![Attentional networks comparison for exposure to nature and IBMT. (a) Performance on the ANT after exposure to nature scenes or exposure to urban scenes, N=12, [14]. (b) Performance on the ANT after IBMT or relaxation control, N=40, [15]. The vertical axis indicates the difference in mean RTs for alerting, orienting and conflict scores. For conflict score, the higher score shows less efficient performance. Bars indicate AE 1 standard error.](https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Yi-Yuan-Tang/publication/24307063/figure/fig1/AS:419289220829184@1476977748545/Attentional-networks-comparison-for-exposure-to-nature-and-IBMT-a-Performance-on-the_Q320.jpg)
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Attention training and attention state
training
Yi-Yuan Tang
1,2
and Michael I. Posner
2
1
Institute of Neuroinformatics, Dalian University of Technology, Dalian 116024, China
2
Department of Psychology, University of Oregon, Eugene, OR 97403, USA
The ability to attend and to exercise cognitive control are
vital aspects of human adaptability. Several studies
indicate that attention training using computer based
exercises can lead to improved attention in children and
adults. Randomized control studies of exposure to
nature, mindfulness and integrative body-mind training
(IBMT) yield improved attention and self-regulation.
Here, we ask how attention training and attention state
training might be similar and different in their training
methods, neural mechanisms and behavioral outcomes.
Together these various methods lead to practical ways
of improving attention and self-regulation.
Improving attention
A very diverse set of training methods have been shown to
improve aspects of attention and self- regulation. These
methods could be classified into two different groups, based
on their origin: methods arising from Asian traditions (e.g.
integrative body-mind training [IBMT] and mindfulness)
and methods developed in Europe and the USA (practice).
Probably because these two groups of methods originate in
separate traditions, there has been no published discus-
sion of the similarities and differences between them and
the mechanisms underlying them. More detailed under-
standing of these methods might allow for better choices in
program design and lead to their integration in practical
applications for children, adults and elderly populations
who wish to improve these skills.
Here, we have chosen to discuss these two groups of
methods under the headings attention training (AT) and
attention state training (AST). This is partly because the
goal of the western approach has been to alter specific
networks related to cognitive tasks, whereas the eastern
approach has been to achieve a state leading to more
efficient self-regulation. Different ways of categorizing
these methods would, of course, be possible, but by com-
paring them along these lines, we hope to provide an
informative overview of the results obtained with these
methods and to provide a principled basis for testing the
similarity and differences between their mechanisms and
outcomes.
A closer look at AT and AST
Several studies featuring random assignment to exper-
imental and control groups involve training of attention
and memory and show improvement in both specific skills
closely related to the training and to more general cogni-
tive abilities [1–4]. All of these methods involve practice in
some cognitive skill by repetitive trials on tasks similar to
those used in schools or cognitive psychology laboratories.
All of these studies aim for long term improvement in
attention, but in most cases only short term improvements
close to the training have been well studied.
On the surface, these AT methods differ considerably
from mindfulness training, exposure to nature settings or
IBMT, which we group as AST. Recently, both IBMT
(emphasizing body-mind balance) and nature exposure
(using attention restoration theory) have used randomized
designs with attention measures similar to those used with
AT and have also shown significantly greater improve-
ments in attention following training than those from
control groups (Figure 1). Similar to studies of AT, these
studies aim at long-term improvements. An attentional
assay used for both types of study is the attention network
test (ANT), which we present in more detail in Box 1.
AT
AT means practice in conflict-related tasks, working mem-
ory tasks or other tasks involving executive control mech-
anisms. These tasks often use repetitive trials that involve
executive control or, in some cases, use curricula designed
with the goal of exercising control mechanisms. Mental
exercise in this form of training requires directed attention
and effortful control to train specific brain networks [7–10].
Child AT studies
Several studies of AT have involved children, on the
assumption that this might influence later school perform-
ance. For example, one experiment [4] examined the effi-
ciency of attentional networks in 4- and 6-year-old children
before and after 5 days of computer exercises. The exercises
included learning to use a joystick, prediction, working
memory and the resolution of conflict. They were designed
to require executive attention and were compared with
interactive video experience for control groups. Greater
improvement in the executive attention network and in IQ
was found in the experimental group in comparison to the
control group. There were no differences between the
groups, however, on a questionnaire [11] that dealt with
various temperamental characteristics such as negative
and positive affect.
Another study with young children has been carried out
in classrooms using a curriculum designed to exercise
executive control individually and in groups. Improve-
ments in tasks involving conflict resolution were obtained
Review
Corresponding authors: Tang, Y.-Y. (yiyuan@uoregon.edu);
Posner, M.I. (mposner@uoregon.edu).
222 1364-6613/$ –see front matter ß2009 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. doi:10.1016/j.tics.2009.01.009 Available online 16 April 2009
and these generalized widely to other domains, such as
inhibitory control and working memory [1].
Experiments involving working memory training have
been carried out with older children who have been diag-
nosed with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD)
[12]. Training working memory not only improved that
function but improvements were also found in an IQ test
based on the Ravens Progressive Matrices Test.
Adult AT studies
Because attention networks often show rapid development
during childhood [4], improved performance due to AT
might be expected to be confined to children, but that
proved not to be the case. One adult study compared
habitual video-game (except violent action game) players
and non-players, finding that action-video-game players
had improved ability to take in and manipulate visual
information [2]. This finding was confirmed with a ten-
hour training study in which students randomly assigned
to video games out-performed controls in several visual
tasks, including improved visual resolution [9].
Recently it has been shown that working memory train-
ing in adults can generalize to other cognitive tasks. One
study demonstrated adult improvement in more general
cognitive abilities (fluid intelligence) after practice on a
working memory task [3]. The extent of gain in intelligence
depended on the amount of training.
Findings in a variety of functional magnetic resonance
imaging (fMRI) studies of overlapping activation in ventral
lateral prefrontal cortex (PFC) during memory tasks indi-
cated that the memory tasks share common executive
components [3,10,34]. One training regimen of working
memory tasks and a set of transfer tasks were developed
to examine the trainability of executive control process
[10]. The study was unique in choosing to train a brain area
already shown to be activated by tasks sharing a common
executive component. Results indicated that executive
control can be improved by working memory training
and that this transfers to a wide variety of tasks.
Overall, these results establish that training of atten-
tion is possible in children and adults, improving attention
and working memory and IQ tests measuring aspects of
performance quite different from those involved in the
training. There is no evidence thus far that this training
improves self- or parent-reported moods or behaviors. This
difference between cognitive and emotional changes, how-
ever, might be because of the fact that investigators have
usually only tested cognitive tasks.
AST
AST refers to changes in state that accompany certain
forms of experience such as meditation or exposure to
nature. These methods have in common an altered state
of mind and body but they use different sensory inputs to
achieve their effects on mind and body and improve
performance. Several of these studies have used random-
ized assignment between experimental and control
groups and often they have used cognitive assays that
overlap those used in AT tasks. They also include
measures of self-regulation such as mood and response
to stress [13–15].
Figure 1. Attentional networks comparison for exposure to nature and IBMT. (a) Performance on the ANT after exposure to nature scenes or exposure to urban scenes,
N=12, [14].(b) Performance on the ANT after IBMT or relaxation control, N=40, [15]. The vertical axis indicates the difference in mean RTs for alerting, orienting and conflict
scores. For conflict score, the higher score shows less efficient performance. Bars indicate 1 standard error.
Box 1. ANT
ANT is an attentional assay that uses the Ericksen flanker task [5]
as a target [6] (Figure I).
The ANT requires participants to determine whether a central
arrow points left or right. Participants press the left key if the
central arrows point left and the right key if they point right.
Prior to a target, cues are used to provide information about when
and where the target will be presented.
Three subtractions provide scores for alerting, orienting and time
to resolve conflict (executive attention). The measure of the
efficiency of conflict resolution (executive attention) is given by
subtracting the congruent RTs from the incongruent RTs. The
alerting measure is given by subtracting the double cue (asterisks
above and below fixation) from the no cue condition; the orienting
measure by subtracting the RTs when the cue is at the target
location from those where it is presented at fixation.
Figure I. The Ericksen flanker task is a paradigm in which participants are
asked to respond to a centered and directed item surrounded or flanked by
distracting symbols like arrows or letters. Congruent flanking arrows all
point in the same direction; incongruent flanking arrows point in different
directions. Congruency affects the speed and accuracy with which the task is
performed.
Review Trends in Cognitive Sciences Vol.13 No.5
223
Exposure to nature
When people are required to focus their attention and put
forth sustained cognitive effort, there is a possibility of
mental fatigue. Attention restoration theory was proposed
by Kaplan [16,17] to highlight the benefits of exposure to
nature to restore directed attention. Mental restoration
seems to work by encouraging a period of higher levels of
involuntary attention, while decreasing directed, voluntary
attention to restore efficient mental effort [16,17].Recent
psychological studies comparing an experimental group
exposed to pictorial scenes of nature with a control group
exposed to urban scenes indicated that interacting with
nature improves executive attention (Figure 1a). Figure 1
shows improvement (reduced reaction time [RT] to resolve
conflict in the ANT) in executive attention after exposure to
nature compared to an urban scene. No differences in self-
reported mood were found because of training [14].
The mechanism for improved attention after nature
exposure was thought be because of a state change restor-
ing attentional efficiency [14,16]. Recent studies [18,19]
have shown that performing mental tasks involving cog-
nitive control can lead to a reduction in systemic glucose.
Replenishment of glucose leads to a return to high levels of
performance. These data indicate that sustained mental
effort can produce a state of fatigue that influences per-
formance. It would be useful to test further the possibility
that increased glucose is one mechanism for the restor-
ation of attention after exposure to nature.
Mindfulness
Mindfulness is awareness of one’s present thoughts,
emotions or actions. Mindfulness training involves bring-
ing one’s awareness back from the past or the future into
the present moment. Many studies have shown the train-
ing effects of mindfulness, including reduced pain and
stress, improvement of cognitive functioning and positive
emotion [20–23]. Mindfulness requires awareness of the
present moment and focuses mainly on changes in the
state of the mind. One study observed changes in perform-
ance on the second of two repeated target stimuli during
rapid visual presentation [24]. Failure of people to detect a
second target soon after the first has been called ‘the
attentional blink’. Three months of intensive mental train-
ing resulted in improved second target detection (reduced
attentional blink) and also reduced brain-resource allo-
cation to the first target, indicating that mental training
can result in increased control over the distribution of
limited brain resources, resulting in an improvement in
the executive attention network [24].
IBMT
IBMT was adopted from traditional Chinese medicine and
incorporates aspects of meditation and mindfulness train-
ing. However, IBMT views cooperation between the body
and mind as important. This meditative state is difficult to
achieve unless there is a balance and optimization of mind
and body [15,25,26]. IBMT is designed to facilitate the
achievement of this balanced state and maintain it to
improve attention and performance.
In one study [15], Chinese undergraduates were ran-
domly assigned to an experimental group or a control group
for 5 days of short-term training (20 min per day). Students
were given IBMT (experimental group) or relaxation train-
ing (control group). Training was presented in a standar-
dized way via a CD and guided by a skillful IBMT coach
whose job was to make sure of quality training in each
session. The two groups were given a battery of tests before
training and after the final training session. The IBMT
group showed significantly greater improvement of per-
formance in executive attention using the ANT (Figure 1b).
They also showed lower anxiety, depression, anger and
fatigue, and higher vigor on the Profile of Mood States
scale, in addition to significantly reduced stress as
measured by cortisol secretion after a stressful experience
and increased immunoreactivity [15].
IBMT does not stress efforts to control thoughts, but
instead induces a state of restful alertness, enabling a high
degree of awareness of body, mind and external instruc-
tions. It seeks a balanced state of relaxation while focusing
attention. Control of thought is achieved gradually through
posture and relaxation. The coach works to achieve a
balanced and harmonious state rather than by having
the trainee attempt an internal struggle to control
thoughts in accordance with instruction.
In short, IBMT improves attention and self-regulation
through state changes involving both body and mind.
Training leads to better performance in cognition, emotion
and social behaviors [15]. The combined use of body and
mind training is also supported by studies of embodied
cognition, in which changes in the body, particularly in
facial expression, influence emotional processing and
facilitate retrieval of autobiographical memories [25,26].
Interaction within AST streams
AST has a long history worldwide but seldom draws great
attention in the scientific community. Being in harmony
with nature is the central life attitude and philosophical
idea in Chinese and Eastern cultures. For many hundreds
of years, practitioners chose natural environments such as
parks, forests and mountains to practice body and mind
training such as Tai Chi, Yoga, martial arts and medita-
tion. In the West, walking or hiking in nature, doing
exercise and vacationing in national parks are popular
activities that attract many millions of people.
AST includes several stages. The early stage involves
mental restoration, releasing fatigue to perform atten-
tional and related cognitive tasks effectively. IBMT and
exposure to nature share this stage. The most important
difference between IBMT and nature exposure is whether
one has a cumulative set of experiences that produce a
deeper body-mind state in each session. In nature
exposure, the eyes are open, making it more difficult for
a novice to get into a deeper mental state, whereas for the
IBMT practitioner the eyes are closed and different tech-
niques such as breath adjustment and mental imagery are
used in each session to produce an increasingly deep
mental state.
After continued practice, a stage of improved perform-
ance is commonly obtained in which subjects reach a
comfortable equilibrium, triggering the autonomic nervous
system (ANS) to further regulate the brain. The role of
ANS has received support from brain imaging studies
Review Trends in Cognitive Sciences Vol.13 No.5
224
showing a close connection between the anterior cingulate
cortex and autonomic control [27,28].
In one Chinese study, it was shown that IBMT reduces
cortisol secretion in response to stress in a dose dependent
manner after between 5 days and one month of training
[29]. After one month of training, the baseline of cortisol
seems to have been reduced. It is not clear whether other
forms of AT or AST would have similar effects and this
possibility warrants further exploration.
A natural tendency of the mind is to be restless, that is,
to wander as the focus of attention is switched. AT directly
exercises the executive control networks. Because control
increases mental effort, its overuse often leads to mental
fatigue. Figure 2 summarizes the relationship between a
state in which the mind is wandering freely at one extreme,
to a state of fatigue at the other. The goal of AST is to
produce an optimal balance (attention balance state) be-
tween the two extremes. This state is also thought to
produce better performance.
Brain mechanisms
AT mechanism
Imaging studies of AT are limited so our discussion of the
neural mechanisms involved is speculative, but can yield
testable hypotheses. In an fMRI study of conflict tasks such
as the ANT, but without training, the ability to resolve
conflict activates both midline frontal activity (anterior
cingulate cortex) and lateral PFC [30,31].
Rueda et al. [4] used high density electroencephalogra-
phy (EEG) before and after AT. A child version of the ANT
was used with 4- and 6-year-old children, and the results
were compared with adult EEG. It was found that the
trained 6-year-old children showed an adult pattern of
greater negativity following incongruent than congruent
flankers over midfrontal electrodes after training. In
adults, this EEG pattern has been associated with activity
in the dorsal anterior cingulate [32]. No such activity was
found in 6-year-olds before training or in 4-year-olds either
before or after training.
The working memory method used to train children
with ADHD was used in an fMRI study to examine areas
of brain activity that changed after five weeks of training
[33,34]. Several areas of the lateral PFC were increased in
activity after training.
One fMRI study of the attention network task [35]
showed that the task produced increases in connectivity
between the dorsal anterior cingulate cortex (ACC) and
lateral PFC during performance. This suggests that the
ANT might involve both midline and lateral areas during
task performance. However, this study did not involve any
explicit training.
Overall there is some evidence that AT involves changes
in anterior cingulate and lateral prefrontal areas, perhaps
mainly through increased connectivity between the two.
Further research is needed to examine brain changes
during AT and particularly connectivity changes between
frontal areas.
The different roles of ACC and PFC in AST
Recent studies have involved 2-week and 4-week long
practice of IBMT. In comparison with a relaxation control
group, the IBMT group showed increased ACC involve-
ment during a resting condition [29,36]. This increase in
activity in the ACC is similar to what is found in AT during
task performance and could account for the improved
executive attention with both methods. In the IBMT stu-
dies, measures of heart rate variability reflecting ANS
activity and regulation were correlated with frontal mid-
line theta activity recorded from scalp electrodes. Because
midline theta has been associated with autonomic control
[37,38], these results indicate the importance of both the
central nervous system and the ANS as mechanisms for
improved performance after IBMT.
In his book on mindfulness, Siegel [39] suggests that
when midline cortical regions (e.g. the anterior cingulate)
are engaged without activation of lateral prefrontal areas
involved in working memory, a mindful state might be
obtained without effort [39]. IBMT practice has been
Figure 2. AT, AST and performance mind wandering and mental fatigue are two extremes of the untrained mind (left and right gray rectangles). AT requires effortful control
to improve performance whereas AST changes body-mind state through effortless practice. Optimal balance (attention balance state) is hypothesized to trigger the most
efficient performance (middle cylinder area).
Review Trends in Cognitive Sciences Vol.13 No.5
225
described as proceeding from effortful practice to effortless
practice. In initial stages, a practitioner devotes mental
effort to enter into a quiet and relaxed state quite different
from his or her daily life, with restless wandering thoughts
and diverse emotions. This requires strong executive func-
tion and capacity that heavily involves the PFC.
With practice, the practitioner experiences a deeply
relaxed state, entering the mid-stage of meditation. The
process still requires effortful control, but at this stage the
ANS starts to work in parallel. Because the ACC has been
implicated in self-regulation [40] and is also important in
regulation of autonomic activity [27], we speculate that the
ACC has an important role in this stage to maintain the
balance of cognitive control and autonomic activity. In later
meditation stages, the practitioner does not need strong
effort and uses only effortless experience to maintain the
meditative state. When deeply in this state, practitioners
totally forget the body, the self and the environment. In
this stage, the ANS is in control and ACC activity should be
dominant [41]. We speculate that it is these deeper late
stages of meditation that differ most clearly from AT. More
research will be needed to test these hypotheses.
Future directions
The methods we have discussed for AT and for AST (see Box
2for a brief summary of the main features of each method)
are certainly not the only ones available. Instead, they
represent examples of methods that have been rigorously
tested. It seems likely that AT is a consequence of deep and
sustained work in any subject. Some subjects, for example
music and art, absorb the interest of children and the lessons
serve as vehicles for training attention; strong executive
attention serves to enhance development of other cognitive
processes [42]. It seems likely that other methods of quieting
and directing the mind serves to change state. These topics
would need to be explored in future studies (Box 3).
Paying attention has a very important role in school
performance and education. AT exercises executive control
and transfers to cognitive capacities for learning, and
adding AT to pre-school classroom work has been shown
to improve students’ cognitive control [1]. AST in children
has also been shown to facilitate learning and improve
cognition, emotion and performance [29,36]. These two
types of training influence somewhat different brain net-
works and in future studies they might be combined to
enhance their effectiveness. Future studies could also shed
light on how to design training appropriately for persons
differing in temperament or learning style.
Acknowledgements
Mary Rothbart, the journal editor and three referees helped to improve
the presentation of this paper. This work was supported by NSFC
30670699, Program for New Century Excellent Talents in University,
NCET-06-0277, the James S. Bower and John S. Templeton Foundation
and NICHF grant HD 38051.
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