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Effective Writing Instruction
for All Students
Written for Renaissance Learning
by Steve Graham, Vanderbilt University
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8/12
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Contents
Introduction ........................................................................................................................................................1
How Did We Get Into This Situation? ................................................................................................................. 1
How Do We Turn This Situation Around? ........................................................................................................... 1
What Are Effective Writing Practices? ................................................................................................................2
Seven Recommendations for Teaching Writing ................................................................................................. 3
Conclusion .......................................................................................................................................................... 8
References ....................................................................................................................................................... 10
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1
Introduction
Imagine the public’s reaction to these newspaper headlines:
Almost 60% of Children Cannot Read Classroom Material
50% of High School Graduates Not Prepared for College-Level Reading
Reading Remediation Costs Businesses $3.1 Billion a Year
Parents, grandparents, business leaders, college presidents, and politicians would be incensed, demanding
immediate action to rectify this alarming situation. Well, if we substitute the word write for read and writing for
reading this accurately represents the state of affairs for writing in American society. It is time to take action.
All students need to learn to write effectively now.
Why is this so important? Youngsters who do not learn to write well are at a considerable disadvantage. At
school, they earn lower grades, especially in classes where written tests and reports are the primary means
for assessing students’ progress. They are less likely than their more skilled classmates to use writing to
support and extend what they are learning in content classes. There is considerable evidence that writing
about content in science, social studies, and other content areas enhances how much students learn
(Bangert-Drowns, Hurley, & Wilkinson, 2004; Graham & Perin, 2007a). The opportunity to attend college
is reduced too, as writing is now used to evaluate applicants’ qualifications.
Struggling writers also face considerable barriers in the “real” world. At work, writing is a gateway for
employment and promotion, especially in salaried positions (National Commission on Writing, 2004,
2005). Employees in business as well as government must be able to create clearly written documents,
memoranda, technical reports, and electronic messages. Moreover, participation in civic life and the
community at large has increasingly required the ability to write, especially as the use of email and text
messaging has become so widespread.
How Did We Get Into This Situation?
Despite its importance, writing does not receive enough attention in contemporary schools. My colleagues
and I recently asked a random sample of high school teachers from across the United States to tell us about
writing instruction in their classrooms (Kiuhara, Graham, & Hawkin, 2009). The most common writing activities
that their students engaged in were writing short answer responses to homework, responding to material read,
completing worksheets, summarizing material read, writing journal entries, and making lists. Together, these
activities involved little extended analysis, interpretation, or writing. In fact, one half of the most common
assignments were basically writing without composing (short answers, worksheets, and lists).
Many teachers told us that they were not adequately prepared to teach writing. Almost one half of them
indicated that they had received minimal to no preparation to teach writing. This included the preparation they
received at college, from their school district, and through their own efforts. Such preparation is extremely
important, as we found that those who were better prepared were more likely to use writing practices with a
proven record of success and to make needed instructional adjustments for struggling writers.
How Do We Turn This Situation Around?
Somerset Maugham, the renowned novelist, once joked, “There are three rules for writing a novel.
Unfortunately no one knows what they are.” Maugham’s jest implies that there is little certainty about how
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to teach writing. While we may not know a lot about how to turn a good writer into a great novelist, we do know
how to help developing writers become competent writers. An important step in turning around the current
situation, then, is to make sure that all students are taught how to write using effective practices. Writing is a
complex skill. It requires considerable effort and time to master. While a single, effective teacher can have a
strong impact on a child’s writing development, the Herculean efforts of a few are no match for the sustained
and concerted efforts of an entire organization. If a single teacher can make a difference, imagine what
happens when students are taught to write well beginning in first grade and all the way through high school.
It is especially important that students get off to a good start in writing. Waiting until later grades to address
literacy problems that have their origins in the primary grades is not particularly successful (Slavin, Madden,
& Karweit, 1989). As students move toward the middle school grades, the teaching of writing becomes more
complex, as it no longer revolves around a single teacher at each grade level. Writing and writing instruction
become a shared responsibility across disciplines. English, science, social studies, and other content
teachers must all devote significant attention to the teaching of writing, if they expect students to learn how
to write effectively within their discipline.
What Are Effective Writing Practices?
Effective writing practices have a proven record of success. In other words, they have been shown to be
successful in enhancing students’ writing on multiple occasions. Primary sources for such practices are
scientific studies examining the effectiveness of specific teaching techniques. They provide a trustworthy
approach for identifying an effective
practice, as such investigations provide
direct evidence both that the intervention
works and of how much confidence can
be placed in its effect. To provide
recommendations for teaching writing,
I draw upon several recent reviews of the
scientific writing intervention literature
(Graham, 2010; Graham & Perin, 2007a;
Rogers & Graham, 2008) and present only
those practices that have been validated in
four or more studies.
Another useful method for identifying
effective writing practices is to identify
recurring patterns in the instruction of teachers and schools that produce exceptional literacy achievement. It
is reasonable to assume that practices that are idiosyncratic to a specific teacher or school are potentially less
important than those that are employed across all or most studies of such teachers and schools. Graham and
Perin (2007b) identified writing practices that were used in most studies examining exceptional teachers and
schools, and I include those findings as well.
Writing practices are likely to be even more effective if they are embedded within a framework of what we
know about how youngsters move from initial acclimation (i.e., novice writer) to competence (i.e., skilled
writer). According to Alexander (1997) and Graham (2006), the road from novice to competent writer is paved
by changes in students’ writing knowledge, motivation for writing, strategic writing behaviors, and basic
writing skills. Using this framework, along with the available scientific evidence on effective writing practices,
I offer seven recommendations for teaching writing that apply across grade levels. Interspersed throughout
these recommendations are 27 evidence-based practices numbered in parentheses, along with the
academic source for each, so that interested readers can examine the evidence in more detail if so desired.
Seven Recommendations for Teaching Writing
1. Dedicate time to writing, with writing occurring across the
curriculum, and involve students in various forms of writing
over time.
2. Increase students’ knowledge about writing.
3. Foster students’ interest, enjoyment, and motivation to write.
4. Help students become strategic writers.
5. Teach basic writing skills to mastery.
6. Take advantage of technological writing tools.
7. Use assessment to gauge students’ progress and needs.
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Seven Recommendations for Teaching Writing
Recommendation 1. Dedicate time to writing, with writing occurring across the curriculum, and
involve students in various forms of writing over time.
William Hazzlitt, the nineteenth-century novelist, observed that, “The more a man writes, the more he can
write.” This simple homily recognized that the opportunity to write is the foundation on which an effective
writing program is built. In other words, students are not likely to make much progress as writers if they are
not given plenty of opportunities to apply and develop their craft.
Teachers that achieve exceptional success in teaching writing recognize the importance of frequent and
sustained writing (#1: Graham & Perin, 2007b). A good rule of thumb is that students should spend at least
one hour or more each day in the process of writing—planning, revising, authoring, or publishing text. This
includes writing projects that go beyond a single paragraph or day-to-day projects that may take weeks or
even months to complete.
These teachers further recognize the need for students to learn to write for multiple purposes (#2: Graham &
Perin, 2007b), including:
• Communicating with others (e.g., personal letters, business letters, notes, cards, email)
• Informing others (e.g., writing reports; explaining how to do something; describing an event, object,
or place)
• Persuading others (e.g., expressing an opinion about a controversial topic)
• Learning content material (e.g., summarizing, learning logs, journal entries)
• Entertaining others (e.g., writing stories, plays, poems)
• Reecting about self (e.g., writing about personal events, autobiography)
• Responding to literature (e.g., book evaluations, analyzing authors’ intentions)
• Demonstrating knowledge (e.g., traditional classroom tests, high-stakes tests involving writing)
Students should use writing for these purposes
at all grade levels. At the middle and high school
levels, this should involve a concerted effort by
multiple teachers (#3: Graham & Perin, 2007b).
For example, an English teacher may have
students use writing to entertain, respond to
literature, demonstrate knowledge, and
persuade. A social studies teacher may use
writing to demonstrate knowledge, but
address other purposes including self-reection,
learning (#4: Graham & Perin, 2007a), informing,
and communicating, whereas a science teacher
may focus mainly on using writing for learning,
demonstrating knowledge, and persuading. In addition, writing activities need to become more complex from
one grade to the next. For instance, in the primary grades it is reasonable to expect that students’ persuasive
text will contain a statement of belief or premise, several supporting reasons, and a concluding statement.
Persuasive essays by older students, however, should further refute counterarguments and provide more
sophisticated explanations and examples. Obviously, this requires that teachers at a given grade level and
across grade levels coordinate their writing programs and activities.
Interspersed throughout these
recommendations are 27
evidence-based practices
numbered in parentheses, along
with the academic source for each,
so that interested readers can
examine the evidence in more
detail if so desired.
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Recommendation 2. Increase students’ knowledge about writing.
To become an effective writer, students need to acquire knowledge about the characteristics of good
writing as well as the different purposes and forms of writing (see Recommendation 1, p. 3). One way to
acquire knowledge about writing is through reading. Reading well-crafted literature provides a model that
illustrates the characteristics of good writing. This includes how authors use words to evoke specific
images and feelings, manipulate sentences to speed or slow down the ow of text, organize ideas, and
set and change the mood of text, or use illustrations to reinforce and sharpen a reader’s understanding.
Reading also provides a vehicle for learning about the different purposes and forms of writing. As students
read an autobiography, for instance, they are likely to notice how the author presents himself. An astute
reader may also notice the author uses his life story as a means for sharing lessons learned about living
well or poorly.
While students clearly acquire some knowledge about writing through reading, how much they learn is
unknown. Teachers can enhance this process by engaging students in a discussion of what an author is
trying to achieve, and then asking them to apply the same procedures to their own writing. For instance,
after reading a story, direct students’ attention to how the author used words to evoke a specific feeling
(e.g., foreboding). Then ask students to try to use words to evoke a similar feeling in their own writing.
A second approach for facilitating students’ acquisition and use of discourse writing knowledge is to provide
them with models of specific types of writing (#5: Graham & Perin, 2007a). For example, when introducing
students to mystery writing, a good starting point is to examine several mysteries to identify common features,
such as placing the story in a particular place and time or the use of cues and false leads. Students can then
be asked to generate a mystery of their own, using the model to guide their efforts.
While such discourse knowledge is important, it has little impact if the writer knows little about the topic of their
composition. If this is the case, students can acquire knowledge from written or electronic sources, interviews,
surveys, or observations. One effective approach for obtaining information for writing is inquiry (#6: Graham &
Perin, 2007a). To illustrate, a teacher may ask students to write a paper where conict is an important element
in the story. Next, each student develops a plan for collecting and analyzing data on conict (e.g., observe
arguments that happen on the playground and later talk to each participant about what they thought and felt).
Students then use insights obtained from their analysis to write their stories.
Recommendation 3. Foster students’ interest, enjoyment, and motivation to write.
Most children start school wanting to learn how to write. Too quickly many of them come to view school writing
as a chore or something to be avoided altogether. How can we create an environment in which developing
writers not only ourish, but also learn to enjoy writing? An important ingredient in fostering students’ interest
in writing is to make sure their writing assignments serve a real or meaningful purpose (#7: Graham & Perin,
2007b). For example, it is more motivating to write a letter to a real person than an imaginary one.
And students are more likely to enjoy writing if the classroom environment is a supportive and pleasant place
(#8: Graham & Perin, 2007a). This means being accepting and encouraging of students’ writing efforts and
encouraging them to act in a like manner with each other. For instance, a good rule to follow is when a student
shares a composition, the first feedback provided by students and teachers alike are comments about what is
liked best about the piece.
A writing activity is likely to be more fun when students work together. This is most effective when the process
of working together is structured so each person knows what they are expected to do. Especially productive
collaborations occur when students help each other as they plan, draft, revise, edit, and/or publish their
work (#9: Graham & Perin, 2007a, 2007b). To illustrate with revising, one student might read a completed
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composition to a peer, who then tells the writer several things he liked about it. Next, the reader reads the
paper to identify places that are unclear or where additional information is needed. The reader shares this
information with the writer by asking, “What did you mean here?” and “Can you tell me more about this?”
The writer uses these exchanges to make decisions about how to revise the paper.
Your students are also likely to be more motivated to write if you are enthusiastic about writing (#10: Graham
& Perin, 2007b). Show your students that you are a writer by sharing your own writing with them. Celebrate
student success by displaying and praising their very best work. Also look for ways to connect writing to their
lives outside of school.
Set high, but realistic, expectations for your students (#11: Graham & Perin, 2007b), and help them develop
an “I can do” attitude. When they need help, provide just enough support so they can make progress in
carrying out the writing task, but encourage them to do as much as they can on their own (#12: Graham &
Perin, 2007b). It is also important they develop a sense of ownership for their writing. This can be fostered by
encouraging them to construct a personal plan for accomplishing the writing task, to work at their own pace
(when possible), and to decide which feedback from peers and the teacher is most pertinent for revising
a paper.
Recommendation 4. Help students become strategic writers.
Most of what goes on during writing is not visible. It occurs inside the writer’s head. Much of this thinking
centers on the basic processes of writing: planning, drafting, revising, and editing (Graham, 2006). How can
teachers help developing writers apply these processes effectively?
One thing exceptional writing teachers do is set up a predictable writing routine where students are expected
to plan, draft, revise, edit, and share what they write (#13: Graham & Perin, 2007a, 2007b). In essence, they
treat writing as a process and expect students to engage in the same processes as skilled writers.
However, only encouraging students to engage in these processes is not enough. They need more direct
assistance to apply the processes effectively. One means of support involves the use of think sheets or
graphic organizers that structure what students do as they plan, draft, revise, or edit (#14: Graham & Perin,
2007a; Rogers & Graham, 2008). A think sheet or graphic organizer for planning a paper, for example, might
direct a student to identify their audience and purpose for writing the paper, generate possible content (in
note form), decide which basic ideas to use (by putting a star next to them), and order the ideas for writing
(using numbers to note what will come first, second, third, and so forth).
An even more powerful approach is to teach students planning, drafting, revising, and editing strategies they
can use independently (#15: Graham & Perin, 2007a; Rogers & Graham, 2008). A strategy involves a series
of actions or steps that a writer undertakes to achieve a desired goal. This includes simple strategies, like
brainstorming and semantic webbing, or more complex ones, such as integration of multiple strategies in
complex writing tasks, such as writing a report (Graham & Harris, 2005; Harris, Graham, Mason, &
Freidlander, 2008).
An effective method for teaching a writing strategy includes the following (#16: Graham & Perin, 2007a;
Rogers & Graham, 2008):
• Describe the writing strategy and the purpose for learning it.
• Make it clear when students should use the strategy.
• Show students how to use the strategy.
• Provide students with practice applying the strategy, giving assistance as needed.
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• Continue instruction until students can use the strategy independently.
• Encourage students to apply the strategy in appropriate situations once instruction has ended.
• Ask students to evaluate how the strategy improved their writing.
Such instruction is likely to be even more effective if you are enthusiastic about the power of the strategy and
establish the importance of effort in learning and using it. Provide opportunities for students to see how the
strategy improves their writing, praise and reinforce its use, and foster students’ ownership of it.
These same procedures can also be used to teach other types of writing strategies, such as summarizing
(#17: Graham & Perin, 2007a) and strategies for paragraph writing (#18: Rogers & Graham, 2008). For
example, a written summarization strategy might involve teaching students how to apply a series of reduction
principles (e.g., delete unnecessary material, delete redundant material, select a word to replace similar ideas
or items, draft a topic sentence).
Recommendation 5. Teach basic writing skills to mastery.
There are many skills that developing writers need to learn to the point where they can be executed with little
effort or thought. This includes handwriting (or typing), spelling, punctuation, and capitalization skills. While
sentence construction skills always require conscious attention and effort, developing writers need to become
efcient and exible in constructing the written vessels that contain their ideas. Why is this so important? Until
they are mastered, these skills require considerable mental energy, as do the thinking processes involved
in writing. Mental energy expended to type or write letters, figure out how to spell a word, determine proper
punctuation, or construct a sentence is not available for carrying out other essential writing processes like
planning, evaluating, revising, and so forth (Graham, 2006).
Exceptional teachers recognize the importance of helping young developing writers master basic
transcription (i.e., handwriting and spelling) and sentence construction skills, as they explicitly and directly
teach them (#19: Graham & Perin, 2007b). Their basic approach for teaching such skills is to explain,
model, and provide guided practice (#20: Graham & Perin, 2007b). This can be illustrated with sentence
combining, an effective practice for teaching students how to form more complex sentences (#21: Graham &
Perin, 2007a, 2007b). Such instruction would begin with the teacher explaining that he or she is going to show
students how to form two or more sentences into a single sentence (one that is better than the two separate
sentences). The process is modeled and remodeled (using different but similar sentences) as the teacher
involves students in helping to form the new sentence. Once students have the basic idea, they practice
combining sentences (this can be done with a peer) similar to those modeled by the teacher. Then they apply
what they learned as they revise one or more previously written compositions.
Most developing writers become facile enough with spelling, handwriting, or typing by the time they move
into middle school that these skills no longer interfere with the thinking processes involved in writing (or the
interference is minimal). This is not the case for all students though, and for these youngsters additional
instruction can have a positive impact on their writing (#22: Graham, 2010).
Recommendation 6. Take advantage of technological writing tools.
There is an incredible array of new technological tools for writing. One of my favorites is the “thought
translation device” developed by scientists in Germany for a paralyzed man suffering from Lou Gehrig’s
disease (Begley, 1999). The device is able to dampen and amplify the man’s brainwave patterns in a
way that permits him to select letters from a video screen in order to spell his messages.
A variety of more familiar technological devices, many of them electronic, can be used to support
developing writers in general and struggling writers in particular. These tools make the process of
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writing easier and often provide very specific types of support. The most common of these tools is
word processing (#23: Graham & Perin, 2007a; Rogers & Graham, 2008), which provides at least three
advantages: (1) revisions can be made easily, (2) the resulting paper can be presented in a variety of
professional-looking formats, and (3) typing provides an easier means of producing text for many
children with fine motor difficulties (of course, students need to be taught to type to realize the benefit
of this potential advantage). Furthermore,
word-processing programs are typically
bundled with other software programs,
such as spell and stylistic checkers,
designed to reduce specific types
of miscues.
Perhaps the biggest drawback to the use
of word processing in today’s schools is
a lack of computer hardware that is easily portable. The recent development of durable, lightweight,
inexpensive, and battery-charged writing notepads, such as NEO by Renaissance Learning, provides a
viable solution to this problem.
Other electronic writing tools teachers may want to consider (though there is only limited scientific
evidence of their effectiveness) include speech synthesis (the writer’s spoken words are transcribed to
electronic text) and word prediction programs (the computer program reduces key strokes by predicting
the writer’s next word). These programs can help students who experience considerable difficulties with
spelling and the mechanical aspects of writing. In addition, outlining and semantic mapping software
can facilitate the planning process, while communication and collaboration among developing writers
can be promoted through the use of computer networks and the Internet.
Recommendation 7. Use assessment to gauge students’ progress and needs.
Assessment is an integral part of writing instruction. It allows teachers to determine if their writing
program is working, whether it needs to be adjusted, and if some children need extra help. Although there
is no consensus on how writing is best assessed, teachers often focus their attention on these features of
students’ writing:
• Are ideas in text clearly presented and fully developed?
• Is the text easy to follow and logically organized?
• Are words used effectively and precisely?
• Are sentences varied to promote uency, rhythm, and natural speech patterns?
• Does the text capture appropriate tone or mood to make maximum impact on the reader?
• Are there spelling, usage, and grammar errors?
• Is the written product legible, attractive, and accessible?
One way to assess these traits in a sample of student writing is to evaluate each one separately by using a
rating scale. For example, teachers could rate each trait on a 1 to 9 scale, where a higher score represents
stronger performance and a lower score represents weaker performance. Some of these traits can also
be scored more objectively. For example, teachers could count the number of words that a student uses
effectively in a piece of text and divide it by the total number of words written as a measure of good
word choice.
In addition to examining students’ written work, it is also important to monitor how youngsters go about the
process of composing and their attitudes toward writing. Students can play a direct role in this process by
The recent development of durable,
lightweight, inexpensive, and battery-
charged writing notepads, such as
NEO by Renaissance Learning,
provides a viable solution.
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keeping a log of what they did while writing each paper and a journal where they explain how they felt before,
during, and after they completed each paper.
An especially important aspect of writing assessment is to identify students who need extra help. Although
exceptional writing teachers frequently adapt what they are doing to better meet the needs of individual
students (#24: Graham & Perin, 2007b), some teachers do not. In a series of studies with teachers from
across the United States, a sizable minority of them (40%) made little or no instructional adjustments for their
students (Cutler & Graham, 2008; Graham et al., 2008).
Adaptations that may be helpful with struggling writers include the following:
• Provide extra instruction in planning, revising, text organization, sentence construction, handwriting,
or spelling.
• Reteach skills and strategies that are not mastered.
• Develop small-group and individual mini-lessons to meet the needs of struggling writers (#25: Graham
& Perin, 2007b).
• Modify writing assignments so they better match students’ capabilities.
• Allow extra time to complete writing assignments.
• Praise both performance and effort frequently (#26: Rogers & Graham, 2008).
• Increase frequency of conferences with students about their writing and works in progress.
• Establish procedures where struggling writers can obtain help from peers.
Assessing students’ writing should not be limited to teachers. It is also helpful to have students assess
their own writing progress. This may be especially powerful if students assess their writing performance in
relation to a self- or teacher-identified writing goal (#27: Graham & Perin, 2007a; Rogers & Graham, 2008). For
example, a student is more apt to meet a self-selected goal to use 10 or more describing words in each daily
journal entry if they track their progress in doing so. Likewise, they are more likely to apply a newly learned
writing strategy if they identify where it can be used, set a goal to use it there, and assess if their use of the
strategy was effective (Harris, Graham, & Mason, 2006).
Conclusion
The 27 evidence-based writing practices embedded within the seven recommendations for teaching writing
provide a solid foundation for building effective writing programs for all students at all grade levels. It should
not be assumed, however, that each of these practices will automatically be successful in your classroom. It is
critical that you monitor their success and adjust or modify as needed.
Likewise, just because a writing practice was not included here does not mean that it is ineffective. For
instance, there are writing practices, such as the teaching of vocabulary as a means for enhancing writing
or parental involvement in the writing program, where there is some preliminary evidence to suggest the
practices are effective, but the findings have not been replicated often enough to ensure they are reliable
(Graham & Perin, 2007c). And there are other instructional practices that have not been studied at all, which
may or may not be effective. We simply do not know. If you use such a practice, I would encourage you to
monitor its success, just as you would an evidence-based technique.
Finally, I would like to provide some guidance on how a less experienced teacher might go about
implementing the practices presented in this paper. A good starting place is to establish an environment
9
where students are expected to write each day, engaging in the basic processes of writing (planning, drafting,
editing, revising, and publishing), as they compose. This environment should be supportive and engaging,
where students write for real purposes and share their writing with others. While establishing such an
environment is not dependent on using word processors as the primary tool for writing, this mode of writing
will make it easier for youngsters to carry out some aspects of the writing process, like editing and revising.
I would also recommend that different genres of writing (story, persuasion, informative, and so forth) be
introduced within the context of this structure, with the teacher devising a unit of study around each type of
writing. Such units would preferably begin with students reading one or more examples of the genre, as a
starting place for acquiring knowledge about the characteristics of that genre. Hopefully the teacher would
initially model how to plan, draft, edit, revise, and share a composition in the target genre, with students
providing the teacher with help at each step of the process. Then students would start composing their own
papers in this area (either alone or with other students), as the teacher provides assistance as needed.
After the first unit is underway, instruction needed in basic skills such as handwriting, typing, spelling, or
sentence construction should begin. As each of these different aspects of the writing program are actualized,
it is important to maintain a reasonable balance between time spent writing and time spent teaching students
the knowledge, strategies, and skills needed to write effectively.
Once a basic structure for writing and writing instruction is established, other effective practices should be
systematically incorporated into the writing program, such as assessment techniques, practices for enhancing
motivation, and so forth. Of course, more experienced teachers will be able to implement these procedures
right from the start.
10
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About the Author
Steve Graham is the Currey Ingram Professor of Special Education and Literacy in
the Peabody College at Vanderbilt University. His research interests include learning
disabilities, writing instruction and writing development, and the development of self-
regulation. Graham is the editor of Exceptional Children and the former editor of
Contemporary Educational Psychology. He is the co-author of Handbook of Writing
Research, Handbook of Learning Disabilities, Writing Better, and Making the Writing
Process Work. He received an Ed.D. in special education from the University of Kansas.
In 2001, Graham was elected a fellow of the International Academy for Research in Learning Disabilities. He
is the recipient of career research awards from the Council for Exceptional Children and Special Education
Research Interest Group in the American Educational Research Association.
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