
Behavioural first aid is for the prevention of harm to equids and humans. The need for behavioural first aid is either immediately apparent on examination or requested by a client because of the occurrence of undesirable and/or dangerous behaviour. Delivering effective first aid advice relies on recognising the problem, providing immediate, practical interim solutions, or referral to an appropriate behavioural practitioner. Behaviour itself is related to the equine's social and environmental situation, its emotional experience and the behavioural goal. Challenging behaviour is often related to lack of predictability or control in the equine's life, caused by sub-optimal management or during exposure to painful, frightening or confusing equitation practices that do not adhere to the principles of learning theory. The goal of behavioural first aid is to preserve the safety and welfare of the equine and their human connections until the animal is referred on. As such, being able to undertake behavioural first aid should be considered a valuable skill and an asset to modern equine veterinary practice.
Once the COVID-19 pandemic started and the UK went into lockdown on 17th March 2020, many horse owners had to change their horse keeping practices. Exactly how varied depending on their exact circumstances. Horses kept at home, or on full and part livery, would have experienced little change other than a reduction in ridden exercise as some owners chose to stop riding to reduce the risk of personal injury. Owners of horses kept at DIY yards faced greater difficulties as, in many cases, their visits reduced in frequency, horse care rotas were not being adopted, and horse management shared with other owners; this, coupled with uncertainty about future income raising anxiety levels in some individuals, may have had knock on effects for horse behaviour. The pandemic also contributed to some unexpected effects. Increased public footfall in the countryside meant more horses being uncontrollably fed by members of the public, and horse sales continued, even increased, with rehoming from some welfare organisations following the same trend.
Objective: To perform a scoping review of the current evidence on the horse-human relationship.
Background: The horse-human relationship has a significant impact on how horse owners care for and make decisions for their horse.
Evidentiary value: Identification of consensus and gaps in current evidence.
Methods: A literature search was performed in CAB Abstracts and Medline using search terms relating to the nature of the horse-human relationship in horses used for pleasure riding. Publications were reviewed against inclusion and exclusion criteria. Original qualitative or observational research studies relating to the relationship between a horse and owner were analysed. Data were extracted on study method and population characteristics.
Results: There were 4,481 studies identified; 27 studies were included in the final data extraction. The studies covered 11 different areas, the most frequent were effect of humans on equine behaviour (5/27), equine training methods and behaviour (4/27) and horses within sport and leisure (4/27). A range of methodologies were used, with the most frequent being thematic analysis (6/27 studies), use of an instrument, tool or scale (3/27) and behavioural scoring (4/27). The majority of studies considered the human’s perspective (20/27), six considered the horse perspective and one considered both the horse and human perspective. No studies investigated the same or similar aims or objectives.
Conclusion: The current evidence on the horse-human relationship is diverse and heterogenous, which limits the strength of evidence for any particular area.
Application: Future research should focus on developing reliable and repeatable tools to assess owner motivations and horse-human relationship, to develop a body of evidence.
Working in the discipline of eventing (the triathlon of equestrian sport), the present study aims to extend current literature on the use of psychological skills within equestrian sports, by understanding and identifying differences in levels of self-confidence and competitive anxiety. Each eventing phase (dressage, show-jumping and cross-country) was considered and its impact on anxiety and self-confidence analysed. Level of competition was considered a covariate and its effect on specific eventing phases and any associated influence on anxiety and self-confidence within eventing phase was analysed. An experimental, 3×3 factorial, within-subjects design was used. 57 participants (52 female and 5 male; 18 professional, 36 amateur and 3 undefined) completed the Revised Competitive Sport Anxiety Inventory 2 (CSAI-2R), a 17-item questionnaire measuring anxiety and self-confidence. Descriptive statistics identified the show-jumping phase had the largest impact on rider somatic anxiety (SA) and cognitive anxiety (CA). The cross-country phase had the highest self-confidence mean score. Spearman’s rank correlations showed both SA and CA were debilitative for all competition levels. Both SA and CA were found to be more debilitating in the show-jumping phase when self-confidence was low. MANCOVA analysis showed that eventing phase had significant effect on anxiety and self-confidence when controlling for level of competition. Dependent on the eventing phase riders are competing in, they experience different levels of arousal and self-confidence. When SA and CA are a debilitative source of anxiety, this could result in rider muscle tension which is not conducive to effective horse-rider communication. Coaches or sports psychologists should consider how to help riders manage their anxiety levels in relation to the competition phase, with the intention of enhancing self-confidence and enabling facilitative SA and CA in preparation for eventing performance.
This article aims to encourage scientific discussion about one of the aspects of equine-assisted learning practice, the unique characteristics of the horse owing to how it is used in intervention programmes for human learning purposes. Equine-assisted learning is an innovative learning approach where human learning and development takes place through guided interactions between humans and horses. Although scientific interest towards human-horse interactions is becoming increasingly popular, evidence-based research has examined the relationship between humans and horses, and how such bonds may contribute to human learning and development is limited and lacks empirical support. This report provides a review of theoretical and empirical literature regarding the unique characteristics of the horse to find answers to the following - why are horses involved in intervention programmes for human learning purposes. As the result of the research, five main characteristics of the horse were put forward for critical discussion.
High self-confidence or sport-confidence has been defined as a key psychological characteristic required by elite athletes, promoting optimal performance and helping manage competitive anxiety. Investigations have demonstrated that a mix of psychological interventions such as self-talk, goal setting, imagery, pre-performance routines and relaxation techniques are used by elite athletes as coping strategies. To date, most of this research has been carried out on collegiate athletes across a variety of sports but with limited research attention on equestrian sports. This study, using semi-structured interviews, explored five professional event riders' experiences of psychological interventions used leading up to and during elite level international competition. Thematic analysis identified two meta-themes; Planning and Preparation, Arousal and Distraction Management. The riders outlined the importance of goal-setting, managing time and pre-performance routines as part of planning and preparation. They discussed the use of interventions such as self-talk and imagery in managing arousal levels with support teams playing a key role in distraction management. The findings from this study support previous research, suggesting that these riders have similar approaches to other non-equestrian athletes in their use of a combination of coping strategies to manage competition anxiety and build self-confidence.
Understanding horses' attitudes toward cooperation with humans has implications for the welfare of both the horses and people involved. The aim of this study was to evaluate the emotional response of therapeutic horses to their contact with patients. The emotional responses, i.e., behavioral measures and heart rate, of six adult hippotherapeutic horses to three groups of people were tested. These groups included six adult patients with psychomotor disables with no earlier experience with horses, seven healthy adults unfamiliar with horses, and eight healthy adults familiar with horses. Two tests were performed (Person Test and Working Test). There were no significant differences between the response of horses to patients and healthy people in the Person Test. The results of the Working Test indicated that horses' emotional excitability was lower during hippotherapeutic sessions than during riding school sessions. The contact with patients did not involve emotional excitability in therapeutic horses.
The Clinical Practice of Equine-Assisted Therapy bridges theory, research, and practical methods to fill a rapidly developing gap for physical, occupational, speech, and mental health professionals interested in incorporating horses in therapy. Extensively researched and citing over 300 peer-reviewed journal articles, it examines core issues such as terminology, scope of practice, competency recommendations, horse care ethics, and clinical practice considerations. This book is an essential resource for professionals who wish to use a best-practices approach to equine-assisted therapy.
Despite a long history of human-horse relationship, horse-related incidents and accidents do occur amongst professional and non professional horse handlers. Recent studies show that their occurrence depend more on the frequency and amount of interactions with horses than on the level of competency, suggesting a strong need for specific research and training of individuals working with horses. In the present study, we review the current scientific knowledge on human-horse relationships. We distinguish here short occasional interactions with familiar or unfamiliar horses (e.g. veterinary inspection) and long-term bonds (e.g. horse-owner).
Persistence of individual differences in animal behavior in reactions to various environmental challenges could reflect basic divergences in temperament, which might be used to predict details of adaptive response. Although studies have been carried out on fear and anxiety in various species, including laboratory, domestic and wild animals, no consistent definition of fearfulness as a basic trait of temperament has emerged. After a classification of the events that may produce a state of fear, this article describes the great variability in behavior and in physiological patterns generally associated with emotional reactivity. The difficulties of proposing fearfulness--the general capacity to react to a variety of potentially threatening situations--as a valid basic internal variable are then discussed. Although there are many studies showing covariation among the psychobiological responses to different environmental challenges, other studies find no such correlations and raise doubts about the interpretation of fearfulness as a basic personality trait. After a critical assessment of methodologies used in fear and anxiety studies, it is suggested that discrepancies among results are mainly due to the modulation of emotional responses in animals, which depend on numerous genetic and epigenetic factors. It is difficult to compare results obtained by different methods from animals reared under various conditions and with different genetic origins. The concept of fearfulness as an inner trait is best supported by two kinds of investigations. First, an experimental approach combining ethology and experimental psychology produces undeniable indicators of emotional reactivity. Second, genetic lines selected for psychobiological traits prove useful in establishing relationships between behavioral and neuroendocrine aspects of emotional reactivity. It is suggested that fearfulness could be considered a basic feature of the temperament of each individual, one that predisposes it to respond similarly to a variety of potentially alarming challenges, but is nevertheless continually modulated during development by the interaction of genetic traits of reactivity with environmental factors, particularly in the juvenile period. Such interaction may explain much of the interindividual variability observed in adaptive responses.
Although startle and cardiovascular reactivity have been studied extensively, little is known about their relationship. In the present study, we examined cardiovascular responses and affective startle modulation in 112 normotensive individuals varying in self-reported fearfulness and parental cardiovascular health history. An initial intense noise burst elicited a phasic cardiac acceleration that was larger for fearful individuals. Startle blink responses were larger during aversive than during pleasant relaxing imagery but did not differ with fear group. Cognitive challenge tasks elicited heart rate and blood pressure increases that were unrelated to fearfulness or parental health history. However, greater startle potentiation by aversive imagery predicted larger pressor responses to cognitive challenge, especially among men. The observed relationship between startle and cardiovascular reactivity suggests a common mechanism for their affective modulation.
The lengthy association of humans with horses has established traditional equestrian techniques that have served military and transport needs well. Although effective, these techniques have by-passed the research findings of modern psychologists, who developed the fundamentals of learning theory. That said, the pools of equestrian debate are far from stagnant. The latest wave of horse whisperers has offered some refinements and some novel interpretations of the motivation of horses undergoing training. Additionally, the Fédération Equestre Internationale (FEI) has introduced the concept of the 'happy equine athlete' and, in the light of the hyperflexion (Rollkür) debate, recently examined the possible effects of some novel dressage modalities on equine 'happiness'. However, many still question the welfare of the ridden horse since it is largely trained using negative reinforcement, has to respond to pressure-based signals and is seldom asked to work for positive rewards. Science holds tremendous promise for removing emotiveness from the horse-riding welfare debate by establishing how much rein tension is too much; how much contact is neutral; how contact can be measured; how discomfort can be measured; how pain can be measured; and how learned helplessness manifests in horses. These are some of the topics addressed by equitation science, an emerging discipline that combines learning theory, physics and ethology to examine the salience and efficacy of horse-training techniques.
Transfer of nervousness from the rider to the horse
- U U Von Borstel
- L J Keeling
- I J H Duncan
von Borstel, U.U., Keeling, L.J., Duncan, I.J.H., 2005. Transfer of nervousness from the
rider to the horse. In: Proceedings of the 39th International Congress of the
International Society of Applied Ethology, Tokyo, Japan, p. 84.
Transfer of nervousness from competition rider to the horse
- U U Von Borstel
- I J H Duncan
- A K Shoveller
- S T Millman
- L J Keeling
von Borstel, U.U., Duncan, I.J.H., Shoveller, A.K., Millman, S.T., Keeling, L.J., 2007.
Transfer of nervousness from competition rider to the horse. In: Proceedings of
the 3rd International Equitation Science Conference, Michigan, USA, p. 10.