Maps of Meaning: The Architecture of Belief
Abstract
It is not clear that either the categories "given" to us by our senses, or those abstracted for us by the processes of scientific investigation, constitute the most "real" or even the most "useful" modes of apprehending the fundamental nature of being or experience. The categories offered by traditional myths and religious systems might play that role. Such systems of apprehension present the world as a place of constant moral striving, conducted against a background of interplay between the "divine forces" of order and chaos. "Order" is the natural category of all those phenomena whose manifestations and transformations are currently predictable. "Chaos" is the natural category of "potential" - the potential that emerges whenever an error in prediction occurs. The capacity for creative exploration - embodied in mythology in the form of the "ever-resurrecting hero" - serves as the mediator between these fundamental constituent elements of experience. Voluntary failure to engage in such exploration - that is, forfeit of identification with "the worldredeeming savior" - produces a chain of causally interrelated events whose inevitable endpoint is adoption of a rigid, ideology-predicated, totalitarian identity, and violent suppression of the eternally threatening other.
... 42) In a different article, DeYoung (2013) builds the case that dopaminergically regulated processes, such as those undergirding trait Extraversion (and trait Openness), are promoting exploration in light of perceived uncertainty. This hypothesis is predicated on the idea that the inherent value of uncertainty is neither positive nor negative, but irreducibly bi-valent (DeYoung, 2013;Hirsh et al., 2012;Peterson, 1999). To elaborate, although high-uncertainty settings present a greater risk of punishment (simply in virtue of their inherent indeterminacy) such that withdrawal via anxiety would be one adaptive way to respond, there is nevertheless inherent promise in engaging with uncertainty through exploration insofar as the unknown is not just where risks, but also opportunities for greater reward reside (Peterson, 1999). ...
... This hypothesis is predicated on the idea that the inherent value of uncertainty is neither positive nor negative, but irreducibly bi-valent (DeYoung, 2013;Hirsh et al., 2012;Peterson, 1999). To elaborate, although high-uncertainty settings present a greater risk of punishment (simply in virtue of their inherent indeterminacy) such that withdrawal via anxiety would be one adaptive way to respond, there is nevertheless inherent promise in engaging with uncertainty through exploration insofar as the unknown is not just where risks, but also opportunities for greater reward reside (Peterson, 1999). Trait Extraversion, on DeYoung's account, is therefore an adaptation to the incentive reward value of uncertainty and is predictive of how likely someone is to engage with uncertainty through such feelings as interest, curiosity, or excitement, rather than withdrawal by way of fear or anxiety (DeYoung, 2013(DeYoung, , 2015. ...
... A fundamental problem facing cognitive agency is that the world is entropic whereas the frames by which the world is interpreted and rendered sufficiently predictable are static (DeYoung, 2015;Peterson, 1999;2007;Thompson, 2007). This is a version of the frame problem discussed in Sect. 4. As such, when confronted with uncertainty, a decision must be made either to accommodate the world by changing one's frames or else to assimilate it into one's already existing frames. ...
The distinguishing feature of enactivist cognitive science is arguably its commitment to non-reductionism and its philosophical allegiance to first-person approaches, like phenomenology. The guiding theme of this article is that a theoretically mature enactivism is bound to be humanistic in its articulation, and only by becoming more humanistic can enactivism more fully embody the non-reductionist spirit that lay at its foundation. Our explanatory task is thus to bring forth such an articulation by advancing an enactivist theory of human personality. To this end, we synthesize core concepts from cognitive science, personality theory, and phenomenological philosophy in order to develop an Enactivist Big-5 Theory (EB5T) of personality. According to EB5T, personality traits are dispositional tendencies for how we come to optimally grip our distinctly human worlds. Individual differences in personality are therefore reflective of stylistic differences in optimal gripping tendencies between human beings. EB5T affords a non-reductionist understanding of the immanent teleology of the autopoietically embodied human mind as a kind of full-scale optimal gripping process that is achieved along five major dimensions of personality. To the degree that these dimensions are universal, therefore, we argue that our theory offers a viable path forward in advancing enactivist cognitive science beyond the life of a cell and into the mind of a person, a longstanding hope and ambition held by proponents of the enactive approach.
... In its capacity as a temporary SSoT, the OPORD, in offering compartmen talized information on what support will be available, what the rules of engagement are, what constraints exist in the locale, and what the organization needs to accomplish, greatly expedites sensemaking by defining a bounded informational niche [24,173]. While the boundaries of this informational niche only remain stable in preparation for operations, positive impacts extend into the theater of operations by contributing to self -efficacy and, as previously noted, by providing a coherent id eal to move towar d [27,146,150,154]. ...
... The header of the Facilitator's Catechism is included as the first item in the document and contains a full title of the project followed by seven items: The requirement for a short Unique Project Callsign (UPC) and Team Name was selec ted in the interest of giving t he project an easily searchable identifier (TeamName -UPC) if the OPORD and related materials and deliverables are digitized, much in the same way written DARPA presentations and research deliverables can be searched for through the use of a Broad Agency An nouncement (BAA) number contained both in the announcement of interest and in the resulting written deliverables [193]. Even if the OPORD is being used to facilitate an IRT or to make a call for collaborators, giving the team a name creates a symbol around which culture and esprit de corps may be developed [60,66,154,156,194], it also allows for the option to keep the team intact after project completion. The Facilitator and Contact Information are listed so that stakeholders, potential collaborators, and interested parties are aware of who is responsible for execution and how to contact them. ...
... Following the format of many modern OPORDs [3,4], "Mission" is included as the second section of the Facilitator's Catechism. Using situation and mission in order follows key principles of necessary scene -setting prior to the identification of an ideal as a basis for narrative construction and survivability [152][153][154]177]. Mission asks only one question: ...
... Although the above-mentioned accounts may well be part of the story, we claim that a more profound comprehension can be found. We argue that all concepts, including VBHC, acquire meaning within a frame of reference [13][14][15]. An important part of the ambiguity that surrounds VBHC is that the concept is being perceived differently within different frames of reference. ...
... Additionally, this paper does not elaborate on the power/knowledge relations that may harness discourses and dictate social realitiesas is customary in (Foucauldian) critical discourse analysis [20,21]. Rather, this study departs from the presupposition that all concepts, including VBHC, acquire meaning within a particular frame of reference [13,14]. We examine how certain (deeply rooted) assumptions and frames of reference generate particular interpretations of VBHC. ...
... Therefore, while it is certainly possible that some scholars 'miss the point' [1] when writing about VBHC, we argue here that underlying presuppositions frame one's point. In other words, assumptions confine aims, perceptions and (mis)representations [13,14]. ...
Background: Today’s remarkable popularity of value-based health care (VBHC) is accompanied by considerable ambiguity concerning the very meaning of the concept. This is evident within academic publications, and mirrored in fragmented and diversified implementation efforts, both within and across countries.
Method: This article builds on discourse analysis in order to map the ambiguity surrounding VBHC. We conducted a document analysis of publicly accessible, official publications (n=22) by actors and organizations that monitor and influence the quality of care in the Netherlands. Additionally, between March and July 2019, we conducted a series of semi-structured interviews (n=23) with national stakeholders.
Results: Our research revealed four discourses, each with their own perception regarding the main purpose of VBHC. Firstly, we identified a Patient Empowerment discourse in which VBHC is a framework for strengthening the position of patients regarding their medical decisions. Secondly, in the Governance discourse, VBHC is a toolkit to incentivize providers. Thirdly, within the Professionalism discourse, VBHC is a methodology for healthcare delivery. Fourthly, in the Critique discourse, VBHC is rebuked as a dogma of manufacturability. We also show, however, that these diverging lines of reasoning find common ground: they perceive shared decision-making to be a key component of VBHC. Strikingly, this common perception contrasts with the pioneering literature on VBHC.
Conclusions: The four discourses will profoundly shape the diverse manners in which VBHC moves from an abstract concept to the practical provision and administration of health care. Moreover, our study reveals that VBHC’s conceptual ambiguity largely arises from differing and often deeply rooted presuppositions, which underlie these discourses, and which frame different perceptions on value in health care. The meaning of VBHC – including its perceived implications for action – thus depends greatly on the frame of reference an actor or organization brings to bear as they aim for more value for patients. Recognizing this is a vital concern when studying, implementing and evaluating VBHC.
... In its capacity as a temporary SSoT, the OPORD, in offering compartmen talized information on what support will be available, what the rules of engagement are, what constraints exist in the locale, and what the organization needs to accomplish, greatly expedites sensemaking by defining a bounded informational niche [24,173]. While the boundaries of this informational niche only remain stable in preparation for operations, positive impacts extend into the theater of operations by contributing to self -efficacy and, as previously noted, by providing a coherent id eal to move towar d [27,146,150,154]. ...
... The header of the Facilitator's Catechism is included as the first item in the document and contains a full title of the project followed by seven items: The requirement for a short Unique Project Callsign (UPC) and Team Name was selec ted in the interest of giving t he project an easily searchable identifier (TeamName -UPC) if the OPORD and related materials and deliverables are digitized, much in the same way written DARPA presentations and research deliverables can be searched for through the use of a Broad Agency An nouncement (BAA) number contained both in the announcement of interest and in the resulting written deliverables [193]. Even if the OPORD is being used to facilitate an IRT or to make a call for collaborators, giving the team a name creates a symbol around which culture and esprit de corps may be developed [60,66,154,156,194], it also allows for the option to keep the team intact after project completion. The Facilitator and Contact Information are listed so that stakeholders, potential collaborators, and interested parties are aware of who is responsible for execution and how to contact them. ...
... Following the format of many modern OPORDs [3,4], "Mission" is included as the second section of the Facilitator's Catechism. Using situation and mission in order follows key principles of necessary scene -setting prior to the identification of an ideal as a basis for narrative construction and survivability [152][153][154]177]. Mission asks only one question: ...
... Nature-, the other world that is constructed by civilization as an artificial construct often contradicts its desires. This world of instinctual source, as Peterson (2002) has tackled thoroughly -by taking Jungian psychology as an important basis-within the terms of "unknown" or "chaos", is interlinked with the psychological symbolism of the womb and the unconscious state. While in this case also "mother figure symbolizes the unconscious" (Jung, 2015, p. 35), a child's or man's unwillingness for adapting to the conscious reality which is partly detached from motherly unconscious state grows and accumulates itself. ...
... It is the manifestation of the experience which resides out of the conscious mind, and thus, which can threaten it. In the same time, because it is on the outside of the enlightened conscious territory, it can bring the novelty, development, destruction and creation (-concerning bringing of novelty and growth by the hero-see Peterson, 2002); and therefore the wholeness in the manner of awaking the one-sidedness of the conscious: "It is a personification of vital forces quite outside the limited range of our conscious mind; of ways and possibilities of which our one-sided conscious mind knows nothing; a wholeness which embraces the very depths of Nature" (Jung, 1969, p. 170). ...
Jean-Jacques Rousseau (1712-1778), either historically or personally, is an original and a highly controversial figure. He has been the precursor of the Romantic Movement and has been a great influencer for the environment of the French Revolution and the Declaration of Human Rights which follows it. Rousseau's theories are focused on the idea that man has been corrupted by civilization and "has been chained everywhere he goes". It is stated in this paper that these ideas of Rousseau are driven by a certain psychological bias: a possession by the archetype of "puer aeternus" or "eternal child". In order to open up this psychology, we took into consideration both Rousseau as a historical figure and an individual (along with his own experiences). It has been argued that personal psychology and philosophy of Rousseau-in relationship with his time period-is thus interlinked. Our approach has taken Jungian psychoanalysis as its method and revolved around it.
... From this perspective, the individual can rise "above the sufferings of the moment" (Frankl, 1946(Frankl, /1959. The ability to rise above acute distress may be due to the abstract nature of the values and goals related to life meaning (Emmons, 1999;Peterson, 1999) eliciting a high-level construal mode of information processing, as such high-level processing has been shown to reduce the aversive impact of violations of beliefs/goals (De Dreu et al., 2009). Further, if the life meaning source is more important than the discrepancy, one's cognitive and motivational responses should be drawn toward life-meaning cues (McGregor et al., 2010). ...
... The current studies extend these findings by showing that this inverse life meaning-repetitive negative thinking relation is at least partly explained by subjective distress. These findings support the idea that life meaning inhibits the subjective distress and repetitive negative thinking that accompany aversive events (Peterson, 1999). ...
Background: and Objectives: This research examined whether life meaning promotes resilience to stressor-related psychological distress and repetitive negative thinking.
Design and Methods: Three studies (total N = 273) used cross-sectional (Study 1) and prospective (Studies 2 and 3) designs to assess the relation between life meaning and response to various stressors.
Results: Results showed that in Study 1, greater life meaning was inversely related with repetitive negative thinking and psychological distress. Further, a mediation analysis showed an indirect effect for the life meaning-repetitive negative thinking relation through psychological distress. In Study 2, baseline life meaning predicted less repetitive negative thinking about a subsequent city-wide flood. In Study 3, baseline life meaning was inversely related to distress and repetitive negative thinking after writing about an aversive memory. A mediation analysis showed an indirect effect for the life meaning-repetitive negative thinking relation through distress.
Conclusions: In all studies, life meaning predicted outcomes when controlling for other positive well-being variables. Overall, the findings suggest that individuals with greater trait life meaning experience less stressor-related distress and repetitive negative thinking and that the life meaning-repetitive negative thinking relation may be mediated by distress.
... Dit zijn enkele vragen die het proces van nieuwsgierigheid en communica- 34 Kortom, als je met zelfreflectie naar jouw typische -en dus ook sociaal geaccepteerde -copingvormen kijkt, zou het goed kunnen zijn dat er onverwerkte emotionele ervaringen en mentale modellen aan ten grondslag liggen die deze in stand houden. ...
... Het terug in contact komen met emoties kan voor mensen soms transformatieve veranderingen teweegbrengen in ongezonde copingstijlen en leefpatronen die voorheen onveranderbaar leken. Ook als dat niet het geval is, 34 ...
Al bijna twintig jaar lang stijgen de stress- en burn-outcijfers. Deze trend is onhoudbaar en het is tijd voor een fundamentele verandering. Daarom willen Bas Snippert en Daniël Krikke vanuit hun ervaring binnen het Nederlands Expertisecentrum Vitaliteit een vitaliteitrevolutie starten in Nederland. Zij pleiten ervoor om niet alleen de symptomen van stress en burn-out te bestrijden, maar juist ook de dieperliggende oorzaken.
In dit boek maak je kennis met de Zeven Pijlers voor Vitaliteit: een krachtig model voor vitaliteit dat is onderbouwd met decennia aan wetenschappelijk onderzoek. De auteurs hebben de Zeven Pijlers uitgebreid getest en doorontwikkeld met talloze teams en leidinggevenden binnen grote organisaties in Nederland.
In De vitaliteitrevolutie leer je jouw Zeven Pijlers voor Vitaliteit te versterken, dankzij waardevolle inzichten en praktische handvatten waarmee je dagelijks kunt bouwen aan een opwaartse spiraal van vitaliteit. Zo voorkom je overmatige stress en een burn-out, maar nog belangrijker: je vergroot je levensplezier, veerkracht en vitaliteit in het dagelijkse leven.
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Meer weten over het Nederlands Expertisecentrum Vitaliteit? Kijk dan op: nederlandsvitaliteitscentrum.nl
... One reads a book like Maps of Meaning (Peterson 1999) or The Hero with a Thousand Faces (Campbell 2004) and discovers -that there were similarities between messiah stories in different religions and that throughout human history, civilizations produced religion and the structures of religion, which were human attempts at dealing with the challenges of life‖ (DeWitt 2013, pp. 188-189). ...
... Aside from truisms about inheriting a culture and language, collective trends are largely irrelevant, since individuals are the only agents of change and only individuals undergo experiences. So, whereas a book like Maps of Meaning (Peterson 1999) makes sweeping historical claims, commentators like Sandra Woien prefer to drag Peterson onto safer terrain by insisting that, in his lectures, -Peterson is not trying to provide a religious or inductive justification […]. Instead, he is simply trying to show that Biblical stories have a psychological or prescriptive significance that should not be ignored‖ (Woien 2021, p. TBA). ...
In 2017, Jordan Peterson gave a series of lectures on the Psychological Significance of the Biblical Stories. His first lecture lasted two hours. In that time, Peterson managed to cover only a single line from the Bible. This lopsided gloss-to-text ratio, I argue, entails that the rational explanations actually do all the work while the Bible is dispensable.
... Throughout much of human history, explicit answers to the Big Questions have tended to take on a mythological or religious format, most often in the form of a narrative (Bouizegarene et al., 2020;Hirsh et al., 2013;Peterson, 1999;Peterson & Flanders, 2002 2020;Goplen & Plant, 2015;Peterson & Flanders, 2002;Hirsh et al., 2012). We know this intuitively, since sensory information which violates the belief that you have a dentist appointment today (a relatively low-level belief) is not nearly as distressing as sensory information which violates the notion that you're a good person (if your goal is to be a good person), that God exists (if you believe in God), or that the world is a just and fair place (if you believe in a just world). ...
... According to some theories, the subjective sense of meaning is experienced when there is coherence between top-down beliefs or goals and bottom-up perceptions (Inzlicht et al., 2011). This coherence reduces anxiety by giving rise to the feeling that the world is an orderly, controlled place that we can understand and explain (Inzlicht et al., 2011;Peterson, 1999;Peterson & Flanders, 2002) and by reducing conflict between competing beliefs and goals (Hirsh, 2012;Hirsh et al., 2012;Proulx & Inzlicht, 2012). In this view, there may be at least two strategies by which somebody can find meaning. ...
The predictive processing (PP) framework suggests that the mind works by making and testing predictions. According to PP, only prediction errors (rather than all sensory inputs) are processed by an organism’s perceptual system. Prediction errors can be weighted such that some errors (usually those deemed more reliable) will be more influential in updating prior beliefs. It has recently been argued that autism spectrum disorders (ASD) result from an underlying predictive processing mechanism. The weight given to sensory prediction errors is thought to be inflexibly high in ASD, meaning that the perceptual system utilizes even relatively small prediction errors to update prior beliefs. Deficits in executive functioning, theory of mind, and central coherence are all argued to flow naturally from this core underlying mechanism. The diametric model of autism and psychosis suggests that these disorders result from opposite cognitive tendencies. Building on the diametric model, others have argued that autistic-like traits and positive schizotypy represent diametric cognitive-perceptual and behavioral traits that exist on a continuum in normal, non-clinical populations. In this paper I argue that positive schizotypy (which consists of magical thinking, unusual experiences, and ideas of reference) can be explained by the opposite mechanism to that of autism, namely an inflexibly low weight given to sensory prediction errors. This mechanism can potentially explain such disparate features of positive schizotypy as increased exploratory behavior, hyper-theory of mind, attentional differences, idiosyncratic worldviews, and a hyper-active imagination.
... Spiritual and mythological literature is littered with references to great transformative journeys, most notable being that of St John of the Cross who endured a long, dark night of the soul. Greek mythology speaks of a descent into the Underworld-katabasis or breakdown-followed by a journey back to the light; Carl Jung uncovered the process of individuation, an often painful confrontation with and integration of one's shadow and more recently, Jordan Peterson (1999) writes about the necessity and function of chaos, the unknown, in our personal development. This body of literature provides a wealth of ideas and new avenues of exploration in terms of understanding healing. ...
Curare 42 (2019) 3+4: 69-80 | VWB | © arBeitsgemeinsChaft ethnologie und medizin (agem) Homeopathic prescribing as an apprehension of the whole natalie harriman
... Bibliotherapy often accompanies Poetry Therapy as it supports the process of writing by making available narratives and perspectives prepared by others with identical or similar background stories as well as a range of individual solutions and mitigating strategies (Heimes 2012). This builds upon the place of narratives within human history and their role in shaping everyday lives and capturing personal experiences (Peterson 1999). By dealing with other people's narratives, it invites active reflection on non-informational texts. ...
Information and Communication Technology (ICT) has penetrated almost all areas of life today and has the potential to create positive change. This paper addresses the opportunities offered by ICT for improving the resilience and psychosocial well-being of refugees who have experienced mentally stressful events when forced to leave their home country and seek shelter in a different host country. We want to distinguish between perceived stress and clinically-defined trauma, for which therapeutic interventions require direct personal contact with psychological experts. However, we also want to focus on the digital possibilities that currently exist to support establishing this kind of personal connection. Many refugees need to seek psychological help, but social, economic and cultural barriers hold them back. Our qualitative study with refugees, psychologists and volunteers provides insights into how refugees deal with their mental issues and the challenges they face in everyday life. We aim to show that ICT can play a major role in terms of addressing awareness and self-empowerment as an entry point for this vulnerable group. We also discuss the potential challenges and benefits of ICT for refugees seeking to recover their mental stability.
... The confusion caused by COVID-19 is expressed in doubts as to the confidence of decision-makers in obtaining information perceived as true and relying on dubious sources of information, such as conspiracy theories, based on the assumption that powerful forces conceal everything. Conspiracy theories are informed by teleological thought, in which everything has a specific secret purpose (95). The use of conspiratorial theories can also be explained on the cognitive level through automated, rapid, and shallow processing of information influenced by limited cognitive resources (96,97). ...
The global dissemination of COVID-19 creates confusion and ambiguity in nearly every aspect of life, including fear of contagion, heightened awareness of the mortality of self and family members, lack of power, and distrust of experts and decision-makers. In this stressful situation, the question arises as to what mechanisms distinguish between adaptive and maladaptive self-regulation. The theory of Motivated Cue-Integration (MCI) is a novel theory of self-regulation that provides a new perspective on the effect of COVID-19 on self-regulation deficiency as an example of psychological distress. Inspired by predictive coding, social cognition, embodied cognition, and experiential approach, MCI suggests that self-regulation is based on interaction between (1) high-level values and goals, (2) low-level interoceptive and exteroceptive signals, and (3) trust in epistemic authority or a significant other. Motivated Cue-Integration posits that individuals create meaning by making moment-to-moment predictions that affect their interpretation of the experience of ambiguity influenced by their relationship with epistemic authority. According to MCI, deficiency in self-regulation during COVID-19 could result either from over-sensitivity or under-sensitivity to low-level interoceptive and exteroceptive cues; rigidity or ambiguity of high-level goals, poor integration between the two levels of processing as well as distrust in epistemic authority. According to MCI, variations of these deficiencies may occur in various clinical phenomena such as alexithymia and somatization, as well as in social phenomena such as goal radicalization. Based on this reasoning, MCI claims that the mentalization of the relationship between interoceptive cues, exteroceptive cues, goals, and psychological needs of the person, as well as the improvement of confidence in epistemic authority, can promote adaptive self-regulation. Psychological intervention can foster trust in epistemic authority, increase the mentalization of interoceptive and exteroceptive cues, and their association with adaptive goals. As such, the integration of these elements in a way that facilitates incentives pathways and insight fosters a more integrated subjective experience, higher clarity of emotion, and positive internal dialogue which promotes action tendency.
... The former then claim that despite the evolution of ideas, the current religious dogmas of world religions are not the final ultimate product of evolution and can be improved further with science [30]. Cautious Jungian psychologists have noted that the human subconscious and morality are not yet fully understood and via discarding some seemingly unnecessary religious values something that is in fact valuable might be lost [33]. ...
Engineering brings functionality in the modern world across sectors from healthcare to education. The engineering method for problem solving consists of identifying, defining and structuring a problem and then creatively and systematically solving it. In the process, underlying the surface level thinking, the engineering mindset balances tensions between (1) exactness and ambiguity; (2) the familiar and the unfamiliar; (3) concretiz-ing and abstracting problems; and (4) position within prevailing hierarchies. As a pivotal period of an engineer's professional growth, engineering education influences a student's position within these dimensions. Future engineers are expected to design solutions to increasingly wicked problems that can have ethical, moral and existential aspects. As a solution, several engineering curricula include courses in ethics. While such a course can be useful, it often fails to broaden the core set of the engineering students' epistemic beliefs. Furthermore, there are several ill-defined problems that ethics does not have tools to address. To bring balance to the engineer's epistemic toolkit, whilst still focused on achieving technical skills, we propose to integrate aspects of theology, i.e. the scholarship of existential questions and the ultimate, into engineering education. In this work we present both a theoretical foundation and conceptualization for our proposal which we supplement with findings from an empirical seminar discussion with engineering students and faculty.
... Inter-temporally coherent belief-desire coalitions more consistently achieve higher value [275,276], and so tend to be reinforced, and so tend to dominate persona evolution [60]. Shared narratives co-evolving with these pattern coalitions [271,277,278] are shaped by repeated games both within [279][280][281] and between individuals [121,269,282]. Although self-processes may become extremely complex (and abstract) in these ways, in all cases such generative models both originate from and must continually deal with the constraints and affordances of their radically embodied nature. ...
Drawing from both enactivist and cognitivist perspectives on mind, I propose that explaining teleological phenomena may require reappraising both “Cartesian theaters” and mental homunculi in terms of embodied self-models (ESMs), understood as body maps with agentic properties, functioning as predictive-memory systems and cybernetic controllers. Quasi-homuncular ESMs are suggested to constitute a major organizing principle for neural architectures due to their initial and ongoing significance for solutions to inference problems in cognitive (and affective) development. Embodied experiences provide foundational lessons in learning curriculums in which agents explore increasingly challenging problem spaces, so answering an unresolved question in Bayesian cognitive science: what are biologically plausible mechanisms for equipping learners with sufficiently powerful inductive biases to adequately constrain inference spaces? Drawing on models from neurophysiology, psychology, and developmental robotics, I describe how embodiment provides fundamental sources of empirical priors (as reliably learnable posterior expectations). If ESMs play this kind of foundational role in cognitive development, then bidirectional linkages will be found between all sensory modalities and frontal-parietal control hierarchies, so infusing all senses with somatic-motoric properties, thereby structuring all perception by relevant affordances, so solving frame problems for embodied agents. Drawing upon the Free Energy Principle and Active Inference framework, I describe a particular mechanism for intentional action selection via consciously imagined (and explicitly represented) goal realization, where contrasts between desired and present states influence ongoing policy selection via predictive coding mechanisms and backward-chained imaginings (as self-realizing predictions). This embodied developmental legacy suggests a mechanism by which imaginings can be intentionally shaped by (internalized) partially-expressed motor acts, so providing means of agentic control for attention, working memory, imagination, and behavior. I further describe the nature(s) of mental causation and self-control, and also provide an account of readiness potentials in Libet paradigms wherein conscious intentions shape causal streams leading to enaction. Finally, I provide neurophenomenological handlings of prototypical qualia including pleasure, pain, and desire in terms of self-annihilating free energy gradients via quasi-synesthetic interoceptive active inference. In brief, this manuscript is intended to illustrate how radically embodied minds may create foundations for intelligence (as capacity for learning and inference), consciousness (as somatically-grounded self-world modeling), and will (as deployment of predictive models for enacting valued goals).
... Talvez, de certa forma, tentar compreender os mistérios e as tragédias humanas, como a morte, tenha levado os primeiros homens a buscar explicações mais generalistas e mesmo fora do alcance dos mortais. Algo transcendental que, de certa maneira, talvez tenha sido necessário para a perpetuação da própria humanidade na formação civilizacional (Peterson, 1999). Assim, grandes eventos catastróficos, como a já citada Peste Negra na Idade Média, a Gripe Espanhola e a atual pandemia e outras tragédias, poderiam levar parte da sociedade novamente a esse pensamento ancestral, mítico, atávico, que via na natureza ou no fatalismo (destino) explicação para tudo, mesmo para o que não podia ser mensurado ou explicado, aquilo regido pelos deuses. ...
A crítica de qualquer conceito passa necessariamente pela capacidade de se compreender suas origens e sua esfera de alcance. Talvez um dos legados mais tristes da pós-modernidade seja o negacionismo, quando se compreende que ele faz parte de uma estratégia de dominação a partir de uma guerra declarada à Ciência e à Razão. O escopo principal desse ensaio é, portanto, colocar algumas questões básicas sobre a origem do negacionismo científico na mesa, ainda que para elas não se tenham respostas definitivas. Por exemplo, em que medida ele se insere num processo de valorização do fanatismo e do individualismo? A falta de uma divulgação científica institucionalizada pode ser considerada uma causa do negacionismo vigente em nosso país? Está o negacionismo relacionado ao problema geral da educação? Há como identificar seus pilares na sociedade contemporânea? Essas são algumas perguntas que serão discutidas aqui, para as quais é urgente que se encontrem respostas, se desejamos evitar um enorme retrocesso sociocultural.
... The first is to reduce the primary source -the uncertainty that elicits anxiety in the first place. Since any situation offers a range of perceptual and behavioral possibilities (Gibson, 2014), a person can reduce uncertainty by gaining knowledge about the environment and the appropriate responses to make in order to further valued goals (Peterson, 1999;Peterson & Flanders, 2002). However, attempts to reduce short-term anxiety and uncertainty with concrete plans and behavioral restraints (if too rigid) may result in a failure to adapt to changing circumstances and pathology (e.g., Bickhard, 1989). ...
Mental health interventions are severely underutilized for a number of reasons, including high costs and social stigma. An alternative non-stigmatizing method to address many trans-diagnostic psychotherapeutic goals (e.g., psychological flexibility in Hayes, Luoma, Bond, Masuda, & Lillis, 2006; Bermant, 2013) is modern American improvisational theater, which has its roots in the 1920s as a tool for facilitating personal and social development (Steitzer, 2011). It has been suggested that improvisation training may reduce anxiety (Krueger, Murphy, & Bink, 2017; Phillips Sheesley, Pfeffer, & Barish, 2016); however, no prior study has examined the relationship between improvisation trainning and social anxiety. Further, no study has explored whether improvisation promotes tolerance for uncertainty, which has been linked to reduced anxiety and shown to explain variance in social anxiety (Boelen, & Reijntjes, 2009). Further, positive effects on mood have been identified in both improvisation and social interaction treatments (Lewis & Lovatt, 2013). This dissertation aims to empirically test whether improvising might benefit psychological health and explore reasons why. Chapter 2 evaluates an existing improvisational theater training program created by The Detroit Creativity Project called The Improv Project, which teaches life skills through improvisational theater to middle and high schoolers in Detroit public schools. Specifically, we find that participating in an improv course predicts reductions in social anxiety. Further, social anxiety does not appear to be a barrier to participation in the project. However, as a field study of an existing program, this method lacks a randomly assigned control condition. Chapter 3 follows an experimental paradigm from previous research linking improvisation training to improvements in divergent thinking in the laboratory (Lewis & Lovatt, 2013). We examine whether a short exposure to improvisational theater training can increase tolerance of uncertainty, shown to predict reductions in social anxiety during cognitive behavior therapy (Mahoney & McEvoy, 2012). We find across two experiments that a brief session of improvising causes improvements in uncertainty tolerance and divergent thinking, as well as affective well-being, compared to a social interaction control. Further, these relative gains appear to depend on which specific features of the improv condition differ from the social interaction control condition. As an experiment with random assignment to condition, this work offers desirable features for internal validity, but lacks generalizability (Cook, Campbell, & Shadish, 2002). Chapter 4 tests the relationship established in Chapter 3 between improv and uncertainty tolerance back in the field setting. Specifically, we find that participating in an improvisational theater program for adolescents (described in Chapter 2) predicts increases in uncertainty tolerance, and replicate the Chapter 2 analysis linking improvisational theater training program with reductions in social anxiety symptoms. Additionally, we find that the increase in uncertainty tolerance in this study also predicts reductions in social anxiety. Taken together, this research provides the first empirical evidence that improvisational theater training benefits those with social anxiety problems, and that this is likely in part because engaging in improvisational theater exercises causes increased tolerance of uncertainty.
... As Peterson (1999) argues, people have an innate need to make sense of the world around them. This has also been shown to hold true for audiences engaging with television 18 TEXT Vol 24 No 2 October 2020 www.textjournal.com.au ...
... Les stimuli positifs sont approchés tandis que les stimuli négatifs sont évités (cf. Carver & Scheier, 2004 ;Osgood, 1969 ;Peterson, 2002 ;Scherer, Schorr, & Johnston, 2001). En signalant l'utilité des choses pour soi-même, les affects positifs ou négatifs suscités servent le processus de décision (Damasio & Carvalho, 2013;Loewenstein & Lerner, 2003;Slovic, Finucane, Peters, & MacGregor, 2007;Wegner, 2002). ...
... Bibliotherapy often accompanies Poetry Therapy as it supports the process of writing by making available narratives and perspectives prepared by others with identical or similar background stories as well as a range of individual solutions and mitigating strategies [17]. This builds upon the place of narratives within human history and their role in shaping everyday lives and capturing personal experiences [31]. By dealing with other people's narratives, it invites active reflection on non-informational texts. ...
... For example, both religious traditions of saints and martyrs, and the mythological representation of ancient Greek heroes represent positive individualism. In a sense, those forms of individualism reach the highest point of sacrifice to affirm certain values (Peterson, 1999). On the contrary, in the context of capitalism, individualism has a negative connotation since it leads to selfish behavior. ...
We analyze stakeholder management (STM) relative to cooperation and individualism within the fourth industrial revolution (FIR). STM is a recent corporate governance tool boosting cooperation and allowing representativeness of individualistic behaviors even in dialectical environments. Though forerunning it, cooperatives massively use STM now, while the FIR demands cooperation also at non-cooperative enterprises. We reach two main conclusions. Deeper orientation towards STM helps solve the shareholder management (SHM) crisis. Moreover, exemplifying the benefits of STM towards social and environmental goals, cooperatives can inspire also other companies aiming to reduce the negative externalities of SHM and profit from cooperation within the FIR.
... The question is: What three classes can the space of myth be divided into in the picture below? The picture shown in Figure 1 on the right is borrowed from the work of J. Peterson [13]. The answer to the question asked is the diagram on the left in Figure 1, where all three classes are indicated by words. ...
In the light of the Cultural-Historical Theory (L.S. Vygotsky) and the Theory of Transcendental Psychology of Perception (A.I. Mirakyan), the author considers the position and functional role of the perceptual process in the development of the mind of an adult. The hypothesis is that the functional role of perception in the mind of the person at the end of its period of maturation is subordinate to the higher mental functions, in particular, the process of thinking, which is based on the search for a person available memory capacity and the possibility of finding knowledge in the relevant external sources. Therefore, in semantic terms, visual perception can be excluded from a conscious process of finding semantic solutions. This suggests the subordinate function of visual perception in cognitive adult life and the virtually automatic nature of the process that serves the knowledge-based development opportunities. In this context, we presented and experimentally tested on 30 students the effect of perceptual-semantic blindness, which shows that the mental process of solving semantic tasks is in the main ignoring additional visual stimuli containing the solution in the general visual field. In contrast to inattentional blindness, these stimuli are constantly presented in the field of vision and perceptual blindness was due not so much to inattention, but semantic processes. The presented effect of perceptual-semantic blindness is clearly expressed in more than 60% of cases (up to 100% for graphical variants). This situation can be regarded as the result of a kind of sociocultural development, formed in the conditions of modern information technology society. It also points to the need for special and purposeful perceptual-cognitive training as one of the effective means of using unclaimed perceptual possibilities to avoid the phenomena of perceptual-semantic blindness. These means are especially important for the educational process.
... Sometimes, the meaning of an event is not immediately clear. People exist in a domain of the unknown and depend on creative thinking to transform the unknown into the known (Peterson 1999). Sensing, perceiving, reflecting, and creating refer to processes occurring in the mind. ...
Theories of experience guide an understanding of how people’s conceptions of physical objects, events, and ideas are structured and organized. This article reviews how experience is understood as a phenomenon, a concept, and a category of phenomenology, pragmatics, and the experiential learning theory. Based on the review, the article discusses how existing theories of experience appear as static in a systemic view and are enriched when a dynamic view is added. The phenomenon of experience is analyzed as structured in recursive interactions between form and process in four layers, namely attention in sensing, categorization in perceiving, meaning in reflecting, and transformation in creating.
Recent developments in academic and popular discourse suggest that a widespread change in the perception of organizations is taking place. At the core of this development stands a move away from hierarchical power structures toward a decentralized system composed of autonomously working units. Two relatively novel organizational concepts that to a great extent reflect these structures are investigated in this thesis: The concepts of holacracy and podularity. Organizational theory proposes that new forms of organization are conceptualized through the use of certain metaphors. The findings of this thesis suggest that the predominant metaphor underlying the conceptualization of the currently advancing concepts is that of an operating system. This technology-related perspective turns out to have substantial influence on the conceptualization of various aspects of organization, such as the power structure, formalization, and governance processes. Proponents of the concepts of holacracy and podularity are found to act as management fashion setters, as they market their concepts as improved and novel solutions. These strategies include catering to the need of managers to demonstrate conformity with norms of managerial progression. Based on the metaphorical understanding of the organization as an operating system, the ability to adapt and update organizational processes in reaction to threats and challenges imposed by a volatile environment are presented as key drivers for sustainable success. Technological advancements are presented as environmental developments that create gaps between the current state of the organization and the potential state of higher efficiency, compatibility and the like. The new agile organizational concepts provide a way to close these gaps and to attain competitive advantage over those who ignore them.
The fundamental crux of disease is weakness.
The solution is strength - in mind and in body.
The solution has always been strength, and it has stared the medical profession in the eye for decades.
It is only a rigid traditionalism and the unexpressed fear of leaving the beaten path and forging a new way ahead that has maintained the status quo for such a long time.
If there was ever an opportunity to take decisive action it is now.
We face an unknown enemy which preferentially preys on the weak and debilitated.
There might be a learning curve to getting to know this enemy and taking the battle to him.
No such learning curve is staring us down when it comes to strengthening the weak.
The research has been done and the methods are available and ready to implement.
The situation we face compels us to look to a functional approach in healthcare and focus on resolving chronic disease for the long-term, as opposed to short-term damage control and a resignation to a lifetime of medication punctuated with the occasional surgical intervention.
In The Brothers Karamazov, Fyodor Dostoevsky addresses the problem of how to reconcile God's goodness with the evil in the world by comparing the metaphysical implications of Ivan Karamazov's and the Elder Zosima's Euclidean and non-Euclidean epistemologies. For Ivan, the moral opposites of good and evil cannot be reconciled, just as two parallel lines cannot meet (Euclid's fifth postulate). For Zosima, the symbol of the crucifix represents a meeting of the parallel lines and the moral opposites.
The dominant forms of thought today exist as either deconstructive or metalinguistic structures. Here we attempt to situate dialectical thinking as a constructive meta-mediation of this opposition between deconstruction and metalanguage. Dialectical thinking offers us a way to think about the processual nature of reason itself as a force of thought mediating being. In this mode of understanding, we attempt to think the possibility of articulating the meaning and importance of ‘metaontology’ defined as the ontology of epistemology. In a metaontology, we treat the structure of concepts not as reflecting external territory (map is a territory), nor as existing at a distance from external territory (map is not the territory), but as having their own territory (geometry) (i.e. maps as territory). We attempt to approach metaontology by reflectively observing the singularity of the author’s own internal territorial map, revealing a ‘quadratic twisted circularity’; and also the movement of the symbolic order itself, revealing a possible invariant unsymbolizable real. From these reflections we dive into the foundations of dialectical thinking, starting with Plato, and then exploring modifications introduced by Hegel and Lacan. Finally, we offer a dialectical structure of knowledge for the twenty-first century. This offering is meant only as an offer, a consideration, for how dialectics can be deployed at the location of key antagonisms in the contemporary field. The hope is that future dialecticians will be able to utilize this logic to engage in crucial intellectual interventions.
This chapter seeks to engage and develop contemporary metaphysical discussions on the foundations of human knowledge (epistemology) from the standpoint of understanding the emergence and reconciliation of dualism (subject–object; mind–matter distinctions). All forms of human knowledge teach us something about an outside (external world) or an inside (internal world), but do not teach us about either the conditions of the appearance of knowledge in the world, or the ultimate possible role and function of knowledge for being. I utilize the dialectical method in order to meta-analyze the contemporary field of knowledge, articulating its ontic strengths and weaknesses, as well as offering a possible way to interpret an open and incomplete synthesis of this contemporary field (Visual representations are used to aid conceptual comprehension of difficult theoretical abstractions). A ‘non-monist’ form of knowledge is developed and proposed. Non-monism can be defined as the efficacy of the absence or negativity of non-unity in or of being. This metaphysics has practical application for constructivist theorists, which is here demonstrated in relation to a specific and pragmatic problem that cannot be adequately confronted with our current epistemological horizon: the ontology of sexual difference and experience of sexual reality as resisting unity. Consequently, this chapter boldly proposes a new foundation for understanding the emergence and reconciliation of dualism with a speculative yet pragmatic engagement in the field of human knowledge as one process circling the absence of unity. The result is a form of knowledge that synthesizes external and internal forms of knowledge as an effect of the absence of unity which in-itself governs trans-subjective individuation. Thus, the contents and frame of this work reflect a constructivist engagement with second and higher-order knowledge, inclusive of a meta-analysis of the possibility space for historical and future knowledge construction (in traditions ranging from physics, complexity science, phenomenology, social deconstruction), and the limits of construction.
Este artigo busca contribuir na compreensão da natureza da imagem e de seu papel na geração de sentidos nos processos comunicacionais. Baseada principalmente nas perspectivas teóricas de Durand (2002), Jung (1994, 2011) e Damásio (2004, 2011), a reflexão explora como se dá a construção da imagem simbólica, a partir do papel dos arquétipos e das capacidades de percepção e de imaginação humanas, e de que forma esse tipo de imagem constrói os significados que produz. Como resultado, propõe-se um conceito de imagem que a coloca como elemento básico e essencial do pensamento humano que antecede ontológica e temporalmente a palavra e é dotada de significações imanentes e transcendentes.
The present study conducted a meta-analysis of measures of religiosity on outcomes of job performance and outcomes of organizational citizenship behaviors (OCBs).The results show that measures of religiosity ( both religion-specific and general spirituality) on outcomes of job performance are positively correlated. Using a fixed effects model, the effect size was positive and moderate, r= .40, 95% CI [.37-.44]. On outcomes of OCBs, the results show that measures of religiosity ( both religion-specific and spiritual) are positively correlated. Using a fixed effects model, the effect size was positive and small to moderate, r= .30, 95% CI [.27-.32]. Additionally, the present study offers a comparison analysis of effect size. The results show religion-specific studies were more predictive of job performance, whereas spirituality studies were more predictive of organizational citizenship behavior outcomes.
Este artigo busca contribuir na compreensão da natureza da imagem e de seu papel na geração de sentidos nos processos comunicacionais. Baseada principalmente nas perspectivas teóricas de Durand (2002), Jung (1994, 2011) e Damásio (2004, 2011), a reflexão explora como se dá a construção da imagem simbólica, a partir do papel dos arquétipos e das capacidades de percepção e de imaginação humanas, e de que forma esse tipo de imagem constrói os significados que produz. Como resultado, propõe-se um conceito de imagem que a coloca como elemento básico e essencial do pensamento humano que antecede ontológica e temporalmente a palavra e é dotada de significações imanentes e transcendentes.
This thesis aims to develop new vocabulary and improvisational approaches for contemporary steel-string fingerstyle guitar. This is carried out via a practice-based investigation supported by a theoretical framework of research on the cognitive processes of improvisation and the concept of ‘flow’.
What does storytelling have to do with positive psychology? Short answer: Everything. Storytelling-or narrative-is fundamental to how we think and make meaning of the world. Whether we realize it or not, stories are at the center of everything we do. How we tell our stories controls our mood, self-image, and the influence we have on others. Our stories can also dictate our future paths and successes. Therefore, understanding storytelling is not only key to how we feel about ourselves and how we interact with others, but it gives us valuable tools we can use to make change. This chapter will cover three areas: 1) the basic structure of stories; 2) the personal side of stories where we look at how stories influence identity, cognitive patterns, emotions and behavioral choices; and 3) the public side of storytelling where we examine the influence of stories we tell and share with others and how they can be used to make change around the world. In particular, how the emotional impact of personal and social storytelling influences beliefs and behaviors, making them a valuable tool for positive personal and social change.
The singularity is often approached on the foundation of cosmic evolutionary philosophy. In this work, we do not negate or deconstruct the foundations of cosmic evolution but rather seek to approach the singularity from the perspective of the spiritual or ideational horizon of absolute reflectivity in-itself. From this theoretical perspective, we attempt to think the motion of general ideation attempting to actualize higher unity in good, true, and beautiful repetitive motion of a field of singularities. In this way, we approach singularity dialectically as an event caused by ideational transformations and mediated by an emergent intersubjective objectivity. From these speculations, a historically engaged perspective on the nature of human consciousness is articulated where the truth of reality as an emergent unity depends on the collective action of a multiplicity of human observers.
It is not clear what an Egyptian god was, what was believed about them, or how people responded to them. This qualitative work induces the nature of gods from the fourth and third millennia B.C.E. culture with the intention of stating what Egyptians believed. Framed in a philosophical design, it explores three features. First, using language, archaeology, and iconography the essentials of the god identity are outlined for original qualification. Second, god existence is argued using classical proofs. Third, god character is examined to reveal the specific psychological archetype that dictated their behaviour in myth. Then, delineated by the essential qualities of all three features, the nature of the gods is consolidated and filtered through an Old Kingdom value structure to reveal their conception—habitual ideal individual behaviour. The ancient Egyptians had a monistic idea for god that was internalised by every individual thus creating a system of internal equality despite the external inequality.
Verständnisprozesse sind zentraler Teil des Lernens und der Bildung. Beim Erlernen von Quantenphysik sind diese Prozesse jedoch oft durch klassische Vorstellungen blockiert. Zur genaueren Erörterung dieser Problematik wird eine Studie vorgestellt, die klassische und quantenphysikalische mentale Modelle von Lernenden erhebt und zu dem allgemeinen Modellverständnis in Beziehung setzt.
Die Datenerhebung erfolgte per Onlinefragebogen und deckt eine breite Probandengruppe ab, zu der neben Lernenden verschiedener Schul- und Hochschulformen auch Lehrerinnen und Lehrer sowie viele andere Berufsgruppen gehören. Die empirischen Daten weisen darauf hin, dass die jeweilige Gestalt und Funktionalität der mentalen Modelle unabhängig voneinander in Bezug auf ihre Realitätstreue interpretiert werden. Aus dieser Beschreibung werden vier Verständnistypen mentaler Modelle abgeleitet und in die derzeitige
naturwissenschaftsdidaktische Erkenntnislage eingeordnet.
Keywords: mental model, conceptual development, understanding, physics education, chemistry education, biology education, educational science, neurology
In this article I discuss the relationship between analytical psychology and theories of human social evolution. More specifically I look at debates in evolutionary studies and anthropology regarding the priority of matrilineal social structure in the emergence of Homo sapiens. These debates were occurring in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries and they provide the context for many of the assumptions of psychoanalysis and analytical psychology. In this essay I will explore these issues in relation to analytical psychology. I will also discuss the work of anthropologist John Layard who proposed matriliny was humanity’s original form of social organisation. Interestingly, Layard’s field work had significant impact on Jung. I will also compare the work of Layard, and other theorists who adopt matrilineal theories of human social evolution, with the theories of Jordan Peterson. Peterson has developed an idiosyncratic evolutionary conception of analytical psychology, one in which he explicitly rejects the notion of matrilineal priority in human evolution. He also adopts certain assumptions about the evolutionary origins of contemporary socio-political hierarchy, assumptions I argue are not supported by data from numerous fields of scientific enquiry.
In this article, we critically reflect on the role of Canadian psychologist Jordan Peterson as a public intellectual in an increasingly hybrid, interconnected, and plural public sphere. In today’s attention economy, and in the face of a general climate of scepticism and crisis of expertise, we are faced with the limits of the liberal ideal of the public intellectual who filters information for the public. In fact, we argue, the public intellectual can in some cases come to function as a creator of filter bubbles instead of furthering democracy. We analyse Peterson’s writings and public performances in order to illustrate this, focusing on the particularities of his rhetoric and dramaturgical strategies. First, we discuss his misreadings and misrepresentation of ‘postmodernist’ thought. Then, we examine the non-verbal aspects of his performance, in order to unpack his appeal by examining his affective strategies. Last, we apply theory from the cognitive sciences, most notably relevance theory and the guru effect, to examine Peterson’s rhetoric and the strategies he uses to inspire trust in his audience.
Recent discussions have connected Nietzsche’s philosophy of masculinity to the return of authoritarian politics. Neoconservative debates about masculinity, and right-wing extremism, explicitly refer back to Nietzsche’s philosophy and often present democratization, a feminization of society, and political correctness as responsible for a weakening of masculinity. One example for this reception of Nietzsche’s writings is Jordan Peterson’s psychological diagnosis of a presumed crisis of masculinity. This article undertakes a comparison of Nietzsche’s philosophy of masculinities with Peterson’s neo-Jungian psychology of masculinity in the context of recent conceptualizations of patriarchy, misogyny, and gendered forms of ressentiment. This comparison will highlight that Nietzsche’s conception of masculinity is more complex, and has philosophically more to offer, than neoconservative ideas about masculinity that onesidedly foreground male strength. Finally it will be pointed out how a Jungian analysis discloses aspects of the Dionysian that are of relevance to contemporary gender studies of Nietzsche’s philosophy.
Innovation teams formed in incubators, research accelerators, hackathon weekends, and within organizations need to quickly align on narrative, workflow, and objectives in order to achieve success. Many of these teams disintegrate or fail to perform due to lack of alignment. Operations orders, such as those in use by the military, have demonstrable impact on organizational efficacy and success. This paper summarizes the history, development, and impact of military operations orders, discusses the history and development of their business counterparts, and presents the "The Innovator's Catechism", a catechism-styled operations order for use by early-stage innovation teams. This operations order is built from the "Facilitator's Catechism", an operations order for rapidly formed research teams, with acknowledgment for the special information requirements present for emergent and early-stage teams that are market-facing.
This deals with the existential aspects of old age, including changes in life meaning and concerns about legacy. Existential well-being often benefits from the development of spirituality which, in turn, can be expressed in several ways, including through specific religious beliefs and practices. Existential issues are brought into sharper focus in the life of an old person by the obvious fact that inevitably, as time passes, death nears. This brings to the fore questions about what constitutes a “good death”, and thus the debate over euthanasia and suicide is the focus of a specific section. We conclude this chapter with an exploration of the challenges of the end of life in multicultural societies, and the issues that affect end-of-life care.
Questions of nature and meaning are infamously difficult when the subjects of enquiry are mythological. The primary aim of this study is to explore the mythical aspects of The Two Brothers as they are represented on the papyrus D’Orbiney. A rape hoax is a popular media writer’s term used to provoke public interest in false sexual assault allegations. In this story however, the self-inflicted castration by the accused Bata has been interpreted as evidence contradicting his claim of innocence and consequently, the falseness of the accusation. The problems with past research are numerous, among them, a general prudish avoidance of the scene as well as unusually rigid, and reductive approaches to the content. What is required to advance our understanding of this episode is an exploration of how the rape hoax in The Two Brothers was conceptualised and contextualised within the cultural dynamics of New Kingdom Egypt. Our mythic analysis is mixed method, and makes use of linguistics, archaeology, psychology, and philosophy. The researcher expects to find that the addition of a philosophical approach will progress understanding of the story and resolve the dispute surrounding the guilt or innocence of the protagonist. The primary Hieratic text analysed in this study is the papyrus D’Orbiney, thought to have been produced in ca. 1215 B.C.E. and currently housed in the British Museum.
Mystics and philosophers across the ages have interrogated ideological systems to reveal truth and the praxes that ensure a good life. The 2019 debate “Happiness: Marxism vs Capitalism” between Jordan B. Peterson and Slavoj Žižek exemplifies the perennial quest to link consciousness with a source of lasting happiness. This essay first deconstructs Peterson’s responses to Žižek regarding the biblical devolution of consciousness and religious belief. The second half addresses Žižek’s appraisal of Indian mysticism per the Nazi regime’s misuse of the Bhagavad Gītā contrasted with P. R. Sarkar’s exegesis of the text’s Tantric philosophy. This essay concludes that as Christianity’s religious narrative denies spiritual transcendence (humanity is irrevocably separated from its perfect cause), it struggles to stand the philosophical test of James’s spiritual pragmatism.
Cuadernos abiertos de crítica y coproducción : autores colectivos institución y coproducción. Covid-19 como obstáculo
Identity formation requires recognition of relevant knowledge content and consistent application of internalized content. While support systems provide context and influence, the mechanisms of judgment and preference enable relevant knowledge content to be filtered for relevance and application. In order for the adolescent to enable judgment and preference to be adequately recognized and to consistently apply knowledge content as related to the self, such mechanisms must be exercised. The stage of adolescence provides a psycho-social moratorium for the individual to filter self-knowledge, contextually develop self-construal, and solidify the varying facets of individual identity. Given appropriate circumstances, the psycho-social moratorium is a period wherein the adolescent forms their identity, by engaging with varying behaviors and contexts, and temporarily removing their self from the confines of society and its constructs, to ultimately develop the self-concept that will define their adult life and processes of mature decision making. This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.
Wenzel’s response to Fergnani (2019) is a laudable effort to advance the study of corporate foresight practices and processes. Wenzel’s arguments encourage us to reflect not only on the arguments made in Fergnani (2019) but also on the core tenets of the futures and foresight literature, tenets that could be misapprehended. This reflection opens opportunities to clarify the construct of corporate foresight and further integrate it with existing management and strategy scholarship. To this end, this rejoinder will first describe how to make sure that the definition of corporate foresight is not tautological. It will then explain why corporate foresight does not downplay the future, and why it should be conceptualized as a variance and not typological theory, as in Fergnani (2019). Finally, it will propose possible areas of integrations between Wenzel (2021) and Fergnani (2019) and encourage alternative epistemological positions to the study of corporate foresight.
Is it possible to provide context-relevant education to a diverse and dispersed body of students via online presented courses? Contextual relevance is called for by students and the public alike, as can also be seen in the #fallist movements. More traditional academics and institutions argue for retaining excellence from the past and known knowledge still to be taught. In this conceptual article, education is seen as a mastery of knowledge expanses by integrating Data and Information into Knowledge and Wisdom (D-I-K-W). Departing from the learning sciences, especially mind, brain and education science and its application in culturally appropriate learning, it is argued that including effective learning strategies in online courses, especially application-oriented strategies, can help students to apply knowledge from the past to contexts in the present, thereby attaining context-relevant education. However, the application of learnt material to situations brings forward another dimension, namely, the future, which is Volatile, Uncertain, Complex and Ambiguous (VUCA). In applying and making decisions, it is helpful to attend to the Cynefin framework, attending to the domains of the obvious, the complicated, the complex, the chaotic and the disorder. Excellence from the past and relevance in the present should, therefore, be augmented by abilities aimed at future readiness. Context-relevant online education should therefore attend to the past, the present and the future.
Contends that traditional views of knowledge are being challenged. An emerging "constructivist" perspective, as proposed by G. Kelly (1955, 1967), an engineer turned clinician, suggests that to a large degree individuals construct reality. In his "constructive alternativism" Kelly assumes that people validate their hypotheses and beliefs through subjectively construed goodness-of-fit criteria applied to perceived differences between anticipations and feedback. His model of construing is compatible with those emerging in the history and philosophy of science and in cognitive psychology. Nevertheless, constructivists must answer a perplexing question: How can fallible knowledge, constructed as it is from abstracted and incomplete representations of objects and events, capture and maintain one's confidence, as it does, and furthermore prove highly functional, as it does? (French abstract) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
The five-factor model has recently received wide attention as a comprehensive model of personality traits. The claim that these five factors represent basic dimensions of personality is based on four lines of reasoning and evidence: (a) longitudinal and cross-observer studies demonstrate that all five factors are enduring dispositions that are manifest in patterns of behavior; (b) traits related to each of the factors are found in a variety of personality systems and in the natural language of trait description; (c) the factors are found in different age, sex, race, and language groups, although they may be somewhat differently expressed in different cultures; and (d) evidence of heritability suggests that all have some biological basis. To clarify some remaining confusions about the five-factor model, the relation between Openness and psychometric intelligence is described, and problems in factor rotation are discussed.
Contemporary approaches to moral development and moral education emphasize propositional thinking and verbal discussion of abstract moral dilemmas. In contrast, this article proposes that narratives (stories) are a central factor in a person's moral development. Support for this position comes from recent theoretical contributions of Bruner, Sarbin, Spence, Tulving, and others, who have emphasized narrative thought as a major form of cognition that is qualitatively different from abstract propositional or scientific thinking. In addition, over the last 10 to 20 years psychologists investigating and conceptualizing moral development have come to emphasize such processes as empathy (Hoffman), caring and commitment (Gilligan), interpersonal interaction (Haan), personal character and personality (Coles; Hogan; Staub; Rushton). It is proposed that narratives and narrative thinking are especially involved in how these processes lead to moral development and therefore that narrative should be rehabilitated as a valuable part of moral education.
The theory is advanced that the common denominator of a wide range of addictive substances is their ability to cause psychomotor activation. This view is related to the theory that all positive reinforcers activate a common biological mechanism associated with approach behaviors and that this mechanism has as one of its components dopaminergic fibers that project up the medial forebrain bundle from the midbrain to limbic and cortical regions. Evidence is reviewed that links both the reinforcing and locomotor-stimulating effects of both the psychomotor stimulants and the opiates to this brain mechanism. It is suggested that nicotine, caffeine, barbiturates, alcohol, benzodiazepines, cannabis, and phencyclidine-each of which also has psychomotor stimulant actions-may activate the dopaminergic fibers or their output circuitry. The role of physical dependence in addiction is suggested to vary from drug to drug and to be of secondary importance in the understanding of compulsive drug self-administration.
During the past 100 years clinical studies of amnesia have linked memory impairment to damage of the hippocampus. Yet the damage in these cases has not usually been confined to the hippocampus, and the status of memory functions has often been based on incomplete neuropsychological information. Thus, the human cases have until now left some uncertainty as to whether lesions limited to the hippocampus are sufficient to cause amnesia. Here we report a case of amnesia in a patient (R.B.) who developed memory impairment following an ischemic episode. During the 5 years until his death, R.B. exhibited marked anterograde amnesia, little if any retrograde amnesia, and showed no signs of cognitive impairment other than memory. Thorough histological examination revealed a circumscribed bilateral lesion involving the entire CA1 field of the hippocampus. Minor pathology was found elsewhere in the brain (e.g., left globus pallidus, right postcentral gyrus, left internal capsule), but the only damage that could be reasonably associated with the memory defect was the lesion in the hippocampus. To our knowledge, this is the first reported case of amnesia following a lesion limited to the hippocampus in which extensive neuropsychological and neuropathological analyses have been carried out.
A discussion of the difficulties of prototype theories for describing compositional meaning motivates three experiments that inquire how well-defined concepts fare under paradigms that are commonly interpreted to support the prototype view. The stimulus materials include exemplars of prototype categories (sport, vehicle, fruit, vegetable) previously studied by others, and also exemplars of supposedly well-defined categories (odd number, even number, female, and plane geometry figure). Experiment I, using these materials, replicated the exemplar rating experiment of Rosch (1973). It showed that both the well-defined and prototypic categories yield graded responses, the supposed hall-mark of a family resemblance structure. Experiment II, using the same sorts of stimulus materials, replicated a verification-time paradigm, also from Rosch (1973). Again, the finding was that both well-defined and prototypic categories yielded results previously interpreted to support a family-resemblance description of those categories, with faster verification times for prototypical exemplars of each category. In Experiment III, new subjects were asked outright whether membership in the category of fruit, odd number, etc., is a matter of degree, or is not, and then these subjects were rerun in the Experiment I paradigm. Though subjects judged odd number, etc., to be well-defined, they provided graded responses to all categories once again. These findings highlight interpretive difficulties for the experimental literature on this topic. Part I of the discussion first outlines a dual theory of concepts and their identification procedures that seems to organize these outcomes. But Part II of the discussion argues that feature theories are too impoverished to describe mental categories, in general.
Contends that control theory provides a model of self-regulation that is useful in the analysis of human behavior. As an illustration of the breadth of its applicability, the basic construct of control theory––the discrepancy-reducing feedback loop––is presented, and certain implications for theory in 3 areas of human psychology are discussed. In personality-social, clinical, and health psychology, the construct proves to fit well with known phenomena and with the theories most recently developed to account for the phenomena. Moreover, in each case control theory appears to make a unique contribution to the state of the area. The integrative potential suggested by these illustrations and some issues that should receive attention in future work are noted. (3 p ref)
The purpose of this study was to investigate an unconscious or implicit mood-congruent memory (MCM) bias in clinical depression. Many studies have shown an explicit memory bias, but no study has yet found an implicit MCM bias in clinical depression. The authors compared depressed and control group participants on a conceptually driven implicit memory test. After studying words of positive, neutral, and negative affective valences, participants produced free associations to various cues. Implicit memory or priming was demonstrated by the production of more studied than unstudied words to the association cues. Depressed participants showed more priming of negative words, whereas controls showed more priming of positive words, thus supporting the MCM pattern. Also, no implicit memory deficit was found in depressed participants. These findings are discussed in the context of several prominent theories of cognition and depression.
We describe a project to capitalize on newly available levels of computational resources in order to understand human cognition. We will build an integrated physical system including vision, sound input and output, and dextrous manipulation, all controlled by a continuously operating large scale parallel MIMD computer. The resulting system will learn to "think" by building on its bodily experiences to accomplish progressively more abstract tasks. Past experience suggests that in attempting to build such an integrated system we will have to fundamentally change the way artificial intelligence, cognitive science, linguistics, and philosophy think about the organization of intelligence. We expect to be able to better reconcile the theories that will be developed with current work in neuroscience. Copyright c fl Massachusetts Institute of Technology, 1993 This report describes research done at the Artificial Intelligence Laboratory of the Massachusetts Institute of Technology. Support for ...
Three experiments demonstrated implicit gender stereotyping. A target's social category determined the use of previously primed stereotyped information, without Ss' awareness of such influence. After unscrambling sentences describing neutral or stereotyped behaviors about dependence or aggression, Ss evaluated a female or male target. Although ratings of female and male targets did not differ after exposure to neutral primes, Ss exposed to dependence primes rated a female target as more dependent than a male target who performed identical behaviors (Exp 1A). Likewise, Ss rated a male, but not a female, target as more aggressive after exposure to aggression primes compared with neutral primes (Exp 1B). Exp 2 replicated the implicit stereotyping effect and additionally showed no relationship between explicit memory for primes and judgment of target's dependence. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
A meta-analysis was conducted on the accuracy of predictions of various objective outcomes in the areas of clinical and social psychology from short observations of expressive behavior (under 5 min). The overall effect size for the accuracy of predictions for 38 different results was .39. Studies using longer periods of behavioral observation did not yield greater predictive accuracy; predictions based on observations under 0.5 min in length did not differ significantly from predictions based on 4- and 5-min observations. The type of behavioral channel (such as the face, speech, the body, tone of voice) on which the ratings were based was not related to the accuracy of predictions. Accuracy did not vary significantly between behaviors manipulated in a laboratory and more naturally occurring behavior. Last, effect sizes did not differ significantly for predictions in the areas of clinical psychology, social psychology, and the accuracy of detecting deception. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
The role of the hippocampus in memory storage in the mammalian brain is examined. The intrinsic anatomical organization of the hippocampus is such that a multidimensional mapping of other brain regions is represented. Emerging knowledge of the cortico-limbic-subcortical anatomy suggests that the hippocampal representations preserve the topological features of the targets and possess reciprocal connectivity. Long-Term Potentiation (LTP) is a prominent physiological characteristic of hippocampal synapses and is a promising candidate mnemonic device. The hypothesis is advanced that the pattern, or index, of specific neocortical (and other) areas activated by an experiential event is represented, or indexed, in the hippocampus by means of LTP. This hypothesis, termed the Memory Indexing Theory, suggests that experiential events are initially stored in an index of neocortical locations maintained in hippocampus. Subsequently, other regions, notably neocortex itself, permanently encode these experiential events and the interrelationships between them.
Computers and Thought are the two categories that together define Artificial Intelligence as a discipline. It is generally accepted that work in Artificial Intelligence over the last thirty years has had a strong influence on aspects of com- puter architectures. In this paper we also make the converse claim; that the state of computer architecture has been a strong influence on our models of thought. The Von Neumann model of computation has lead Artificial Intelligence in particular directions. Intelligence in biological systems is completely different. Recent work in behavior-based Artificial Intelligence has pro duced new models of intelligence that are much closer in spirit to biological systems. The non- Von Neumann computational models they use share many characteristics with biological com putation,
This article presents an overview of the author's recent electrophysiological studies of anterior cerebral asymmetries related to emotion and affective style. A theoretical account is provided of the role of the two hemispheres in emotional processing. This account assigns a major role in approach- and withdrawal-related behavior to the left and right frontal and anterior temporal regions of two hemispheres, respectively. Individual differences in approach- and withdrawal-related emotional reactivity and temperament are associated with stable differences in baseline measures of activation asymmetry in these anterior regions. Phasic state changes in emotion result in shifts in anterior activation asymmetry which are superimposed upon these stable baseline differences. Future directions for research in this area are discussed.
This research assessed whether individual differences in anterior brain asymmetry are linked to differences in basic dimensions of emotion. In each of 2 experimental sessions, separated by 3 weeks, resting electroencephalogram (EEG) activity was recorded from female adults during 8 60-s baselines. Mean alpha power asymmetry across both sessions was extracted in mid-frontal and anterior temporal sites. Across both regions, groups demonstrating stable and extreme relative left anterior activation reported increased generalized positive affect (PA) and decreased generalized negative affect (NA) compared with groups demonstrating stable and extreme relative right anterior activation. Additional correlational analyses revealed robust relations between anterior asymmetry and PA and NA, particularly among subjects who demonstrated stable patterns of EEG activation over time. Anterior asymmetry was unrelated to individual differences in generalized reactivity.
This article assessed whether resting electroencephalographic (EEG) asymmetry in anterior regions of the brain can predict affective responses to emotion elicitors. Baseline EEG was recorded from 32 female adults, after which Ss viewed film clips preselected to elicit positive or negative affect. Resting alpha power asymmetry in the frontal region significantly predicted self-reported global negative affect in response to clips and predicted the difference between global positive and negative affect. Analyses of discrete emotions revealed a strong relation between frontal asymmetry and fear responses to films. Effects were independent of Ss mood ratings at the time at which baseline EEG was measured. Resting anterior asymmetry may be a state-independent index of the individual's predisposition to respond affectively.
The evidence is convincing that each human cerebral hemisphere is capable of human mental activity. This being so, every normal human thought and action demands either a consensus between the two hemispheres, or a dominance of one over the other, in any event integrated into a unity of conscious mentation. How this is achieved remains wholly mysterious, but anatomical and behavioral data suggest that the two hemispheres, and their respective bilateral, anatomical-functional components, maintain a dynamic equilibrium through neural competition. While the forebrain commissures must contribute substantially to this competitive process, it is emphasized in this review that the serotonergic raphé nuclei of pons and mesencephalon are also participants in interhemispheric events. Each side of the raphé projects heavily to both sides of the forebrain, and each is in receipt of bilateral input from the forebrain and the habenulo-interpeduncular system. A multifarious loop thus exists between the two hemispheres, comprised of both forebrain commissural and brainstem paths. There are many reasons for believing that perturbation of this loop, by a variety of pathogenic agents or processes, probably including severe mental stress in susceptible individuals, underlies the extraordinarily diverse symptomatology of schizophrenia. Abnormality of features reflecting interhemispheric processes is common in schizophrenic patients; and the 'first rank' symptoms of delusions or hallucinations are prototypical of what might be expected were the two hemispheres unable to integrate their potentially independent thoughts. Furthermore, additional evidence suggests that the disorder lies within, or is focused primarily through, the raphé serotonergic system, that plays such a fundamental role in consciousness, in dreaming, in response to psychotomimetic drugs, and probably in movement, and even the trophic state of the neocortex. This system is also well situated to control the dopaminergic neurons of the ventral tegmental area, thus relating to the prominence of dopaminergic features in schizophrenia; and the lipofuscin loading and intimate relation with blood vessels and ependyma may make neurons of the raphé uniquely vulnerable to deleterious agents.
The hippocampal formation (comprising the hippocampus proper, the dentate gyrus, and the subiculum) has been repeatedly implicated in information storage models of the mammalian brain. The precise nature of the hippocampal role in the storage of information has, however, remained elusive. Here it is proposed that the role of the hippocampus is to form and retain an index of neocortical areas activated by experiential events. The hippocampal index, thus, represents those unique cortical regions activated by specific events. The neuronal mechanism underlying the memory index is hypothesized to be long-term potentiation. It is asserted that the reactivation of the stored hippocampal memory index will serve to also reactivate the associated unique array of neocortical areas and thus will result in a memorial experience. This hippocampal reactivation of a neocortical array may also be involved in establishing a cortically based memory trace.
Nonorganic failure to thrive (NOFTT) is characterized by physical and developmental retardation and a disturbed mother-infant relationship. This study sought to quantify differences in interactions between mother-NOFTT infant pairs and control mother-thriving infant pairs. Eleven mother-NOFTT infant dyads and 11 control mother-infant dyads were videotaped for 30 minutes through a one-way mirror. Mother and infant behaviors were evaluated for 21 behavioral categories: 12 maternal, 7 infant, and 2 mutual. Statistically significant differences were noted in five (24 percent) categories. The quantity of maternal and infant vocalizations and the responsiveness of the mother to the infant's vocal cues were strikingly reduced in the NOFTT dyads.
Single unit activity was recorded from the hippocampus while Japanese monkeys (Macaca fuscata, n = 4) were performing a delayed response (DR) task. A total of 272 units showed an obvious change in discharge rate in relation to the events of the DR task. These 272 related units were classified into 6 groups: cue-light related units (n = 24), cue- and choice-light related units (n = 41), choice-light related units (n = 21), response-related units (n = 51), reward-error units (n = 17), and delay units (n = 118). Reward-error units contained reward-related and error-related units. Error-related units showed changes in firing after incorrect responses and/or after omission of reward on correct trials. It is noteworthy that 43.4% of the related units are delay units which showed increased or decreased firing preferentially during the delay period. Some units showed a differential firing pattern during cue or delay period depending on the spatial position of the cue. The results of the present study are interpreted as an experimental evidence for the involvement of the hippocampus in DR task.
Gave 8 male albino rats control operations and 10 Ss large radio-frequency lesions of the amygdaloid area. Lesioned Ss showed reduced freezing to an immobile cat or to previously neutral stimuli associated with footshock. These Ss also failed to avoid either the immobile cat or an approaching shock prod. In a 2nd experiment with 16 Ss, smaller electrolytic lesions, largely involving the corticomedial amygdaloid nuclei, produced similar results. This pattern of alterations of reactivity to unconditioned and conditioned threat stimuli suggests that the amygdaloid area has a central role in the regulation of defensive reactions.
Reviews the literature on the neurotransmitter substrates controlling motor readiness, showing that these substrates produce qualitative changes in the flow of information in the brain: Dopaminergic activation increases informational redundancy, whereas noradrenergic arousal facilitates orienting to novelty. Evidence that these neurotransmitter pathways are lateralized in the human brain is consistent with the left hemisphere's specialization for complex motor operations and the right hemisphere's integration of bilateral perceptual input. Principles of attentional control are suggested by the operational characteristics of neural control systems. The affective features of the activation and arousal systems are integral to their adaptive roles and may suggest how specific emotional processes dynamically regulate cognitive function. (4½ p ref)
Ten-month-old infants viewed videotape segments of an actress spontaneously generating a happy or sad facial expression. Brain
activity was recorded from the left and right frontal and parietal scalp regions. In two studies, infants showed greater activation
of the left frontal than of the right frontal area in response to the happy segments. Parietal asymmetry failed to discriminate
between the conditions. Differential lateralization of the hemispheres for affective processes seems to be established by
10 months of age.
Specific psychiatric disorders are characterized by impaired selective inhibition or "gating" of responses to sensory or cognitive information. Less is known about gating differences among normal individuals. We tested carefully screened controls in measures of central inhibition: prepulse inhibition (PPI) of startle, the Stroop test, and negative priming (NP). Subjects were defined as "normal" or "psychosis prone," based on theoretically and empirically derived MMPI criteria. Performance on all measures by "psychosis-prone" individuals suggested reduced sensorimotor gating and/or increased cognitive or visual interference. Performance was most impaired in individuals scoring highest on the MMPI Goldberg Index, which was originally designed to distinguish "psychotic" from "neurotic" inpatients. Inhibition in Stroop and NP was correlated across all subjects, but PPI was not correlated with other measures. Gender differences were noted in PPI (male > female), but not Stroop or NP. Performance deteriorated with age in Stroop and NP, but not PPI. The results are discussed as they relate to psychophysical and neural correlates of normal personality dimensions.
Inconsistencies in the effects of alcohol on aggression in rodent models suggest that this effect is mediated through some other factor that is differentially involved in the various tests. The patterning of alcohol enhancement of aggression suggests that this may be most apparent in tests in which defensiveness or anxiety act to reduce aggression. Thus, an understanding of the relationship between alcohol and aggression may also involve determination of alcohol effects on anxiety. New ethoexperimental models of anxiety in rodents involve the measurement of a range of defensive behaviors to approaching, contacting predators, or to situations associated with (absent) predators. A Fear/Defense Test Battery, measuring the former, showed little, and inconsistent, response to traditional (benzodiazepine) or nontraditional (5-HT1A agonist) anxiolytics. However, an Anxiety/Defense Test Battery, measuring the latter, produced an "anxiolytic profile" of changes seen consistently to both traditional and nontraditional anxiolytics, but not to nonanxiolytic drugs. Alcohol (0.6 and 1.2 g/kg) altered the four behaviors of the "anxiolytic profile" in a manner consistent with the effects of diazepam (2.0 and 4.0 mg/kg), indicating that it is also anxiolytic. The consistency of alcohol and diazepam effects on anxiety provide a possible mechanism for their somewhat similar effects on aggression. However, alcohol at nonsedative doses, but not diazepam, additionally enhances defensive attack. Although defensive attack is behaviorally and neurally different from offensive aggression, the two are not separated in analyses of human "aggression," suggesting that alcohol effects in the latter may also be mediated by changes in defensive attack.
Individuals differ dramatically in the quality and intensity of their response to affectively evocative stimuli. On the basis of prior theory and research, we hypothesized that these individual differences are related to variation in activation of the left and right frontal brain regions. We recorded baseline brain electrical activity from subjects on two occasions 3 weeks apart. Immediately following the second recording, subjects were exposed to brief positive and negative emotional film clips. For subjects whose frontal asymmetry was stable across the 3-week period, greater left frontal activation was associated with reports of more intense positive affect in response to the positive films, whereas greater right frontal activation was associated with more intense reports of negative affect in response to the negative film clips. The methodological and theoretical implications of these data are discussed.
Following damage to specific sectors of the prefrontal cortex, humans develop a defect in real-life decision making, in spite of otherwise normal intellectual performance. The patients so affected may even realize the consequences of their actions but fail to act accordingly, thus appearing oblivious to the future. The neural basis of this defect has resisted explanation. Here we identify a physiological correlate for the defect and discuss its possible significance. We measured the skin conductance responses (SCRs) of 7 patients with prefrontal damage, and 12 normal controls, during the performance of a novel task, a card game that simulates real-life decision making in the way it factors uncertainty, rewards, and penalties. Both patients and controls generated SCRs after selecting cards that were followed by penalties or by reward. However, after a number of trials, controls also began to generate SCRs prior to their selection of a card, while they pondered from which deck to choose, but no patients showed such anticipatory SCRs. The absence of anticipatory SCRs in patients with prefrontal damage is a correlate of their insensitivity to future outcomes. It is compatible with the idea that these patients fail to activate biasing signals that would serve as value markers in the distinction between choices with good or bad future outcomes; that these signals also participate in the enhancement of attention and working memory relative to representations pertinent to the decision process; and that the signals hail from the bioregulatory machinery that sustains somatic homeostasis and can be expressed in emotion and feeling.
Deciding advantageously in a complex situation is thought to require overt reasoning on declarative knowledge, namely, on facts pertaining to premises, options for action, and outcomes of actions that embody the pertinent previous experience. An alternative possibility was investigated: that overt reasoning is preceded by a nonconscious biasing step that uses neural systems other than those that support declarative knowledge. Normal participants and patients with prefrontal damage and decision-making defects performed a gambling task in which behavioral, psychophysiological, and self-account measures were obtained in parallel. Normals began to choose advantageously before they realized which strategy worked best, whereas prefrontal patients continued to choose disadvantageously even after they knew the correct strategy. Moreover, normals began to generate anticipatory skin conductance responses (SCRs) whenever they pondered a choice that turned out to be risky, before they knew explicitly that it was a risky choice, whereas patients never developed anticipatory SCRs, although some eventually realized which choices were risky. The results suggest that, in normal individuals, nonconscious biases guide behavior before conscious knowledge does. Without the help of such biases, overt knowledge may be insufficient to ensure advantageous behavior.
The inferno: Dante’s immortal drama of a journey through hell
- A Dante
Dante, A. (1982). The inferno: Dante’s immortal drama of a journey through hell (J. Ciardi, Trans.). New York: Mentor Books