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Economic Instruments in Practice 1: Carbon Tax in Sweden
Bengt Johansson, Swedish Environmental Protection Agency
1) Abstract-In 1991 a carbon tax was introduced in Sweden as a complement to the existing
system of energy taxes, which simultaneously were reduced by 50%. Since then the
system has changed several times but a common feature is lower taxes for industry and
electricity production than for other sectors. Currently, industrial consumers pay no
energy tax and only 50% of the general carbon tax. Neither energy nor carbon tax are
applied on electricty production. Today the general carbon tax level is 36.5 öre/kg CO2
(approximately $ 150/tonne C). The most obvious effect of the carbon tax has been an
increased use of biomass in the Swedish district heating system. Biofuels peat etc.
currently contribute about 50% of the energy supply to the Swedish district heating
systems. The demand for biomass has encouraged the development of new methods for
utilising wood fuels which in turn has led to price reductions on these fuels. The impact of
the carbon tax on the energy and resource efficiency of the Swedish industry has probably
been rather limited for three reasons: 1) the carbon tax on industry is only 50% of the
general level and, 2) only a relatively small fraction (30%) of the energy supply to
industry was fossil fuel-based when the tax was introduced and 3) for most industrial
companies the energy cost is a relatively small fraction of the total cost and has therefore
low priority.
INTRODUCTION
In 1999 the Swedish Parliament established 15 environmental quality objectives. The overall
aim is to be able to hand over a society to the next generation in which the major
environmental problems have been solved (Swedish Environmental Protection Agency,
2000). The climate target has been considered to be the most difficult one to achieve (Swedish
Environmental Protection Agency, 1999).
Carbon dioxide emission is responsible for approximately 80% of the Swedish
anthropogenic contribution to the greenhouse effect (Government Commission of Measures
against Climate Change, 2000) and about 93% of the CO
2
emission is the result of fossil fuel
combustion.
2
Taxes on energy have for many years played an important role in Sweden, both
as a fiscal tax source and as a policy instrument. In 1991 the energy taxation system was
reformed and a carbon tax was introduced. The carbon tax and the energy tax are very closely
connected and have to be regarded together. Other economic incentives that affect the energy
sector are the sulphur tax and the nitrogen oxides charge. Regulations have historically been
important for the possibility to reduce the emissions from both stationary and mobile sources.
Regulations have so far had relatively small effect on CO
2
emissions.
The purpose of this paper is to describe the structure of the Swedish carbon and
energy tax system and the consequences this system has had on the structure of the Swedish
energy system. The relation of this tax system to other policy instruments is discussed. Finally
there is a brief discussion of what effect the carbon tax or other policy instruments is likely to
have had on innovation in Sweden.
CHARACTERISTICS OF THE SWEDISH ENERGY SYSTEM
The swedish energy supply can be summarised according to Figure 1.
Figure 1. Swedish energy supply in 1998 (Swedish National Energy Administration, 1999a).
Energy supply in Sweden 1998
33%
15%
12%
33%
7%
Oil products
Biofuels etc.
Hydro
Nuclear
Others
3
The Swedish energy system has at least three characteristics that makes it different from most
other industrialised countries:
1) Swedish electrcity production is almost entirely fossil free and is based on nuclear and
hydro power. There is also some electricity production in cogeneration plants in industry
and district heating.
2) Renewable energy contributes with 27% to the Swedish energy supply. Biomass is
together with hydro power the dominating source and provides approximately 15% of the
energy supply. The great importance of renewable energy is a result of favourable
geographical conditions, industrial structure and governmental policies. The Swedish
population density is low with large forests from which large amounts of bioenergy can be
extracted. Energy use in industry is heavily dominated by the forest industry which have
excellent opportunities to utilise by-products for the internal energy demand and finally
governmental policies have historically supported the development of hydro power and
bioenergy.
3) The per-capita electricity use in Sweden is very high partly becasuse of the rapid
expansion of electric space heating during the 1980s and partly because of a large
electricity intensive industry. Currently about 35 TWh/yr electricity used for space heating
(Johansson, 1995; Swedish National Energy Administration, 1999b). This is equal to
approximately 25 % of the total electricity demand.
TAXES ON ENERGY IN SWEDEN
The Swedish energy tax system was reformed in 1991. During the 1980s much focus had
been on oil substitution and the tax system was therefore designed to discourage oil use. The
reformed taxation system was based on a carbon tax and a energy tax on fuels, the latter not
directly connected to the carbon content of the fuel. Simultanously as the carbon tax was
introduced general energy taxes was reduced by 50% (Energidata Göteborg et al., 1995).
Apart from these two taxes there were other taxes applied to electricity
production, consumption etc., see Table 1. In 1991 value added tax was introduced on energy
consumption.
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Table 1. Summary of current taxes and charges applied on energy in Sweden.
Type of tax Tax level Comments
Energy tax Differs among the fossil
fuels, see Fig. 1
Applied on all fossil fuels. No tax on fuels
used in industry or for electricity production
Carbon tax General level
0.36 SEK/kg CO
2
($ 150/tonne CO
2
)
No tax is applied fuels used for electricity
production and 50% of the general level on
fuels used in industry
Sulphur tax 30 SEK/kg S
($ 3.3 /kg S)
Applied on heavy fuel oils, coal and peat. If
sulphur is removed from the exhaust gases the
tax could be refunded in accordance with that
Nitrogen oxides
charge
40 SEK/kg NO
2
($ 4.4/kg)
Applied on heat and power plants which use
more than 25 GWh/yr. The charge is refunded
to the group in proportion to their energy use
Tax on nuclear
electricity
production
2.7 öre/kWh
($ 0.003/KWh)
Electricity
consumer tax
11-16 öre/kWh
($ 0.012-0.017/kWh)
No tax on electricity used in the industrial
sector
Value added tax Applied on all energy consumed
When the new taxation system was introduced industry was exempted from
energy tax and had to pay only 50% of the general carbon tax level. In 1993 this fraction was
reduced to 25%. In 1997 the fraction was once again raised to 50%. For energy intensive
industries there are special rules that allows further reductions of the carbon tax. The total
effect of the 1991 tax reform on industry was reduced tax levels, for some fuels by more than
50% (Energidata Götrborg et al, 1995). There is no energy or carbon tax on electricity
production but non-industrial consumers have to pay a tax on electricity consumption tax.
The current general carbon dioxide tax is 36.5 öre/kg CO2/ (~USD 150/tonne
C). The energy tax on fossil fuels, especially on petrol but also on other oil products, are
rather high and is therefore, outside the industrial sector, a powerful complement to the
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carbon tax. Current energy, carbon and sulphur taxes for different fossil fuels are shown in
Figure 2.
Energy, carbon and sulphur taxes in Sweden
0
20
40
60
Gas oil Heavy
fuel oil
Coal Natural
gas
Petrol Gas oil Heavy
fuel oil
Coal Natural
gas
Sulphur tax
Carbon tax
Ener
gy
tax
Industry
General tax level
0.065
0.044
0.022
Figure 2. Energy, carbon and sulphur taxes in the energy sector (Swedish Energy
Administration, 1999).
EFFECT OF CARBON AND ENERGY TAXES
The most obvious effect of the reformed taxation system has been the expansion of biomass
use in the district heating system, Figure 3. Since 1990 biomass use have increased in industry
as well, however to a lesser extent, from 45 TWh/yr to 54 TWh/yr (Swedish National Energy
Administration, 1999).
The reason for the expansion can easily be understood when comparing heat
production cost for biomass-based heat plants is compared with the heat production cost for
fossil-fuel based plants, Figure 4.
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Biofuels in the district heating sector
0
5
10
15
20
1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998
Wood fuels
Biofuels for electricity
Black liqour and crude tall oil
Total
Figure 3. The use of biomass in Swedish district heating systems.
Heat production costs
0
50
100
150
200
250
300
350
400
450
Biomass Coal Heavy
fuel oil
Gas oil Biomass Coal Heavy
fuel oil
Gas oil
Taxes
Fuel costs
O&M costs
Ca
p
ital costs
District heating
Industry
Figure 4. Heat production costs for new plants (Swedish National Energy Adminsitration,
2000).
There are several reasons why the effect of the carbon tax in industry has been rather small.
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2) The industrial tax level is much lower than the tax level in district heating, see Figure 3.
3) Only a relatively small fraction (30%) of the energy supply to industry was fossil fuel-
based when the tax was introduced, see Figure 5.
4) The total taxation level on fossil fuels in industry was reduced in the taxation reform
1991.
5) For most industrial companies the energy cost is a relatively small fraction of the total cost
and has therefore low priority.
Figure 5. Energy use in industry by source 1990 (Swedish National Energy Adminstration
1999).
The differentiation of the carbon tax among sectors has had some effect on the
behaviour of companies. Between 1993 and 1997 when the tax difference between fuels used
in district heating systems and fuels used in industry was larger than today, some industries
sold their by-products to the district heating companies while they themselves burned fossil
fuels. This was not an efficient solution but an effect of the construction of the tax system.
There has been some studies that have tried to quantify the impact on CO
2
emission of the policy instruments instruments implemented in the beginning of the 1990s.
For example the Ministry of Environment (1997) shows in the second national report on
Energy use in Swedish industry 1990
37%
31%
29%
3%
Electricity
Biofuels, peat etc.
Fossil fuels
District heat
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climate change that the CO
2
emissions in 1995 were about 15% lower than it would have been
if the policy instrurments of 1990 would still have been in use. By the year 2000 it was
estimated that the CO2 emissions would be 20-25% than if the 1990 policy instrument
package still would have been in use. Almost 90% of this reduction was the result of the
reformed tax system, whereas the remaining 10% were a result of investment grants and
offical programmes on energy efficiency.
THE EFFECT OF SULPHUR TAXES, NITROGEN CHARGES, REGULATION AND
INVESTMENT GRANTS
Both the sulphur tax and the nitrogen charges have had effect on emissions. The nitrogen
charges are however applied only on stationary combustion plants which produce more than
25 GWh/yr (These plants are responsible for a small fraction of the total Swedish NO
x
emission in Sweden) and therefore have impact on a small fraction of the total emissions. An
evaluation from the Swedish Environmental Protection Agency (1997a) showes that the taxes
and charges had been cost-effective. The sulphur tax was responsible for emission reductions
1989-1995 equal to about 30% of the 1989 Swedish emissions. The NOx emission from the
plants on which the NOx charge was applied was reduced by 60% between 1990 and 1995 of
which about 80% was a result of the nitrogen charge (Swedish Environmental Protection
Agency, 1997a).
The evaluation shows, however, that regulation also have had a large effect on
the emission reductions. For the measures that are in question, i. e. combustion improvements
and exhaust gas treatment on large plants and reductions of the fuel sulphur content,
regulations seem to be cost effective measures as well.
A new envrionmental code entered into force in Sweden on the 1
st
of January
1999. According to this code energy and resource efficiency as well as CO
2
emission can be
regarded when considering permits for environmentally hazardous activities.
As a result of the reluctance to introduce carbon taxes on electricity production
and the fact that electricity prices has fallen significantly during the 1990s the politicial aim of
increasing the fraction of renewable electricity has led to the introduction of investment grants
for biomass-based electricity plants as well as on wind electricity plants. Furthermore an
environmental bonus has been applied on wind power electricity. These investment grants
have been important for the expansion of these production technologies and wind power
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systems is, with this support, competitive to other electricity production. The construction of
biomass-based cogeneration plants have certainly been encouraged by the economical
support, but another reason for biomass-based cogeneration is probably to been found in
political desicsions in the municipalities controlling the district heating systems. The
investment grants for biomass-based plants have not been large enough to make the biomass-
based electricity competitive.
THE EFFECT OF ECONOMIC POLICY INSTRUMENTS ON INNOVATION
There are no studies available that show the effect of carbon taxes on innovation in industry in
Sweden. There are reasons to believe that the relatively low taxation on industrial energy use
has resulted in only minor improvements in energy efficiency within the industry. This
conclusion was also drawn in an interview study which found that the energy tax level did not
give enough incentives to invest in energy efficient technology in industry (Energidata
Göteborg AB et al. 1995). Since then the carbon tax, however, has been doubled to 50% of
the general taxation level.
The most important development as a result of the new taxation system is
probably the development of the methods of biomass extraction and a biomass market. The
increase in biomass demand has been possible without any increases in biomass prices, in fact
biomass current prices are today the same as in the middle of the 1980s, i. e. there have been
large cost reductions in real terms, Figure 6.
10
Prices of forest fuels
0
2
4
6
8
10
12
14
1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998
Current prices
Real prices, 1985 prices
Figure 6. Prices of forest fuels in Sweden (Swedish National Energy Administration 1999).
As the demand for biofuels increased during the 1990s several new technical
solutions have been introduced. The technical solutions include multitree-handling felling in
smallwood thinning, compaction equipment for logging residue, and heavy duty chippers
(Brunberg et al., 1998). New methods for simultaneous extraction of log and logging residues
are under development. These methods, for example a harvester technology that accumulates
the tops and branches as the stems are processed and then compacts the material into
composite residue logs, could reduce the demand for machinery and could reduce the cost by
20-40% (The Forest Research Institute of Sweden, 2000)
A biomass market has also been developed which has enabled a widening of the
potential biomass suppliers to the major heat production plants. The combination of an
increased demand for biomass with a simultaneous market pressure has probably been
important for the possibility to combine increased demand with falling prices.
The expansion of biomass in district heating has given way to a major
introduction of flue gas condensation. This technology has enabled an increased efficiency in
biomass plants by 10-25% (Swedish Environmental Protection Agency, 1993)
There are technical developments that can be attributed to the introduction of the
sulphur taxes and nitrogen charges (Swedish Environmental Protection Agency, 1997). There
has been a development of simpler and cheaper instruments for emission measurements,
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calcuations and evaluations. The SCNR-systems for nitrogen oxides reductions have also
been developed as a direct effect of the nitrogen charges. The sulphur tax has resulted in that
existing exhaust gas desulphurisation devices reduces the emissions to much lower emission
levels than they once were designed for (Swedish Environmental Protection Agency, 1997).
CONCLUSION
The carbon tax has together with other taxes been important in the limitation of the CO
2
emissions during the 1990s. The main effect has been the expansion of biomass in the district
heating systems. This expansion has in turn led to a development of the technology for
biomass extraction in forestry and in the implementation of more efficient heat plants in the
district heating system.
REFERENCES
Brunberg B., Andersson G., Nordén B. and Thor M. 1998. Uppdragsprojekt Skogsbränsle -
slutrapport (Forest bioenergy fuel - final report of commissioned project). The Forestry
Research Institute of Sweden, Uppsala, Sweden.
Energidata Göteborg AB, Profu i Göteborg AB, VBB Samhällsbyggnad, VBB Viak. 1995.
Utvärdering av koldioxidskatten - har utsläppen av koldioxid minskat? Report 4512, Swedish
Environmental Protection Agency, Stockholm, Sweden.
Forest Research Institute of Sweden. 2000.
http://www.skogforsk.se/press/meddelande/nybransle.htm, 2000-05-22.
Government Commission of Measures against Climate Change, 2000. Förslag till svensk
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