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ASTAXANTHIN Natural Astaxanthin: King of the Carotenoids
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... Human beings are unable to synthesize these pigments de novo hencefully depend on a dietary supply [5]. Astaxanthin in various concentrations (0.05%, 0.005%, 0.002%, and0.001%) is being used as a food colorant in Soybean oil [11]. The companies pioneering the use of astaxanthin as a dietary supplement in the 1990's began promoting it as a powerful antioxidant before its other benefits were even known [11]. ...
... Astaxanthin in various concentrations (0.05%, 0.005%, 0.002%, and0.001%) is being used as a food colorant in Soybean oil [11]. The companies pioneering the use of astaxanthin as a dietary supplement in the 1990's began promoting it as a powerful antioxidant before its other benefits were even known [11]. With increased production of the pigment, we thought of using it as natural food colorant in probiotic food like yogurt as Food and Drug Administration (FDA), USA, has already approved astaxanthin as supplementary ingredient. ...
Astaxanthin, an orange-pink β-carotenoid, is a potent anti-oxidant found in nature. The pink coloured appearance to the flesh and carapace of most of the sea animals such as lobsters, crab, shrimps etc. is imparted by astaxanthin. It crosses blood-brain and brain-eye barrier and hence can be used for treatment of many disorders and diseases including cancer. Cattle and humans cannot produce this pigment in vivo. The pigment is produced commercially by using synthetic and biological methods for its use in food products such as animal feed, krill oil, etc. This paper mainly focuses on production of astaxanthin by microbial fermentation and synthesis of nanoparticles using astaxanthin. Astaxanthin was extracted from shrimp waste using hexane giving 4% recovery whereas microbial fermentation of shrimp waste using Lactobacillus species showed 7% recovery. Nanoparticles (NPs) were synthesised using the pigment in 1 M silver nitrate solution, and further characterised using U.V. spectrophotometry. Toxicity of astaxanthin and nanoparticles were assessed on human cells and mice. We propose to explore the antimicrobial property of biogenic NPs and use it in food/or medical applications.
... Previous studies found that astaxanthin 30mg/Kg BW can reduce liver triglycerides, plasma triglycerides, and total cholesterol in obese rats [22]. Astaxanthin also has cardioprotective activity through its ability to reduce HDL oxidation so that the amount of HDL in the plasma increases [23][24]. Differences in triglyceride profiles in male and female rats are suspected to be due to the role of the hormone estrogen in female rats. ...
... 20 Terpenoid memiliki ikatan rangkap terkonjugasi sehingga dapat mentransfer hidrogen. 21 Menurut Poland, et al., 2013, ukuran vesikel dengan ukuran mikro tidak dapat menembus dermis. 22 Menurut Badenhorst, 2014, jika ukuran vesikel > 10 μm penetrasi sampai ke permukaan kulit, 3-10 μm akan berkonsentrasi dalam folikel rambut dan ukuran vesikel < 3 μm akan dapat menembus stratum korneum. ...
Kata kunci : antioksidan, Citrus hystric etosom, penuaan, α-diphenyl-β-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH). A B S T R A K Proses utama yang berperan dalam menyebabkan penuaan kulit dapat dibagi menjadi dua, yaitu intrinsik dan ekstrinsik. Penuaan intrinsik disebabkan oleh faktor genetik dan pertambahan usia. Penuaan ekstrinsik disebabkan oleh faktor-faktor lingkungan seperti paparan sinar matahari, polusi udara, rokok, dan kekurangan gizi. Ekstrak daun jeruk purut mengandung senyawa alkaloid, flavonoid, terpenoid, dan fenol yang memiliki aktivitas antioksidan. Efek antioksidan yang paling potensial dimiliki ekstrak daun jeruk purut adalah flavonoid, alkaloid dan fenol. Etosom adalah sistem penghantaran obat yang terdiri dari fosfolipid, etanol dan air sebagai pelarut bebas. Adanya etanol dapat menurunkan transisi suhu dari lipid stratum korneum dan meningkatkan fluiditas. Metode yang digunakan adalah α-diphenyl-β-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH). Rendemen ekstrak diperoleh sebesar 9,85% dengan pelarut etanol 96%. Hasil uji etosom daun jeruk purut pada organoleptik yaitu zat cair, berbau khas aromatis dan warna hijau kekuningan. Hasil uji skrining fitokimia mengandung senyawa flavonoid, fenol, terpenoid dan alkaloid. Hasil uji pH formula 1 sebesar 6,170 ± 0,077; formula 2 sebesar 6,140 ± 0,076 dan formula 3 sebesar 6,129 ± 0,076. Hasil uji ukuran vesikel formula 1 sebesar 17,086 ± 28,491; formula 2 sebesar 52,872 ± 42,553 dan formula 3 sebesar 27,489 ± 38,634. Hasil uji morfologi yaitu spheris. Hasil uji nilai antioksidan IC50 ekstrak daun jeruk purut sebesar 25,907 ± 0,187; etosom ekstrak daun jeruk purut formula 1 sebesar 28,814 ± 0,431; formula 2 sebesar 32,299 ± 1,893 dan formula 3 sebesar 30,234 ± 0,531 yang menunjukkan ketiga formula memiliki aktivitas antioksidan yang sangat kuat. Hasil uji stabilitas dilakukan hari ke-0, ke-15, dan ke-30 pada suhu 25 o C ± 2 o C dengan relative humidity 60% ± 5% sediaan stabil selama penyimpanan. Uji pH etosom memenuhi spesifikasi pH kulit yaitu sebesar 4,5-6,6. A B S T R A C T The main processes causing aging skin can be divided into two types, which are intrinsic and extrinsic. Intrinsic aging is caused by genetic factors and increasing age. Extrinsic aging is caused by environmental factors such as sunlight exposure, air pollution, smoking, and malnutrition. Kaffir lime leaf's extract contains alkaloids, flavonoids, terpenoids and phenols that have antioxidant activity. Ethosome is a drug delivery system primarily composed of phospholipids, ethanol, and water as a solvent. The presence of ethanol can decrease temperature transition of stratum corneum lipid and increase fluidity. Method used to determine antioxidant activity as antiaging was α-diphenyl-β-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH). The ethosome formula was differentiated with three different concentrations of soya lecithin phospholipid with 1,5%; 2,5% and 3%. The kaffir lime leaves ethosome was tested with an organoleptic test, phytochemical screening, pH test, vesicles measurement, morphology test, antioxidant value, and stability test. The extract's yield was obtained 9.85% with ethanol 96% as a solvent and contained phenol, terpenoids, alkaloids and flavonoids on phytochemical screening. The stability test was conducted on day 0, day 15th, and day 30th at 25oC ± 2oC and relative humidity 60% ± 5%. The pH test of the ethosome complied the specifications of skin's pH. The vesicles' size of each formula did not comply the specification goal of dermis. Antioxidants test showed that kaffir lime leaves ethosome had a very powerful antioxidant. It could be concluded that kaffir lime leaves extract was a potentially powerful antioxidants.
... PCOS was the only endocrinopathy in all of them and oligomenorrhea with oligo-ovulation due to the higher prevalence rate was the main reason for the inclusion of these patients. Patients were excluded from the trial if they fulfilled any of the following criteria: Severe endometriosis (stages 3 and 4 in terms of the revised AFS-rAFS classifying the endometriosis), FSH > 10 mg/mL, hyperprolactinemia, Cushing's disease, ovarian tumors, thyroid disease, severe male factor infertility (particularly non-obstructive azoospermia), drug history affecting ovarian function in the 3 months prior to the study (steroids and oral contraceptive pills [OCPs]), female infertility factors other than cervical and tubal factors, any autoimmune disease, systemic disorders like metabolic syndrome, severe obesity and malnutrition (body mass index [BMI] over 35), hyperlipidemia, diabetes, and cardiovascular disease. ...
Astaxanthin (ASX), as a natural carotenoid compound, exists in various types of seafood and microorganisms. It has several possible beneficial therapeutic effects for patients with polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS). Patients with PCOS also suffer from endoplasmic reticulum (ER) stress. In the present work, it was hypothesized that ER stress could be improved by ASX in PCOS patients. Granulosa cells (GCs) were obtained from 58 PCOS patients. The patients were classified into ASX treatment (receiving 12 mg/day for 60 days) and placebo groups. The expression levels of ER stress pathway genes and proteins were explored using Western blotting and quantitative polymerase chain reaction. To assess oxidative stress markers, follicular fluid (FF) was gained from all patients. The Student’s t test was used to perform statistical analysis. After the intervention, ASX led to a considerable reduction in the expression levels of 78-kDa glucose-regulated protein (GRP78), CCAAT/enhancer-binding protein homologous protein (CHOP), and X-box-binding protein 1 compared to the placebo group, though the reduction in the messenger RNA (mRNA) expression level of activating transcription factor 6 was not statistically significant. However, ASX significantly increased the ATF4 expression level. GRP78 and CHOP protein levels represented a considerable decrease in the treatment group after the intervention. In addition, a statistically significant increase was found in the FF level of total antioxidant capacity in the treatment group. Based on clinical outcomes, no significant differences were found between the groups in terms of the oocyte number, fertilization rate, and fertility rate, but the ASX group had higher rates of high-quality oocytes, high-quality embryo, and oocyte maturity compared to the placebo group. Our findings demonstrated that ER stress in the GCs of PCOS patients could be modulated by ASX by changing the expression of genes and proteins included in the unfolding protein response.
Trial registration This study was retrospectively registered on the Iranian Registry of Clinical Trials website (www.irct.ir; IRCT-ID: IRCT20201029049183N, 2020-11-27).
... The hydrolysis of the carotenoid esters and the analysis of carotenoids followed the methods described in previous reports [69,70]. An Agilent 1200 HPLC system (Agilent Technologies Inc., Santa Clara, CA, USA) with a Luna Silica column (3 µm, 150 mm × 4.6 nm, Phenomenex, Torrance, CA, USA) was used for qualitative and quantitative analysis of carotenoids. ...
Astaxanthin (AST) characteristics and pigment productivity of Adonis amurensis, one of the few AST-producing higher plants, have not yet been studied extensively. In this study, the geometrical and optical isomers of AST in different parts of the A. amurensis flower were determined in detail, followed by a separation of the all-trans AST using HPLC chromatography. AST extracted from the flower accounted for 1.31% of the dry weight (dw) and mainly existed in the di-esterified form (>86.5%). The highest concentration was found in the upper red part of the petal (3.31% dw). One optical isomer (3S, 3′S) of AST, with five geometrical isomers (all-trans, 9-cis, 13-cis, 15-cis, and di-cis) were observed in all parts of the flower. All-trans AST was the predominant geometrical isomer accounting for 72.5% of the total content of geometric isomers in total flower, followed by the 13-cis, and 9-cis isomers. The all-trans AST isomer was also isolated, and then purified by HPLC from the crude oily flower extract, with a 21.5% recovery yield. The cis-AST extracted from the combined androecium and gynoecium gives a very strong absorption in the UVA region due to a high level of cis, especially di-cis, isomers, suggesting a prospective use in the preparation of anti-ultraviolet agents. The production cost of AST from Adonis flowers can be as low as €388–393/kg. These observations together with other factors such as the low technology requirement for plant culturing and harvesting suggest Adonis has great potential as a resource for natural esterified (3S,3′S)-AST production when compared with Haematococcus culturing.
... According to the Novel Foods Regulation (EU) 2015/2283, ASX from H. pluvialis has an acceptable daily intake in human up to 8 mg [27]. The H. pluvialis-extracted ASX included in human dietary supplements has been proven to be safe and accepted by the US FDA at daily doses of 2-12 mg [28,29]. ...
Oxidative stress (OS) plays a pivotal role in diabetes mellitus (DM) onset, progression, and chronic complications. Hyperglycemia-induced reactive oxygen species (ROS) have been shown to reduce insulin secretion from pancreatic β-cells, to impair insulin sensitivity and signaling in insulin-responsive tissues, and to alter endothelial cells function in both type 1 and type 2 DM. As a powerful antioxidant without side effects, astaxanthin (ASX), a xanthophyll carotenoid, has been suggested to contribute to the prevention and treatment of DM-associated pathologies. ASX reduces inflammation, OS, and apoptosis by regulating different OS pathways though the exact mechanism remains elusive. Based on several studies conducted on type 1 and type 2 DM animal models, orally or parenterally administrated ASX improves insulin resistance and insulin secretion; reduces hyperglycemia; and exerts protective effects against retinopathy, nephropathy, and neuropathy. However, more experimental support is needed to define conditions for its use. Moreover, its efficacy in diabetic patients is poorly explored. In the present review, we aimed to identify the up-to-date biological effects and underlying mechanisms of ASX on the ROS-induced DM-associated metabolic disorders and subsequent complications. The development of an in-depth research to better understand the biological mechanisms involved and to identify the most effective ASX dosage and route of administration is deemed necessary.
... The antioxidant properties of flavonoids come from the ability to transfer an electron to free radical compounds. The terpenoid compounds that have antioxidant activity are unsaturated terpenoids, have conjugated double bonds, so they can donate hydrogen atoms [16] . The activity of reducing radicals free of polyphenol compounds is believed to be influenced by the number and position of hydrogen phenol in the molecule. ...
تمت دراسة التركيب الكيميائي لقشور الروبيان الرطبة والمجففة للأنواع Penaeussemisulcat و Penaeus japonicas و Exopalamon styliferus , الذي تم شرائه من أسواق بغداد , حيث بلغت نسب الرطوبة والرماد والدهن والبروتين 31 , 2.06 , 27 , 14.5 )% ) للعينات المجففة وبلغت 16 , 1 , 11 , 72% للعينات الرطبة على التوالي . استخدمت طرائق كيميائية مختلفة لأستخلاص الكاروتينويدات الخام من قشور الروبيان المجففة والرطبة . شملت الطريقة الأولى طريقة الأستخلاص الساخن بأستخدام مزيج المذيبات الآيثانول والبتروليوم أيثر ( 1 : 1 ح :ح ) وبأستعمال جهاز السوكسليت في درجة حرارة 50مْ وشملت الطريقة الثانية والثالثة النقيع الحامضي والقاعدي لمدة 48 ساعةبأستخدام حامض الهايدروكلوريك HCL1N )) والقاعدة هيدروكسيد الصوديوم 1N )) على التوالي . شملت الطريقة الرابعة الأستخلاص بزيت زهرة الشمس (1 : 1) . شملت طريقة الأستخلاص البارد بأستعمال ثلاث توليفات مختلفة من المذيبات العضوية تمثلت بالمعاملات T5 و T6 و T7 أذ تضمنت المعاملة T5 ألأستخلاص بواسطة الأيثانول %100 وتضمنت المعاملة T6 ألاستخلاص بمزيج المذيبات هكسان وأسيتون ( 1: 1,ح : ح ) أما المعاملة T7 تضمنت أستخدام مزيج المذيبات الهكسان والأسيتون 1 : 2 ) , ح : ح ). تم الحصول على أعلى حاصل للكاروتينويدات عليه باستخدام توليفة المذيبات العضوية المتكونة من هكسان وأسيتون 1:1 ( حجم / حجم ) إذ بلغت 0.08 ملغم/غم وبنسبة أستخلاص 80% للعينات المجففة . تم تنقية وتجزئة المستخلصات الكاروتينويدية بتقنية العمود السائل باستعمال عمود هلام السليكا 0.963 – 0.200)) والمذيبات العضوية الهكسان والاسيتون وثنائي أثيل ايثر وشخصت مكونات المستخلص بتقنية كروموتوغرافي العمود عالي الأداءHPLC)) بوجود المركبات القياسية وظهرت المركبات الكيميائية الآتية: Β- carotene , ِAstaxanthin , Leutin , Violastaxanthin وحامض السالسيلك بتركيز42.50 , 19.50 , 32.50 , 41.25, 46.75) ) ملغم/ مل على التوالي . شخصت مكونات المستخلص بتقنية الأشعة تحت الحمراء IR)) وفي جهاز المطياف الضوئي نانوميتر بوجود المركبات القياسية للتأكد من نوعيتها . Study Of The Chemical Composition Of Some Shrimp's Shell And Extraction , Identification Of Bioactive Carotenoids H.A.Awad* M.J.Hindi University of kerbala / College of Agriculture |* University of Baghdad /College of Agriculture/ Dep. of Food Science Abstract This investigation was carried out to evaluate the activity of Carotenoids extracted from shrimp shell related to Penaussemisculcats, Penausjaponicas and Exopalamon styliferus that obtained from retail out in Baghdad – Iraq. The chemical composition of shrimp shell was 14.5 , 27 , 2.06 and 31% for moisture , ash , fat and protein respectively for dried sample , while the alternative values for wet samples were 72 , 11, 1, 16% respectively. Different methods were employed for Carotenoids extraction from dried shrimp shell that included hot extraction by Soxhelet with petroleum ether and ethanol ( 1:1) volume : volume at 50C°. The seconed method (T2) included extraction by acidic extraction with HCL (1N) ,alkaline extraction (T3) by NaOH (1N ), Sunflower oil extraction (T4).Cold extraction with different organic solution by three mixtures combinations that included absolute ethanol 100% (T5) , Hexane : Acetone ( 1:1, V:V) (T6) and Hexane : Acetone ( 2: 1, V: V ) (T7) . The treatment (6) of Hexane : Acetone ( 1:1, V:V) was adopted as highest carotenoids yield was obtained and valued 0.08 µg/g with 80% extraction rate as compared to the aforementioned methods. The Carotenoides extract was fractionated on Silca gel liquid Column Chromatography (LPLC) with Hexane , Aceton and diethyl ether was used for elution . The fractions of crude extracts were then identified by High performance Liquid Chromatography ( HPLC )and the chemical compounds were β- Carotene , astaxanthin , Leutin , Violastaxanthin and Salicylic acid was existed at rates of 46.75 , 41.25, 32.50 , 19.50 and 42.5 µg/ml respectively . The crude extraxct components were further identified by both IR and Spectroscopy and compared with standard compounds .
Astaxanthin, a carotenoid with potent antioxidant effects, is produced by the green alga Haematococcus pluvialis in response to stressful environmental conditions. During encystment several cellular shifts occur, such as the initiation of carotenogenesis and accumulation of reactive oxygen species (ROS) intracellularly. While the presence of ROS during encystment has been established, the effect of ROS on carotenogenesis directly is still primarily unknown. In this study, the relationship between astaxanthin accumulation and ROS production were quantified in H. pluvialis. Cellular astaxanthin and ROS concentrations were measured over 14 days in response to the application of environmental variable, redox-sensitive compound, and ROS-scavenger treatments. Application of both environmental and redox-sensitive treatments induced encystment and carotenogenesis. Initial astaxanthin production rates over days 0–4 were highest in the redox-sensitive variable group, with a subsequent rate peak at days 7–9 for environmental test groups. Cellular ROS concentrations similarly peaked over days 0–4 and 7–9 for redox-sensitive and environmental test groups, respectively. All treatment groups later showed significant decreases in ROS concentration by days 11–14. Furthermore, application of ROS-scavenger treatments induced germination and decreased carotenogenesis rates. By quantifying the relationship between astaxanthin and ROS, this work supports the role of ROS as a modulator of carotenogenesis in H. pluvialis and of astaxanthin as a protective mechanism against oxidative stress. Applications of this study can be further applied to design a more optimized technique of commercial astaxanthin production by combining traditional environmental stress conditions with oxidative stress-inducing factors, reducing natural astaxanthin production time requirements by over 10%.
Senyawa antioksidan semakin luas penggunaannya seiring dengan berkembangnya pemahaman masyarakat tentang peranannya dalam menghambat penyakit degenerative serta penuaan dini. Biji buah pinang yaki ( Areca vestiaria Giseke) mengandung banyak senyawa yang bersifat antioksidan dengan mekanisme pengkapan radikal bebas. Penelitian ini bertujuan untuk mengetahui perbedaan aktivitas antioksidan pada ekstrak dan fraksi biji buah pinang yaki dan nilai IC 50 dari aktivitas antioksidannya. Dalam penelitian ini dilakukan ekstraksi dengan metode soxhletasi menggunakan pelarut etanol 96%. Kemudian dipartisi menggunakan tiga pelarut yaitu n-heksan, etil asetat, dan etanol-air. Selanjutnya dilakukan perhitungan rendemen, skrining fitokimia, dan uji aktivitas antioksidan dengan menggunakan metode DPPH. Hasil perhitungan rendemen ekstrak etanol, fraksi n-heksan, fraksi etil asetat, dan fraksi etanol-air biji buah pinang yaki berturut-turut 17,11%, 10,82%, 18,16%, 52,78%. Skrining fitokimia flavonoid pada ekstrak etanol, etil asetat, fraksi etanol-air menunjukkan positif adanya senyawa flavonoid terhadap reagen Mg-HCl. Nilai IC 50 ekstrak etanol, fraksi n-heksan, fraksi etil asetat, fraksi etanol-air berturut-turut 94,52 µg/ml, 445,72 µg/ml, 44,65 µg/ml, 91,4 µg/ml. Kesimpulan dalam penelitian ini adalah ekstrak etanol biji buah pinang yaki dan fraksinya memiliki aktivitas antioksidan. Fraksi etil asetat memiliki aktivitas antioksidan tertinggi yaitu 44,65 µg/ml.
Astaxanthin, a xanthophyll in seafood accumulates in tissues and has potent anti-tumor activity in rodent models. We examined the anti-tumor activity of astaxanthin with methylcholanthrene-induced (Meth-A) tumor cells (BALB/c background) both in vivo and in vitro. Meth-A tumor cells grown in astaxanthin (10 -8 to 10 -10 mol/L) supplemented medium had lower cell numbers and less DNA synthesis (BrdU assay) at 1-2 days post-incubation than control cultures. It did not alter LDH release (a marker for necrosis) and apoptotic changes, indicating that astaxanthin acts by inhibiting in vitro proliferation of Meth-A tumor cells. Astaxanthin (0.01 to 0.04% of the diet) was fed to tumor-inoculated BALB/c mice (5-10 x 10 5 cells subcutaneously) following inoculation with Meth-A tumor cells. Dietary astaxanthin inhibited tumor growth in a dose dependent manner which also correlated with serum astaxanthin concentrations. Also, astaxanthin may modulate immune responses against Meth-A tumor cells which express tumor antigens. Tumor-inoculated mice developed significant cytotoxic T lymphocyte (CTL) activity and IFNγ production by tumor-draining lymph node (TDLN) and spleen cells at 2-3 weeks following inoculation. However, diets supplemented with astaxanthin induced higher CTL activity and IFNγ production by TDLN and spleen cells against Meth-A tumor cells than mice fed a control diet. Astaxanthin may attenuate tumor development through directly suppressing tumor cell proliferation and augmenting tumor immunity.
We evaluated the effect of astaxanthin on visual function in 49 eyes of 49 healthy volunteers. They were over 40 years of age. They were divided into 4 groups matched for age and gender. Each group was given peroral astaxanthin once a day. The dosage was 0 mg, 2 mg, 4 mg, or 12 mg for each group. After ingestion of astaxanthin for consecutive 28 days, the uncorrected far visual acuity significantly improved in groups receiving 4 mg or 12 mg. The accommodation time significantly shortened in groups receiving 4 mg or 12 mg. There was no change in refraction, flicker fusion frequency, or pupillary reflex.
Background:
Data on intake of specific carotenoids and breast cancer risk are limited. Furthermore, studies of vitamins A, C, and E in relation to breast cancer risk are inconclusive. We have conducted a large, prospective study to evaluate long-term intakes of these nutrients and breast cancer risk.
Methods:
We examined, by use of multivariate analysis, associations between intakes of specific carotenoids, vitamins A, C, and E , consumption of fruits and vegetables, and breast cancer risk in a cohort of 83234 women (aged 33-60 years in 1980) who were participating in the Nurses' Health Study. Through 1994, we identified 2697 incident cases of invasive breast cancer (784 premenopausal and 1913 postmenopausal).
Results:
Intakes of beta-carotene from food and supplements, lutein/zeaxanthin, and vitamin A from foods were weakly inversely associated with breast cancer risk in premenopausal women. Strong inverse associations were found for increasing quintiles of alpha-carotene, beta-carotene, lutein/zeaxanthin, total vitamin C from foods, and total vitamin A among premenopausal women with a positive family history of breast cancer. An inverse association was also found for increasing quintiles of beta-carotene among premenopausal women who consumed 15 g or more of alcohol per day. Premenopausal women who consumed five or more servings per day of fruits and vegetables had modestly lower risk of breast cancer than those who had less than two servings per day (relative risk [RR] = 0.77; 95% confidence interval [CI] = 0.58-1.02); this association was stronger among premenopausal women who had a positive family history of breast cancer (RR = 0.29; 95% CI = 0.13-0.62) or those who consumed 15 g or more of alcohol per day (RR = 0.53; 95% CI = 0.27-1.04).
Conclusions:
Consumption of fruits and vegetables high in specific carotenoids and vitamins may reduce premenopausal breast cancer risk.
Early studies demonstrating the ability of dietary carotenes to prevent infections have left open the possibility that the action of these carotenoids may be through their prior conversion to vitamin A. Subsequent studies to demonstrate the specific action of dietary carotenoids have used carotenoids without provitamin A activity such as lutein, canthaxanthin, lycopene and astaxanthin. In fact, these nonprovitamin A carotenoids were as active, and at times more active, than beta-carotene in enhancing cell-mediated and humoral immune response in animals and humans. Another approach to study the possible specific role of dietary carotenoids has used animals that are inefficient converters of carotenoids to vitamin A, for example the domestic cat. Results have similarly shown immuno-enhancement by nonprovitamin A carotenoids, based either on the relative activity or on the type of immune response affected compared to beta-carotene. Certain carotenoids, acting as antioxidants, can potentially reduce the toxic effects of reactive oxygen species (ROS). These ROS, and therefore carotenoids, have been implicated in the etiology of diseases such as cancer, cardiovascular and neurodegenerative diseases and aging. Recent studies on the role of carotenoids in gene regulation, apoptosis and angiogenesis have advanced our knowledge on the possible mechanism by which carotenoids regulate immune function and cancer.
To understand the roles of carotenoids as singlet oxygen quenchers in marine organisms, quenching activities of eight major carotenoids, astaxanthin, canthaxanthin, β-carotene, zeaxanthin, lutein, tunaxanthin, fucoxanthin and halocynthiaxanthin were examined according to the method using a thermodissociable endoperoxide of 1,4-dimethylnaphthalene as a singlet oxygen generator. The second-order rate constant for the singlet oxygen quenching activity by each carotenoid was determined, suggesting that an increasing number of conjugated double bonds in carotenoid was proportional to greater quenching activity. The quenching activity of each carotenoid was found to be approximately 40 to 600 times greater than that of α-tocopherol. The potency of these carotenoids suggests that they may play a role in protecting marine organisms from active oxygen species.