Content uploaded by David Shannahoff-Khalsa
Author content
All content in this area was uploaded by David Shannahoff-Khalsa
Content may be subject to copyright.
This article was originally published in the Encyclopedia of Human Behavior published by Elsevier,
and the attached copy is provided by Elsevier for the author's benefit and for the benefit of the
author's institution, for non-commercial research and educational use including without limitation
use in instruction at your institution, sending it to specific colleagues who you know, and providing a
copy to your institution’s administrator.
All other uses, reproduction and distribution, including without limitation commercial reprints,
selling or licensing copies or access, or posting on open internet sites, your personal or institution’s
website or repository, are prohibited. For exceptions, permission may be sought for such use
through Elsevier's permissions site at:
http://www.elsevier.com/locate/permissionusematerial
Shannahoff-Khalsa D. (2012) Meditation: The Science and the Art. In: V.S. Ramachandran (ed.)
The Encyclopedia of Human Behavior, vol. 2, pp. 576-584. Academic Press.
© 2012 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.
Meditation: The Science and the Art
D Shannahoff-Khalsa, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, CA, USA
ã 2012 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.
Glossary
Chakras An energy center of consciousness associated
with the seven nerve centers (nerve plexuses) of the body
and one with the psychoelectromagnetic field of the
body, called the aura.
Kundalini Comes from the word ‘kundal,’ meaning coiled
energy and the creative potential of an individual.
Meditation The art and science of how to manipulate the
thought waves to achieve a state of thoughtlessness, wherein
the individual experiences both existence and nonexistence
simultaneously, and where the field of consciousness then
becomes a novel sensory experience, wherein new levels of
awareness and new skills in the mental realm are developed.
Pranayama The yogic system of meditative breathing
exercises.
Yoga An ancient science and art where the finite experiences
the infinity consciously within oneself.
Introduction
According to the Oxford English Dictionary, the word medi-
tation can have at least two meanings that are relevant here:
(1) “The action or practice of profound spiritual or religious
reflection or contemplation; spec. a variety of private devo-
tional exercise consisting of the continuous application of the
mind to the contemplation of a particular religious text, truth,
mystery, or object.” Or (2) “In Buddhism, Yoga, and other
systems of religious or spiritual discipline: a practice of the
mind (and body) aimed at achieving the eradication of ratio-
nal or worldly mental activity.” The latter definition is closer
to the subject and intention for this article. A note on the
historical origin, a brief overview of the scientific evidence
supporting the efficacy of meditation, and a description of
some techniques and how they can be applied are covered.
Also, the yogic concept of consciousness along with the
‘eradication of rational or worldly mental activity’ as noted
in the second definition is briefly discussed. The major focus
of this article is on the techniques discovered in the original
system of yoga referred to here as ‘Kundalini Yoga as taught
by Yogi Bhajan,’ which was an integrated science before
various individuals, groups, or lineages proceeded to selec-
tively fractionate the system, or were later left with only
the remnants of the original ancient teachings as a result of
natural catastrophes and nomadic invasions. Descriptions
of some of the other popular meditation techniques that are
now taught are also included.
The exact time of the historical origins of the discovery of
yogic meditation techniques remains controversial. However,
the evolution of this ancient science was believed to have its
origins long before the advent of the formal religions. This
suggests that the initial experiential efforts and much of the
experimental study that led to the development of these
meditation techniques may go back to at least 7000 B.C.E.
The people who participated in this ancient process of dis-
covery, called the ‘rishis’ (people of power), are thought
to have lived in the region of the Indus river valley. This
ancient society is now called the Indus-Sarasvati civilization,
which is believed to be the first civilization in the Indian
subcontinent.
The Science of Meditation
The Western experimental scientific literature on meditation
started in the 1960s. In 2005, the National Institutes of Health
and National Center for Complementary and Alternative Med-
icine funded a systematic review of the scientific literature that
was published in 2007. This is the most comprehensive sys-
tematic review to date and it was published as Meditation
Practices for Health: State of the Research. This review was con-
ducted by the University of Alberta Evidence-based Practice
Center. Comprehensive searches were conducted in 17 elec-
tronic databases up to September 2005. Other sources of
potentially relevant studies included hand searches, reference
tracking, contacting experts, and gray literature searches. The
studies had to be in English, be comparative, focus on any type
of meditation practice, include more than 10 adults, and pro-
vide quantitative data on health-related outcomes. Studies
on the different meditation techniques were then included
for analysis in one of five broad categories, which were defined
as mantra meditation, mindfulness meditation, yoga, Tai
Chi, and Qi Gong. Evidence on the state of the research
was provided from 813 predominantly poor-quality studies.
Physiological and neuropsychological effects of meditation
practices were also evaluated in 312 poor-quality studies.
Meta-analyses of results from 55 studies indicated that some
meditation practices produced significant changes in healthy
participants. The authors conclude “Many uncertainties sur-
round the practice of meditation. Scientific research on medi-
tation practices does not appear to have a common theoretical
perspective and is characterized by poor methodological qual-
ity. Firm conclusions on the effects of meditation practices in
healthcare cannot be drawn based on the available evidence.
Future research on meditation practices must be more rigorous
in the design and execution of studies and in the analysis
and reporting of results.” However, this summation statement
does not imply that high-quality and well-controlled studies
demonstrating important health benefits for ill populations or
unique findings in the healthy have not been published. The
aforementioned conclusion is a generality. It provides a state-
ment that is a ‘mean’ of the published studies. The problem
with this review is analogous to an attempt to make a
576
Author's personal copy
Encyclopedia of Human Behavior, Second Edition (2012), vol. 2, pp. 576-584
description of all the organisms in the sea. There are so many
different ‘species’ that it is difficult to conclude much more
than that there are simply millions of different species in the
sea. In meditation research, no two studies have been the same,
that is, attempts to replicate previous findings per se have been
almost nonexistent. There are variations in the techniques
studied, age ranges, skill levels, healthy versus disordered
populations, the parameters measured including variations of
the scale(s) used, types of control group if any, length of the
studies, testing conditions, etc. Also, this type of analysis does
not focus on, or extract, the more unique and important find-
ings of single studies.
However, several unique meditation studies that have
shown important results are described here. Lazar and collea-
gues studied the brain’s physical structure using magnetic reso-
nance imaging (MRI) to assess cortical thickness. They looked
at 20 subjects who had long-term experience with ‘Insight
meditation,’ which involves a focus of attention on internal
experiences. They found that brain regions, including the pre-
frontal cortex and right anterior insula, and other areas asso-
ciated with attention, interoception, and sensory processing
were thicker in the meditation practitioners compared to con-
trols. They also found that differences in prefrontal cortical
thickness were more pronounced in older practitioners, sug-
gesting that meditation might offset age-related cortical thin-
ning. Shannahoff-Khalsa and colleagues compared a unique
multipart disorder-specific Kundalini Yoga meditation proto-
col for treating obsessive compulsive disorder patients against
the classic mindfulness meditation technique and the relaxa-
tion response for a matched patient group. This was a rando-
mized controlled trial, and after 3 months, the control group
showed no efficacy on any of the six psychological measures
used to assess psychological symptom severity; however, the
Kundalini Yoga group showed a significant improvement on
all six scales. The groups were then combined using the effica-
cious protocol, and after a 1-year trial, the patients showed a
71% improvement on the Yale-Brown Obsessive Compulsive
Scale, the current ‘gold standard’ for psychological assessment
of obsessive compulsive symptoms. To date, this clinical trial
remains the most effective treatment result for all treatment
modalities for this disorder. Tang and colleagues studied a
traditional Chinese medicine meditation technique called inte-
grative body–mind training (IBMT). They report that 11 h of
IBMT increases fractional anisotropy, an index indicating the
integrity and efficiency of white matter in the corona radiata,
an important white matter tract connecting the anterior cingu-
lated cortex to other structures. They conclude that IBMT could
provide a means for improving self-regulation and perhaps
reducing or preventing various mental disorders. Finally, Brefc-
zynski-Lewis and colleagues studied ‘concentration medita-
tion’ in which sustained attention is focused on an object
such as a small visual stimulus or the breath. Using functional
MRI, with age-matched participants, they found activation of a
network of brain regions typically involved in sustained atten-
tion that showed an inverted u-shaped curve in which expert
meditators had more activation than novices. They conclude
that the hours of practice suggest a possible plasticity in these
brain mechanisms.
Given the potential for new advances in healthy develop-
ment, prevention, and for treating illnesses, only trivial
funding has been allocated to the field. In addition, this article
is limited in length and cannot give adequate attention to the
more noteworthy findings in the fields of both the basic
sciences and clinical sciences. However, there are substantial
new scientific insights in the understanding of the dynamics of
mind–body relations, functions of the brain and peripheral
nervous system, the natural endogenous mechanisms that
have evolved in humans for the purpose of self-regulation.
All these insights were based on the ancient teachings of the
rishis. The variety of highly structured techniques described in
the following sections suggests that the ancients had developed
what may best be called a ‘technology of the mind,’ and indeed
may provide us with very sophisticated insights for under-
standing the nature of human consciousness and the pathways
for mental development.
Description of Kundalini Yoga Meditation Techniques
The following techniques in this section are all from the original
and ancient system of ‘Kundalini Yoga as taught by Yogi Bhajan.’
From 1969 to 2004, Yogi Bhajan taught openly what had been
kept secret for the last 3000 years; previously, it had been trans-
mitted by a few masters to selected disciples. During these
35 years, he taught 5000 different meditation techniques.
Selected techniques are provided for their highly structured
nature, complexity, and often disorder-specific or other benefits.
Prior to being hidden in secrecy, these and many other techni-
ques were practiced by both yogis and householders.
In the system of Kundalini Yoga as taught by Yogi Bhajan,
there is a mantra that is chanted prior to practice, which is
called ‘tuning in.’ This procedure helps to induce a protected
meditative state of mind and helps to keep the system balanced
and safe. This mantra is unique and only specific for this
system.
Technique to Induce a Meditative State: ‘Tuning in’
Description of the technique: Sit with a straight spine and with the
feet flat on the floor if sitting in a chair. Put the hands together
at the center of the chest in the ‘prayer pose’ – the palms are
pressed together with 10–15 lbs of pressure between the hands
(a mild to medium pressure, nothing intense). The area where
the sides of the thumbs touch rests on the sternum with the
thumbs pointing up (along the sternum), and the fingers
are together and point up and out at a 60
angle to the ground.
The eyes are closed and focused at the ‘third eye’ (imagine a sun
rising on the horizon or the equivalent of the point between
the eyebrows at the origin of the nose). A mantra is chanted out
loud in a 1-1/2 breath cycle. Inhale first through the nose and
chant ‘Ong Namo’ with equal emphasis on the Ong and the
Namo. Then immediately follow with a half-breath inhalation
through the mouth and chant ‘Guru Dev Namo’ with approxi-
mately equal emphasis on each word. (The ‘O’ in Ong and
Namo is a long ‘o’ sound; Dev sounds like Dave, with a long ‘a’
sound.) The practitioner should focus on the experience of
the vibrations these sounds create on the upper palate and
throughout the cranium while letting the mind be carried by
the sounds into a new and pleasant mental space. This should
be repeated a minimum of three times.
Meditation: The Science and the Art 577
Author's personal copy
Encyclopedia of Human Behavior, Second Edition (2012), vol. 2, pp. 576-584
The first meditation technique is included here because two
clinical trials using it have shown significant efficacy in the
treatment of obsessive–compulsive disorder (OCD) patients.
This technique has also been studied using whole-head 148-
channel magnetoencephalograpy brain imagining.
Meditation Technique for Treating OCD
Description of the technique: Sit with a straight spine in a com-
fortable position, either with the legs crossed while sitting on
the floor or in a straight back chair with both feet flat on the
ground. Close the eyes. Use the right thumb tip to block the
end of the right nostril, the other fingers pointing up straight.
Allow the arm to relax (the elbow should not be sticking up or
out to the side creating unnecessary tension). A small cork
or secure plug can also be used to plug the right nostril. Inhale
very slowly and deeply through the left nostril, hold the breath
in for a long time, exhale out slowly and completely through
the same nostril only (left nostril), and hold the breath out
for a long time. Every effort should be made to keep the four
phases of the breath cycle of equal duration. The mental
focus should be on the sound of the breath. Continue this
pattern with a maximum time of 31 min for each sitting.
Initially, begin with a comfortable rate and time, but where
the effort presents a fair challenge for each phase of the
breath. This technique should be perfected and has its great-
est clinical benefits when the complete breath cycle is one
minute in duration, each section of the cycle lasting exactly
15 s. This rate of respiration for the full 31 min can be
achieved by most individuals within 5–6 months with daily
discipline. The ancient yogis claimed that 90 days of 31 min
per day using the perfected rate of one breath/min with the
four 15 s per phase would completely eliminate all obsessive–
compulsive disorders. The balance of equal times for the four
phases is akey with this technique.
Gyan Mudra Kriya
This meditation was taught for when you do not know what to
do, and it is claimed to be excellent for treating anxiety dis-
orders and inducing a clear and stable state of mind. The claim
is that “it is very simple, but very powerful if done correctly,
that it coordinates both brain hemispheres, gives powerful
insight, solves many complications, and coordinates the mys-
tery of the spiritual phenomena into the mastery of the three
bodies (physical, mental, and spiritual).”
Description of the technique: Sit straight, rest the back of one
hand in the palm of the other with the thumbs crossing each
other in one palm. If the right hand rests in the palm of the left
hand, the left thumb rests in the right palm and the right
thumb then crosses over the back of the left thumb. Either
this hand orientation is acceptable or the reverse with the left
hand resting in the palm of the right hand and then the right
thumb is in the left palm covered by the left thumb. The hands
are placed at the heart center level about two to three inches in
front of the chest, but the hands do not touch the chest and the
elbows are resting down against the ribs. The eyes are open but
focused on the tip of the nose (the tip/end point that you
cannot see). The breathing pattern has four parts that repeat
in sequence: first, inhale and exhale slowly through the nose
only, and then with the second breath, inhale through the
mouth with the lips puckered as if to kiss or make a whistle;
after the inhalation, relax the lips and exhale through the
mouth slowly; for the third breath pattern, inhale through
the nose and exhale through the mouth (the lips are not
puckered) the fourth breath pattern is inhaling through the
puckered lips and exhaling through the nose. Continue this
four-part cycle for 11–31 min.
Tershula Kriya – An Advanced Technique for Attaining
Healing Powers and for Overcoming Phobias
This technique was taught for ‘achieving self-mastery and
learning to heal others from a distance’ and it is one of the
most advanced techniques in the system of Kundalini Yoga.
Yogi Bhajan commented: “Tershula Kriya can make you a
perfect master.” While it presents a challenge for learning, its
benefits go far beyond the amelioration of phobias.
Description of the technique: Sit in an easy pose. Bring your
elbows next to the ribs, forearms extended in front of you, with
the hands in front of the heart center area, right over left,
palms up. The hands are 10
higher than the elbows. There
is no bend in the wrists, the fingertips to the elbows form a
straight line. The thumbs are extended out to the side of the
hands, the fingertips and palms do not exactly line up, they are
slightly offset. The eyes are closed looking at the backs of your
eyelids. For the inhale, pull back on the navel and inhale
through the nostrils and hold. Mentally repeat the mantra
Har Har Wha Hay Guru as long as you are able to retain the
breath. While you are doing this, visualize your hands sur-
rounded by white light. For the exhale, exhale through the
nostrils, and as you exhale, visualize lightning shooting out
from your finger tips. When you have fully exhaled, pull mulb-
hand (pull in on the rectum, sex organs, and navel) and hold
for as long as you can, again mentally repeating the mantra Har
Har Wha Hay Guru. The maximum time is 62 min. Other
comments by Yogi Bhajan include “It has been suggested that
this meditation be done in a cool room or at night when the
temperature is cooler, because it stimulates the Kundalini
directly and generates a great deal of heat in the body. The
word Tershula relates to the thunderbolt of Shiva, the ultimate
deliverer. Tershula can heal everything. It is a self-healing
process. This meditation is for the gunas. It brings the three
nervous systems together. It also gives you the ability to heal at
a distance, through your touch or through your projection.
Many psychological disorders or imbalances in the personality
can be cured through practice of this meditation. It is very
helpful in getting rid of phobias and especially father phobia.”
Gan Puttee Kriya – A Meditation for Healing the Past,
the Present, and the Future
Description of the technique: Sit with a straight spine, either on
the floor or in a chair. The back of your hands are resting on
your knees with the palms facing upward. The eyes are nine-
tenths closed (one-tenth open, but looking straight ahead into
the darkness, not into the light below). Chant from your heart
in a natural, relaxed manner, or chant in a steady relaxed
578 Meditation: The Science and the Art
Author's personal copy
Encyclopedia of Human Behavior, Second Edition (2012), vol. 2, pp. 576-584
monotone. Chant out loud the sound Sa (the a sounds like
‘ah’) and bring your thumb tips and index finger tips together
quickly simultaneously; then chant Ta and touch the thumb
tips to the middle finger tips; then chant Na and touch the
thumb tips to the ring finger tips; next chant Ma and touch
the thumb tips to the little finger tips; then chant Ra and touch
your thumb tips and index finger tips; next chant Ma and
touch the thumb tips to the middle finger tips; then chant Da
and touch the thumb tips to the ring finger tips; now chant Sa
and touch the thumb tips to the little finger tips; then chant
Sa and touch your thumb tips and index finger tips; next chant
Say (sounds like the word ‘say’ with a long ‘a’) and touch the
thumb tips to the middle finger tips; then chant So and touch
the thumb tips to the ring finger tips; now chant Hung and
touch the thumb tips to the little finger tips. Chant at the rate of
one sound per second. The thumb tip and finger tips touch
with a very light 2–3 lbs of pressure with each connection. This
helps to consolidate the circuit created by each thumb–finger
link. Start with 11 min and slowly work up to 31 min of prac-
tice. To finish, remain in the sitting posture and inhale and
hold the breath for 20–30 s while you shake and move every
part of your body. Exhale and repeat this two more times to
circulate the energy and to break the pattern of tapping, which
affects the brain. Immediately proceed with focusing the eyes
on the tip of the nose (the end point that you cannot see) and
breathe slowly and deeply for 1 min. The sounds used in this
meditation are each unique and they have a powerful effect on
both the conscious and subconscious mind. The sound Sa
gives the mind the ability to expand to the infinite, Ta gives
the mind the ability to experience the totality of life, Na
gives the mind the ability to conquer death, Ma gives the
mind the ability to resurrect, Ra gives the mind the ability to
expand in radiance, this sound purifies and energizes, Da gives
the mind the ability to establish security on the earth plane, it
provides a ground for action, Say gives the totality of experi-
ence, So is the personal sense of identity, and Hung is the
infinite as a vibrating and real force. Together, So Hung means
‘I am Thou.’ The unique qualities of this 12-syllable mantra
help cleanse and restructure the subconscious mind and heal
the conscious mind to ultimately experience the super con-
scious mind.
Medical Meditation for Habituation – A Technique for
Curing Addictions
Description of the technique: Sit either in a chair or on the floor.
Straighten the spine and make sure the first six lower vertebrae
are locked forward. This means the lower back is pushed
forward as if you are ‘at attention.’ Make fists of both hands
and extend the thumbs straight. Place the thumbs on the
temples and find the niche where the thumbs just fit. This is
the lower anterior portion of the frontal bone above the tem-
poral–sphenoidal suture. This place is usually sensitive to the
touch, so do not apply pressure per se, simply touching is
adequate. Lock the back molars together and keep the lips
closed. Vibrate the jaw muscles by alternating the pressure on
the molars. A muscle will move in rhythm under the thumbs.
Feel it massage the thumbs. Keep the eyes closed and look at
the brow point – the ‘third eye’ – the point where the top of the
nose meets the forehead. Silently vibrate the five primal sounds
‘Sa Ta Na Ma’ at the brow point (the fifth sound here is the
sound ‘ah’ that is basic to the other four sounds. The effects of
each syllable of the mantra have been described earlier in the
technique called Gan Puttee Kriya. This mantra is claimed to
put one’s consciousness through the cycle of infinity, life,
death, and rebirth. Continue for 5–7 min and slowly build
the practice to a maximum of 31 min.
‘Shabd Kriya’ – A Meditation for Treating Insomnia,
Regulating Sleep Stages, Promoting the Growth of
Personality, and Mastering the Mental Realm
Description of the technique: Sit with a straight spine with both
feet flat on the floor. Place the hands in the lap, palms up with
the right hand over the left hand. The thumb pads, last joint,
are touching together and point forward. Focus the eyes on the
tip of the nose with the eyelids half closed. The tip of the nose
is the point you cannot actually see, but if you use a finger tip
to touch the end of the nose; this is where the eyes are focused.
This is not an ‘eyes-crossed’ posture but may seem like it
initially. The sides of the nose will look blurry during the
focus, but a real cross-eyed posture makes the sides of the
nose appear to balloon up, which is not the correct eye posture.
Inhale through the nose only in four equal parts, mentally
vibrating the mantra Sa Ta Na Ma (one syllable per part of
the 4-part inhale). Hold the breath and mentally vibrate the
4-syllable mantra a total of four times for a total of 16 ‘beats’,
and then exhale through the nose in two equal parts mentally
vibrating the mantra Whahay Guru, one word per part or
beat. This equals a 22-part or 22-beat cycle. Continue for at
least 15 min and work up to 62 min. When finished, relax
completely and go to sleep. One of the caveats with this medi-
tation technique is that it may disrupt sleep for several weeks
when it is first practiced, prior to having its healing benefits.
The Jupiter Finger Chakra Meditation – A Meditation
for Abused and Battered Children for Developing
a Balanced Psyche
This meditation was originally taught by Yogi Bhajan as a
meditation for children, but it can also be practiced by adoles-
cents and adults. It was claimed that anyone with past trauma
resulting from abuse and victimization will benefit from this
practice. Even someone without past trauma supposedly can
improve the balance of their personality by its use. This medi-
tation helps to balance the chakras and meridians in the body.
It is an excellent meditation technique for children. It will
evoke many feelings that have stuck with the individual since
childhood. It will help adults get rid of the ‘childhood syn-
drome,’ a condition where they cling to something that is
already finished. This syndrome can easily ruin and limit
anyone’s life.
Description of the technique: Sit with a straight spine either on
the floor or in a chair. Place the left hand on the chest at the
heart center with the fingers and thumb pointing toward
the right. Use the index (Jupiter) finger of the right hand
(keep the other fingers closed in a relaxed fist with the thumb
over the other fingers) to touch in sequence the following
Meditation: The Science and the Art 579
Author's personal copy
Encyclopedia of Human Behavior, Second Edition (2012), vol. 2, pp. 576-584
points – (1) the middle of the lower lip, (2) the tip (end) of the
nose, (3) the outer skin area or edge/corner of the eye socket
(the region of the skull bone near the outside of the eye), and
(4) a point about three-fourths of an inch above the indent of
the nose which is just below the forehead (a point that would
be the midpoint between the eyebrows). Chant the following
mantra (Sa Ta Na Ma) out loud in sequence with the touching
of the respective points. Chant Sa as one touches the lower lip,
Ta as one touches the tip of the nose, Na as one touches the
outer edge of the eye socket, and Ma as one touches the
forehead point. But since there are two eyes and thus two
outer edges of the eye socket, the patient alternates sides each
time they go up in the sequence. Start by touching the right side
first. Each round of touching the points and chanting the
mantra through takes about 4–5 s. Keep the eyes closed when
doing this meditation. The maximum time is 33 min and it can
be practiced for the full time the first time. Younger people may
have to start with 11 min or even less. When ending the tech-
nique, inhale deeply and hold the breath, then while holding
the breath, feel the ‘inner child’ by self-hypnosis, exhale,
inhale, and hypnotize one’s self, picture oneself as a child in
one’s own heart, where the left hand has been resting, concen-
trate, exhale, inhale, and repeat the picture of one’s self, bless
that child, be that child, and let the breath go.
The Ultimate Pranayam – Sodarshan Chakra Kriya
The developmental stages of self-realization and awareness
experienced through the practice of this technique were in
part described by the ancients: “I am powerless, my power
has been broken, my unstable mind has been stabilized, and
my unadorned soul has been adorned. I drink in the Ambrosial
Nectar. Within my mind, I utter the Name of the Primal Lord,
the source of all virtue. My vision, that You and I are separate,
has melted away. I worship the One who is worthy of being
worshipped. I trust the One who is worthy of being trusted.
Like water into water, I merge into the Lord. I meditate and
contemplate the Luminous, Triumphant Lord. I am lovingly
absorbed in the Nirvana of God.”
Yogi Bhajan comments: “If you can do this meditation for
62 min to start with, and develop it to the point that you can do
it 2 1/2 h per day, it will give you ‘Nao niddhi, athara siddhi’
or the nine precious virtues and 18 occult powers. And in those
27 total virtues of the world lies the entire universe. When
practiced 2 1/2 h every day, it makes a perfect superman out
of you. It purifies, it takes care of the human life, and brings
together all 27 facets of life and makes a human perfect, saintly,
successful, and qualified. This meditation also gives one the
Pranic power. This kriya never fails. It can give one all the inner
happiness and bring one to a state of ecstasy in life. It will keep
all the chakras open so you will not fall into any ditch. It is
better to live a life of courage than to live many many years like
a coward. Courage is in inner vitality, and if all your chakras
are open, you will not be handicapped in vitality. You will get a
grip on your life. No matter how bad circumstances are, your
intuition will guide your way to happiness, and your vitality
shall support you.”
This pranayama technique, as a single technique, is the
ultimate in Kundalini Yoga meditation techniques. Its mul-
tiple facets make it a completely balanced technique. When
practiced alone, there are no other requirements for other
techniques to achieve full human development. For example,
the rate of respiration can eventually be reduced to less than
one breath per minute during practice. This technique changes
one’s perception of the self and the world. The practitioner
develops a consciousness that becomes the living experience of
the timelessness of life, transcending time and space. The neg-
ative patterns of the subconscious mind are eliminated. This
technique helps to overcome the stumbling blocks of the inner
world. It helps to cut through inner darkness, and it eliminates
both neurotic and psychotic mental patterns. According to
Yogi Bhajan: “You are cleaning your subconscious. You can
clean it as fast or as slowly as you want. You have to decide how
much time you want to devote to getting rid of the fear, anger,
insecurity, etc.,... the negative thoughts in your subconscious
that block your success and prosperity.”
Description of the technique: Sit with a straight spine on the
floor in a cross-legged position, or on a firm chair with both
feet flat on the ground. The lower spine (lumbar region) is
pressed forward slightly. This spinal posture signals the ner-
vous system to remain alert by setting a ‘ready mode.’ The eyes
are open and focused at the tip of the nose – the end that you
cannot see. With eyes focused at the tip, the sides of the nose
appear to blur. Some individuals are less able to achieve this
eye focus, and practice over time can help to overcome this
deficit. This eye position is called ‘Ajna Band,’ which means
mind lock. Focusing the eyes in this way pressurizes the optic
nerve and helps to stabilize thought processes. It is a common
element with meditation techniques that are used to tranquil-
ize the mind. Initially, the eye muscles may become sore due to
a lack of use. The breathing pattern has three phases:
1. Use the right thumb tip to block off the right nostril (close
the nostril by covering the end, not by pushing in the side);
keep the four fingers of the right hand pointed up straight;
and inhale slowly and completely fill the lungs.
2. While holding the breath, begin pumping the navel point
in and out for a total of 48 pumps while mentally vibrating
the sound Wha Hay Guru 16 times per 48 pumps, with one
pump per Wha, one pump per Hay, and one pump per
Guru, or 16 3 sounds ¼ 48 pumps.
3. Then, slowly exhale through the right nostril by first closing
off the left nostril with the end of the index finger. This
three-phase cycle is repeated. (Note that the reverse pattern
of inhaling through the right nostril, holding, and exhaling
through the left nostril is not performed.) Yogi Bhajan
recommended a counting scheme to maintain the exact
numbers of pumps and ‘Wha Hay Gurus.’ “For counting
1–16 (Wha Hay Guru’s), one (with three pumps), two (with
three pumps), three (with three pumps) is counted with
the little finger moving slightly three times, four (with three
pumps), five (with three pumps), and six (with three pumps)
moves the ring finger three times, seven (with three pumps),
eight (with three pumps), nine (with three pumps) moves
the middle finger three times, ten (with three pumps), eleven
(with three pumps), and twelve (with three pumps) moves
the index finger three times, thirteen (with three pumps),
fourteen (with three pumps), fifteen (with three pumps)
moves the thumb slightly for three beats, and sixteen (with
three pumps) brings the index finger over to close the left
580 Meditation: The Science and the Art
Author's personal copy
Encyclopedia of Human Behavior, Second Edition (2012), vol. 2, pp. 576-584
nostril just before exhaling through the right nostril.” When
ending this meditation, after the last exhale, inhale and hold
the breath for 5–10 s and mentally circulate the energy pro-
duced; then exhale. Then stretch and shake the entire body
for 1 min to complete the exercise. The bija mantra Wha Hay
Guru induces a state of great wonder, bliss, and ecstasy, an
experience of the totality of the universe, the universal nature
of consciousness, and the oneness and unity of creation.
Eleven minutes is the first peak of accomplishment, followed
by 31 min, 62 min, and 2 h and 31 min.
Descriptions of Other Popular Meditation Techn iques
This section includes five popular meditation techniques
called the Mindfulness Meditation, Sahaja Yoga Meditation,
Transcendental Meditation
®
, Ujjayi meditation as taught by
Swami Sivananda, and Zen Meditation. Other similar medita-
tion techniques are also widely taught, including the Vipassana
technique, the Relaxation Response by Herbert Benson, the
four Art of Living meditations as taught by Sri Sri Ravi Shankar,
and techniques by Swami Muktananda of the Siddha Yoga
lineage, Swami Satchidananda of the Integral Yoga Society,
Swami Rama of the Himalayan Research Society, and Swami
Ramdev of the Divya Yog Mandir Trust. Most of these techni-
ques are common to the Hatha Yoga meditation tradition.
Mindfulness Meditation Technique
The standard description for this meditation is the following:
One can practice Mindfulness Meditation by sitting in an
appropriate upright position, cross-legged, and by focusing
on the breath or anything else, such as mental and physical
processes which help the practitioners to become aware of their
present thought patterns and inner state. The practice of Mind-
fulness Meditation focuses one’s attention on one’s thoughts,
actions, and present moments nonjudgmentally. It does not
encourage evaluating or thinking about past actions, nor does
it take one’s thoughts into the uncertain future. Mindfulness
Meditation helps and trains the mind from getting distracted
by outside disturbances and enables one to focus one’s
thoughts and relax the mind.
Description of the technique:
1. Find a quiet and comfortable place. Sit in a chair or on the
floor with your head, neck, and back straight but not stiff.
2. Try to put aside all thoughts of the past and the future and
stay in the present.
3. Become aware of your breathing, focusing on the sensation
of air moving in and out of your body as you breathe. Feel
your belly rise and fall, the air enter your nostrils and leave
your mouth. Pay attention to the way each breath changes
and is different.
4. Watch every thought come and go, whether it be a worry,
fear, anxiety, or hope. When thoughts come up in your
mind, do not ignore or suppress them but simply note
them, remain calm, and use your breathing as an anchor.
5. If you find yourself getting carried away in your thoughts,
observe where your mind went off to, without judging, and
simply return to your breathing. Remember not to be hard
on yourself if this happens.
6. As the time comes to a close, sit for a minute or two,
becoming aware of where you are. Get up gradually.
Sahaja Yoga Meditation as Taught by Shri Mataji Nirmala Devi
Shri Mataji Nirmala Devi says on her Web site: “You can receive
your Self Realization (connection with your Self) while sitting
in front of your computer. The only condition is your sincere
desire to have it.”
Description of the technique (extracted from her Web site):
“During the experience you will keep your left hand with
the palm upwards on your lap and place the right palm on
various parts of the body on your left side only with a specific
sequence (see below), while keeping your eyes closed for the
entire duration. This way you will be free of distractions and
able to keep your attention inside. The sequence for placing
your right hand during the guided meditation is the follow-
ing (on left side only), first hold it with the palm against
the chest at the heart center level, then on the chest below the
nipple line, then just above the waist line, then against the
side of the neck; for the next three positions, the right hand is
held in the middle of the forehead, the back of the head, and
then the top of the head. Now, after the end of the medita-
tion, see if you are feeling relaxed and if your thoughts have
slowed down or gradually disappeared. This is the first stage
of meditation – thoughtless awareness – where you are fully
alert but without any thoughts, in a state of pure and peaceful
consciousness. Now see if you can feel a sensation of a gentle
cool breeze in your palms and above your head. It might be
warm in the beginning which is a sign that your Kundalini
energy is purifying your chakras, but it will eventually cool
down. You can verify it by placing your left palm 6–12 in.
above your head, then trying with the right palm. If you are
unable to feel it, you have probably not forgiven everyone.
Say again from your heart, ‘Mother, I forgive everyone,’ a few
times and check again if you feel the cool breeze above your
head. This is the beginning of a fantastic journey into your
own spiritual existence. It is a door opened to a new dimen-
sion of your awareness, which you can open and explore. If
sustained through regular meditation, you will be able to feel
your subtle centers (chakras) as well as the chakras of others
on your fingertips, and correct them using your spiritual
energy (Kundalini).”
Transcendental Meditation
W
Technique
Transcendental Meditation
®
, also called the ‘TM’ technique,
was formulated by Maharishi Mahesh Yogi. Some claims about
the TM technique are the following: “The ordinary thinking
process is said to be transcended (or gone beyond) as the
awareness gradually settles down and is eventually freed of all
mental content, remaining silently awake within itself, and
producing a psychophysiological state of restful alertness.”
These periods are referred to as “pure consciousness or tran-
scendental consciousness.” Steps in TM
®
Meditation: Step 1,
Sit comfortably; Step 2, Close your eyes; Step 3, Engage in
effortless mental repetition of a special sound for approxi-
mately 20 min, twice daily. Note: The special sound in Step 3
is a Sanskrit mantra(s) that is claimed to be exclusive to the
TM
®
tradition. These mantras are taught when a person pays
Meditation: The Science and the Art 581
Author's personal copy
Encyclopedia of Human Behavior, Second Edition (2012), vol. 2, pp. 576-584
for the teachings and the recipient is instructed not to share his
or her mantra with others.
Ujjayi Pranayam Meditation
The ujjayi meditation technique, as described here, along with
its claimed attributes is one of at least seven different medita-
tion techniques taught by Swami Sivananda. This technique is
a standard practice in many Hatha Yoga traditions.
Description of the technique: Sit in your usual asana. Close the
mouth. Inhale slowly through both the nostrils in a smooth
uniform manner. Retain the breath as long as you can; do it
comfortably and then exhale slowly through the left nostril by
closing the right nostril with your right thumb. Expand the
chest when you inhale. During inhalation, a peculiar sound is
produced owing to the partial closing of the glottis. The sound
produced during inhalation should be of a mild and uniform
pitch. It should be continuous also. This Kumbhaka may be
practiced even when walking or standing. Instead of exhaling
through the left nostril, you can exhale slowly through both
nostrils. Swami Sivananda comments on this technique. “This
removes the heat in the head. The practitioner becomes very
beautiful. The gastric fire is increased. It removes phlegm in the
throat. Asthma, consumption and all sorts of pulmonary dis-
eases are cured. All that arise from deficient inhalation of
oxygen and diseases of the heart are cured. All works are
accomplished by Ujjayi Pranayam. The practitioner is never
attacked by diseases of phlegm, nerves, enlargement of the
spleen, dyspepsia, dysentery, consumption, cough or fever.
Perform Ujjayi to destroy decay and death.”
Zen Meditation Technique
Zen Buddhist meditation originated in India and was intro-
duced to Japan from China in 1191 AD. Sit on the forward
third of a chair or a cushion on the floor. Arrange your legs in
a position you can maintain comfortably. In the half-lotus
position, place your right leg on your left thigh. In the full
lotus position, put your feet on opposite thighs. You may also
sit simply with your legs tucked in close to your body, but be
sure that your weight is distributed on three points: both of
your knees on the ground and your buttocks on the round
cushion. On a chair, keep your knees apart about the width
of your shoulders, feet firmly planted on the floor. Take a
deep breath, exhale fully, and take another deep breath,
exhaling fully. With proper physical posture, your breathing
will flow naturally into your lower abdomen. Breathe natu-
rally, without judgment or trying to breathe a certain way.
Keep your attention on your breath while practicing this Zen
meditation. When your attention wanders, bring it back to
the breath again and again – as many times as necessary!
Remain as still as possible, following your breath and return-
ing to it whenever thoughts arise. Be fully, vitally present with
yourself. Simply do your very best. At the end of your sitting
period, gently swing your body from right to left in increasing
arcs. Stretch out your legs and be sure they have feeling before
standing. Practice easy Zen meditation every day for at least
10–15 min (or longer) and you will discover for yourself
the treasure-house of the timeless life of zazen – your very
life itself.
The Art of the Practice and the Application of
the Techniques
Today, a majority of people practice meditation techniques for
the purpose of achieving a calmer state of mind, reducing
stress, and finding inner peace. Some practice to gain the
experience of a greater or transcendental awareness. Many
also seek a more natural approach to the treatment of psychi-
atric disorders and psychological issues, and for improving
social relationships. However, in addition to self-healing, the
ancients devised the science of meditation primarily for the
purpose of exploring the unknown realms of the psyche and
for mastering the realms of consciousness. They understood
the possibility of devising a neurodevelopmental approach to
awakening the dormant regions of the brain and developing
unique mental powers, or what yogis called the siddhis.
The ancients apparently achieved a great understanding for
the nature of consciousness. They discovered the chakras, the
subtle energy centers that supposedly relate to the eight differ-
ent levels of consciousness. This is a very foreign area for the
western scientist who has at least two primary questions about
the nature of consciousness: (1) Can consciousness transcend
time and space? and (2) Is consciousness only an epiphenom-
enon of the brain? The ancients devised a practical and system-
atic view of consciousness that has eight discrete levels. Yogis
viewed the chakras as repositories or centers for psychic or
mental energy. They claimed that an individual’s conscious-
ness is then determined and affected by the amount of energy
and the distribution of activity in the eight centers, and that
this is related to the individual’s behavior, personality struc-
ture, and level of awareness. Ultimately, meditation techniques
are supposedly a means of healing the mind and also attaining
higher levels of consciousness.
In addition to the more subtle nature of the chakras, each
chakra also supposedly has a physiological correlate in the
body. The first chakra is related to the area of the rectum
(sacro-coccygeal plexus); the second chakra to the sex organs
(sacral plexus); the third chakra to the navel point region (solar
plexus); the fourth chakra to the heart center (cardiac plexus);
the fifth chakra to the thyroid and parathyroid or throat center
(laryngeal plexus); the sixth chakra, called the ‘third eye,’ to
the activity of the pituitary gland; the seventh chakra, called
the ‘crown center,’ to the pineal gland and cerebral cortex;
and the eighth chakra is the aura or the psychoelectromagnetic
field that surrounds the body.
The intensity of activity in any one chakra supposedly
affects one’s world perspective, understanding of cause and
effect, and source of motivation and desire. An individual
who lives mainly in the consciousness of the first chakra is
concerned primarily with survival. His or her action and values
are based solely on the need to survive. Fears and paranoia
coincide with this center, as do instincts, concerns about elim-
ination, destructive sexual activities, and habitual and addic-
tive activities. Blocks and imbalances in this center can lead to
a rigid and stubborn mentality and a range of diseases. Second
chakra consciousness reflects a mentality directed mainly
toward reproduction and sexual activities. Overactivity here
leads to sexual neuroses, whether it is in the form of abnormal
sexual indulgence or a ‘puritanical’ and abstinent mentality.
582 Meditation: The Science and the Art
Author's personal copy
Encyclopedia of Human Behavior, Second Edition (2012), vol. 2, pp. 576-584
A balanced second chakra helps establish a creative and expres-
sive mentality. The third chakra is the center of power, territory,
and ego: the ‘Me’ mentality prevails to the exclusion of the
well-being of others. This center is the source of physical well-
being. When it is weak, deficiencies lead to a wide range of
illnesses and a weak character, drive, and will power. The first
three levels are claimed to be equivalent to the nature of the
beast and all three of these levels also prevail throughout the
animal kingdom. Much of society’s ills are the result of an
imbalance in the first three chakras. Yogis view development
in going from the third level of consciousness to the fourth as
the biggest step in human development. The fourth chakra, the
heart center, embraces the human element of compassion,
the attitude to nurture and give without consideration of the
cost to one’s self. This center is considered to be the first level of
‘higher consciousness,’ where the human can experience a true
expansion in aware ness. Love is born through activity in this
center. When the heart chakra is not awakened, greed, self-
ishness, and ego dominate. The fifth chakra is the center for
creative communication through expression. When this center
is active, the individual can speak and live a blunt truth, and
when it is blocked, that person will feel stifled and unable to be
direct and truthful with others. A characteristic of ‘higher con-
sciousness’ that supposedly manifests with this center is that of
clairaudient awareness. The sixth chakra allows for both sides
of the coin to be seen and here the dual nature of life is
understood in the sums of the polarities rather than simply
as ‘right versus wrong.’ This center is said to be responsible for
intuition and clairvoyant abilities. Supernatural abilities are
also said to be governed by this center. The seventh chakra is
the center for saintly intelligence, and thoughtless awareness
where actions are based on concern for the highest good for all.
This center is called the ‘thousand-petalled lotus,’ and it is said
to be the seat of universal consciousness where there is a clear
realization of how all things are connected. The eighth chakra
is the aura, and how it functions is representative of the rela-
tionship of all the other chakras. This chakra is said to act both
as a shield against illness and calamity and as a source of
attraction for events in one’s life. Awareness in this center
takes one’s consciousness beyond the realm of time and
space, into the realm where the past, the present, and the future
merge. It is said that if an individual lives in the consciousness
of this center too long, the world will pass them by.
The fully awakened yogi supposedly has the ability to con-
sciously activate any and all chakras in any given combination
for achieving the most effective outcome under any given
situation. Supposedly normal individuals have one chakra
that predominates to establish their primary personality, and
over time, this center may change as a personality matures. This
growth process is supposedly one of the benefits of some
meditation techniques.
The Development of a Personal Practice
Some systems offer a single meditation with a supposed benefit
or range of benefits, and some systems offer a few techniques
that vary significantly in their overall effects and benefits. The
original parent science of the yoga, called Kundalini Yoga, the
Yoga of Awareness, as taught by Yogi Bhajan, has thousands
of different meditation techniques. Some are much easier than
others to practice, and the approach for the beginner, novice,
or intermediate practitioner should be based on what he or
she hopes to achieve and how much time and effort he or she
wants to commit. The best advice here is to experiment with a
variety of techniques and to seek the direct guidance from
a well-trained and talented teacher, regardless of the system
that is chosen.
The Clinical Application of Techniques for Patient
Populations
All the techniques described earlier are claimed to be of benefit
for mental health purposes. However, the evidence presents a
challenge because of the relatively poor overall quality of the
published clinical trials. Some of the best- and well-designed
randomized controlled trials that showed substantial efficacy
still require replication by others. However, there is reason
to be optimistic as yogis had discovered techniques that are
supposedly ‘disorder-specific.’ These disorders include OCD,
depression, generalized anxiety disorder, phobias, bipolar dis-
orders, addictions and impulse control disorders, sleep disor-
ders, ADHD and comorbid disorders, PTSD, schizophrenia,
the variants of the personality disorders, the pervasive devel-
opmental disorders, and cancer. None of these disorders are
new and yogis had recognized these disorders even in ancient
times. Individuals who are interested in attempting to treat any
of these disorders with meditation techniques should seek the
assistance of those who are highly trained both with the spe-
cific techniques and the specific disorders. In time, clinical
trials will likely test the efficacy of these techniques in well-
designed studies and no doubt compare meditation techniques
from different systems in ‘head-to-head’ trials.
Summary
The discovery of meditation techniques goes back to the time
before the advent of the formal religions. Today, there are at
least 5000 different meditation techniques that are known,
discovered by the ancient yogis. However, only about six tech-
niques are commonly practiced in the West. While hundreds of
different scientific studies have been conducted, the majority
have used the Transcendental Meditation
®
technique, the
Mindfulness Meditation technique, the Relaxation Response,
the Zen Meditation technique, and a variety of Hatha yoga
meditation techniques. A recent systematic review of the scien-
tific literature finds that there are many uncertainties about
the practice of meditation, the scientific research does not
have a common theoretical perspective, the work is character-
ized by poor methodological quality, and that firm conclu-
sions cannot be drawn about the health effects based on the
available evidence. However, since this research is only in its
infancy and very little funding has been appropriated for this
work, it is not surprising that little can be said about the
positive virtues of the work. Nonetheless, there are a number
of well-designed trials that show unique and important
results. In addition, since there are so many different, highly
structured, and complex techniques, along with the deep yogic
Meditation: The Science and the Art 583
Author's personal copy
Encyclopedia of Human Behavior, Second Edition (2012), vol. 2, pp. 576-584
insights into the nature of consciousness, there are good rea-
sons to be optimistic about the true richness of this topic for
future study. A definition of meditation is offered – the art and
science of how to manipulate the thought waves to achieve a
state of thoughtlessness, wherein the individual experiences
both existence and nonexistence simultaneously, and where
the field of consciousness then becomes a novel sensory expe-
rience, wherein new levels of awareness and new skills in the
mental realm are developed.
Further Reading
Arias AJ, Steinberg K, Banga A, and Trestman RL (2006) Systematic review of the
efficacy of meditation techniques as treatments for medical illness. Journal of
Alternative and Complementary Medicine 12: 817–832.
Bhajan Y (1997) The Master’s Touch: On Being a Sacred Teacher for the New Age.
Espanola, NM: Kundalini Research Institute.
Bhajan Y and Khalsa G (1998) The Mind: Its Projections and Multiple Facets. Espanola,
NM: Kundalini Research Institute.
Brefczynski-Lewis JA, Lutz A, Schaefer HS, Levinson DB, and Davidson RJ (2007)
Neural correlates of attentional expertise in long-term meditation practitioners.
Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America
104(27): 11483–11488.
Brown RP and Gerbarg PL (2005) Sudarshan Kriya yogic breathing in the treatment of
stress, anxiety, and depression: Part I. Neurophysiologic model. Journal of
Alternative and Complementary Medicine 11: 189–201.
Kabat-Zinn J (1990) Full Catastrophe Living: Using the Wisdom of Your Body and Mind
to Face Stress, Pain and Illness. New York: Delacorte.
Kabat-Zinn J, Massion AO, Kristeller, et al. (1992) Effectiveness of a meditation-based
stress reduction program in the treatment of anxiety disorders. American Journal
of Psychiatry 149: 936–943.
Lazar SW, Kerr CE, Wasserman RH, et al. (2005) Meditation experience is associated
with increased cortical thickness. Neuroreport 16(17): 1893–1897.
Ospina MB, Bond TK, Karkhaneh M, et al. (2007) Meditation Practices for Health: State
of the Research. Evidence Report/Technology Assessment No. 155; Prepared by the
University of Alberta Evidence-based Practice Center under Contract No.
290-02-0023; AHRQ Publication No. 07-E010. Rockville, MD: Agency for
Healthcare Research and Quality.
Ospina MB, Bond K, Karkaneh M, et al. (2008) Clinical trials of meditation practices in
healthcare: Characteristics and quality. Journal of Alternative and Complementary
Medicine 14: 1199–1213.
Shannahoff-Khalsa D (2004) An introduction to Kundalini yoga meditation techniques
that are specific for the treatment of psychiatric disorders. Journal of Alternative and
Complementary Medicine 10: 91–101.
Shannahoff-Khalsa D (2006) A perspective on the emergence of meditation techniques
for medical disorders. Journal of Alternative and Complementary Medicine
12: 709–713.
Shannahoff-Khalsa D, Sramek BB, Kennel MB, and Jamieson SW (2004) Hemodynamic
observations on a yogic breathing technique claimed to help eliminate and prevent
heart attacks: A pilot study. Journal of Alternative and Complementary Medicine
10: 757–766.
Shannahoff-Khalsa DS (1997) Yogic techniques are effective in the treatment of
obsessive compulsive disorders. In: Hollander E and Stein D (eds.)
Obsessive–Compulsive Disorders: Diagnosis, Etiology, and Treatment,
pp. 283–329. New York: Marcel Dekker.
Shannahoff-Khalsa DS (2003) Kundalini yoga meditation techniques in the treatment of
obsessive compulsive and OC spectrum disorders. Brief Treatment and Crisis
Intervention 3: 369–382.
Shannahoff-Khalsa DS (2005) Patient perspectives: Kundalini yoga meditation
techniques for psycho-oncology and as potential therapies for cancer. Integrative
Cancer Therapies 4: 87–100.
Shannahoff-Khalsa DS (2006) Kundalini Yoga Meditation: Techniques Specific for
Psychiatric Disorders, Couples Therapy, and Personal Growth. New York:
W.W. Norton.
Shannahoff-Khalsa DS (2007) Selective unilateral autonomic activation: Implications for
psychiatry (a review article). CNS Spectrums: The International Journal of
Neuropsychiatric Medicine 12: 625–634.
Shannahoff-Khalsa DS (2008a) Psychophysiological States: The Ultradian Dynamics of
Mind-Body Interactions. San Diego, CA: Academic Press.
Shannahoff-Khalsa DS (2008b) Kundalini yoga meditation techniques in the treatment
of obsessive compulsive and OC spectrum disorders. In: Roberts AR (ed.) Social
Workers’ Desk Reference, 2nd edn., pp. 606–612. New York: Oxford University
Press.
Shannahoff-Khalsa DS (2010) Kundalini Yoga Meditation for Complex Psychiatric
Disorders: Techniques Specific for Treating the Psychoses, Personality, and
Pervasive Developmental Disorders. New York, London: W.W. Norton.
Shannahoff-Khalsa DS (2012) Sacred Therapies: The Kundalini Yoga Meditation
Handbook for Mental Health. New York: W.W. Norton.
Shannahoff-Khalsa DS, Ray LE, Levine S, et al. (1999) Randomized controlled
trial of yogic meditation techniques for patients with obsessive compulsive
disorders. CNS Spectrums: The International Journal of Neuropsychiatric Medicine
4: 34–46.
Sivananda S (1971) Kundalini Yoga
, 6th edn. India: The Divine Life Society.
Tang
YY,
Lu Q, Geng X, Stein EA, Yang Y, and Posner MI (2010) Short-term
meditation induces white matter changes in the anterior cingulate. Proceedings
of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America
107(35): 15649–15652.
Toneatto T and Nguyen L (2007) Does mindfulness meditation improve anxiety and
mood symptoms? A review of the controlled research. Canadian Journal of
Psychiatry 52: 260–266.
Relevant Websites
http://www.kundaliniyoga.com/ – Kundalini Yoga as taught by Yogi Bhajan.
http://www.sahajayoga.org/experienceitnow/default.asp – Sahaja Yoga Meditation as
taught by
Shri Mataji Nirmala Devi.
http://www.siddhayoga.org/guru/muktananda.aspx – Swami Muktananda for the Siddha
Yoga Path.
http://www.swami
j.com/index.htm – Swami Rama founder of the Himalayan Research
Society.
http://www.yoga4cure.com/ – Swami Ramdev, a founder of the Divya Yog Mandir Trust.
http://www.swamisatchidananda.org/ – Swami Satchidananda, the founder of Integral
Yoga.
http://www.dlshq.org/ – Swami Sivananda and the Divine Life Society.
http://us.artofliving.org/ – The Art of Living as taught by Sri Sri Ravi Shankar.
http://www.umassmed.edu/cfm/home/index.aspx?linkidentifier¼id&
itemid¼41252 –
The Center
for Mindfulness in Medicine, Health Care, and Society by Jon
Kabat-Zinn, PhD.
http://www.tm.org/?gclid¼CNjQ9Kur3J4CFRxJagodzG70KQ –
Transcendental
Meditation as taught by Maharishi Mahesh Yogi.
584 Meditation: The Science and the Art
Author's personal copy
Encyclopedia of Human Behavior, Second Edition (2012), vol. 2, pp. 576-584
