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Men and Women of The Corporation
... Eljaaidi, 2016). The first construct, SE, refers to the organizational mechanisms which enable delegation of responsibilities and decision-making powers from management to employees (Kanter, 1993). This is done through the offering of access to resources, information, support and opportunity in the work environment (Kanter, 1979). ...
... The first construct, SE, refers to the organizational mechanisms which enable delegation of responsibilities and decision-making powers from management to employees (Kanter, 1993), or perceived discretionary authority at work ( There are 4 constructs of SE, which comes from the access to these structures, namely opportunity, resource, information and support. ...
... 1. Opportunity refers the possibility for growth and movement within the organization as well as the opportunity to increase knowledge and skills 2. Resource refers to one's ability to acquire financial means, materials, time and supplies required to do the work 3. Information refers to having both the formal and informal knowledge that is necessary to be effective in the workplace. 4. Support refers to access in receiving and guidance from subordinates, peers and superiors (Kanter, 1993) ...
Employee empowerment is a workplace revolution concept that started to gain traction in the 1990s, and is reappearing again recently. This is a way for organizations to respond to the changing business landscape in a volatile-uncertain-complex-ambiguous (VUCA) world. Employee empowerment is understood as a way of providing autonomy and decision-making power to employees, and many studies have demonstrated the relationship between employee empowerment and performance of the organization. Many previous researchers have demonstrated the individual effect of organizational culture or organizational structure towards employee empowerment, as well as the symbiotic relationship between organizational culture and organizational structure. However, studies of a combined effect are very scarce. In other words, little to no research has been conducted to explore the multidimensional effect of strategic alignment between organizational culture and organizational structure towards employee empowerment. Thus, the relationship between the strategic alignment of both organizational culture and organizational structure are not clearly defined and is currently a gap in the research. This study would like to address this gap and examine the effect of organizational culture and organizational structure towards employee empowerment. The outcome of this study is expected to benefit the theoretical body of knowledge with regards to employee empowerment, as well as provide a better understanding to practitioners and organizations wishing to embark on employee empowerment, in turn impacting overall organizational effectiveness and performance. Keywords: empowerment, structure, culture
... For over four decades, scholars have argued that workplace organizations are gendered in multiple ways (e.g., Acker, 1990Acker, , 2006Acker, , 2011Britton, 2000;Cranford, 2012;Halford & Leonard, 2001;Kanter, 1977;Korvajärvi, 1998;Martin, 1997Martin, , 2006Rodrigues, 2018;Rudman & Glick, 2008). Most prominently, Joan Acker (1990Acker ( , 2006 has argued that organizations valorize men's bodies and lives and that the organizational processes, including communicative interactions between and among women and men, create systematic advantages for (particularly white) men over women. ...
... First, according to gender stereotypes, when a woman seeks high authority over others, it is doubtful that she is a warm and caring person, which tends to trigger resistance and hostility in those around her (Ridgeway, 2011;Rudman et al., 2012). Thus, female leaders are caught in a double bind: if they are effective leaders, they are considered too masculine and aggressive, but if they adhere to the cultural norms of femininity, they are perceived as too indecisive and weak to be a good leader (e.g., D'Enbeau, 2017;Kanter, 1977;Martin, 1992;Pierce, 1995;Ridgeway, 2011;Rudman et al., 2012). The double bind is also related to the cultural phenomenon of the glass ceiling-a "socially constructed process" (Buzzanell, 1995) in which gendered patterns of interaction devalue women and their work (D'Enbeau, 2017;Rodrigues, 2018;Ross-Smith & Kornberger, 2004). ...
... Given John's lack of uptake, Lisa upgrades her description of the problematic behavior by referencing the violator's thoughts ("Hey little girl what are you doing here," lines 22-23). In this way, Lisa makes it clear that the problem she is describing concerns not only the violator's words per se but the gendered (and ageist) presuppositions and attitudes that their words reflect-they do not allow her to act as an efficient leader with deontic authority to determine action (see, e.g., D'Enbeau, 2017;Kanter, 1977;Martin, 1992;Pierce, 1995;Ridgeway, 2011;Rudman et al., 2012). Only when Lisa displays her inability to cope with the problem ("I don't really know how to react to that," line 24) does John react: he changes the position in which he is sitting, orienting to an emerging shift in the ongoing activity (see Figure 2). ...
Difficulties of documentation characterize many problematic experiences of social interaction. Here, we study such difficulties by analyzing a case in which an employee tells her supervisor about the gendered dismissal that she has experienced at work. Using video‐recorded performance appraisal interviews as data and conversation analysis and positioning analysis as methods, we examine how the experience of gendered dismissal lends itself to a documentable issue. We describe the process by which the problem that the employee initially described as an organizational leadership issue became redefined as a personal matter, which was not the responsibility of the supervisor. We show how this happened by the supervisor refraining from treating the employee's problem as “tellable” on its own terms, which led to the employee repeatedly changing her storyline. We argue that the persistence of inequalities in organizational interactions may be due to documentation difficulties, which are anchored in cultural expectations that bias the tellability of events in ways that promote gender inequality.
... Another theory explains further the organizational level of member's empowerment in a collective group. Kanter (1977) developed the structural empowerment theory which proposed that the perceived level of empowerment is determined by the organization's structure and the ways in which power is distributed within it. This theory identifies four (4) factors of structural empowerment: access to information, access to resources, support from leaders and colleagues, and learning and growth opportunities which will be explained further in the next section. ...
... This theory identifies four (4) factors of structural empowerment: access to information, access to resources, support from leaders and colleagues, and learning and growth opportunities which will be explained further in the next section. Access to these structural empowerments helps improve the overall effectiveness of organizational functioning and positive employee attitudes (Kanter, 1977(Kanter, , 1993Sharma & Kaur, 2008). To support further Kanter (1977) claims that the internal capacity of any organization could be factors of empowerment and contribute to organizational performance, resource-based view (RBV) theory by Barney (1991) classified resources as physical capital, human capital and organizational and have been extended to include other resources such as financial capital, technological and reputational capital (Grant, 1991). ...
... Access to these structural empowerments helps improve the overall effectiveness of organizational functioning and positive employee attitudes (Kanter, 1977(Kanter, , 1993Sharma & Kaur, 2008). To support further Kanter (1977) claims that the internal capacity of any organization could be factors of empowerment and contribute to organizational performance, resource-based view (RBV) theory by Barney (1991) classified resources as physical capital, human capital and organizational and have been extended to include other resources such as financial capital, technological and reputational capital (Grant, 1991). Scholars in areas of big data predictive analysis explained organizational capability can be created by combining strategic resources such information sharing and human skills which if leveraged well enough can increase operational performance and competitive advantages (Srinivasan & Swink, 2018;Gunasekaran et al., 2016). ...
The study on women's empowerment has gained more interest among researchers in the past decade. In the recent context of Malaysia, the government is focusing on enhancing inclusiveness and equitable opportunities for all Malaysians including women, echoed in the Twelfth Plan from 2021 to 2025 and in the National Entrepreneurship Plan 2030. Both plans mirrored the multi-dimensional spirit of the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) in keeping women at the center of development efforts. Women joined cooperatives as their purposes are to provide access to resources, training, and markets and create a supportive environment for members to build their skills, confidence, knowledge, and networks. However, despite the potential benefits of women cooperatives , they face numerous challenges that hinder their performance and sustainability. Furthermore, past studies revealed that there were many factors of women's empowerment, but few studies were done to identify the factors of women's empowerment from the resource-based point of view and further explain the co-operatives' performance from the perspective of board members in women cooperatives. Therefore, this study aims to examine the relationship between empowerment and women cooperatives. Quantitative research will be conducted which covers experts' validated questionnaires to be distributed to the purposedly selected 7 board members from 256 women's cooperatives in Malaysia. Further analysis will be conducted to examine the influence of structural empowerment and co-operatives' performance. This paper also explores the mediating effect of the government effectiveness on the relationship between structural empowerment and women co-operatives' performance which will be the novelty of this study. The findings of this study shed light on the challenges that women face in accessing economic resources, opportunities, and decision-making. It highlights the importance of addressing these challenges and creating an enabling environment for women's empowerment.
... To make sense of this biased starting condition, as well as its possible developments, we construct an original theoretical framework by bridging Kanter's (1977aKanter's ( , 1977b) and Dahlerup's (1998Dahlerup's ( , 2006 seminal contributions to the literature on (1) the process of socialization to shared norms in legislative assemblies (Asher 1973;Bowler, Farrell, and Katz 1999) and (2) collective action and "activation thresholds" (Granovetter 1978;Kuran 1991). In our analysis, we focus on changes in female MPs' issue attention (i.e., how much they talk about specific issues) and language usage (i.e., how they do it) as they grow from a few tokens into a considerable minority in the legislature. ...
... The Naive Adaptation of the "Critical Mass" Concept from Physics to Politics In this regard, interesting insights come from the use of the "critical mass" concept in gender and politics research, which can be traced back to the seminal contributions of Kanter (1977aKanter ( , 1977b and Dahlerup (1988). As Dahlerup explains (2006, 512), "Originally, the term critical mass was borrowed from nuclear physics, where it refers to the quantity needed to start a chain reaction, an irreversible turning point, a take-off into a new situation or process." ...
... To address this point, we engage in a close reading of the original contributions by Kanter (1977aKanter ( , 1977b and Dahlerup (1988) and integrate their theorizations with two other prolific research streams in political science. Following Childs and Krook's (2009) suggestion, we formulate H 2 and H 3 by bridging Kanter's theory of tokenism, as enriched and extended by Dahlerup to the study of women in politics, with the literature on (1) the process of socialization to shared norms in legislative assemblies (Asher 1973;Bowler, Farrell, and Katz 1999), and (2) collective action and "activation thresholds" (to reclaim the jargon employed in Granovetter 1978 andKuran 1991). ...
We investigate the gender gap in issue attention among members of parliament (MPs) by applying automated text analytic techniques to a novel data set on Italian parliamentary speeches over a remarkably long period (1948–2020). We detect a gendered specialization across issues that tends to disappear as women’s shares in parliamentary groups increase. We then investigate whether women’s access to previously male-owned issues brings with it a different agenda, operationalized as a different vocabulary. We detect a U-shaped pattern: language gender specificity is high when female MPs are tokens in parliamentary groups with a large preponderance of men; it decreases when their shares start increasing and grows again when they constitute a considerable minority. We argue that this pattern is consistent with the theory of tokenism, and it is produced by the interlinkage of commitment to shared norms and the distribution of “activation thresholds” among female MPs.
... Rosabeth Moss Kanter (1977Kanter ( , 1993 pioneered the study of tokenism theory by studying group dynamics and gender inequalities in organisational contexts. Her theory has underpinned various research studies oriented towards analysing the effects of numerical balance and distortion in relationships and between the groups constituted, especially based on gender (Santos & Amâncio, 2014). ...
... In her study, carried out in the United States of America, Kanter analysed the organisational dynamics in a context marked by the under-representation of one group (women) in relation to another (men), thus understanding how the interaction between both was affected by the very marked numerical imbalance and to what type of consequences women were subjected as members of the under-represented group. The author concluded that the numerical proportion of the groups is a fundamental factor in social life and that this has effects on the interactions established between the members of each group (Kanter, 1977(Kanter, , 1993. Kanter (1993) began by defining four types of groups existing in an organisational context, categorising them by the numerical proportion of their composition: i) the "uniform groups", homogeneous, made up of only one socially significant category in a proportion of 100:0; ii) the "skewed groups", made up of a proportion of about 85:15, in which one category predominates and the "phenomenon of tokenism" occurs. ...
... The author concluded that the numerical proportion of the groups is a fundamental factor in social life and that this has effects on the interactions established between the members of each group (Kanter, 1977(Kanter, , 1993. Kanter (1993) began by defining four types of groups existing in an organisational context, categorising them by the numerical proportion of their composition: i) the "uniform groups", homogeneous, made up of only one socially significant category in a proportion of 100:0; ii) the "skewed groups", made up of a proportion of about 85:15, in which one category predominates and the "phenomenon of tokenism" occurs. The author designates the members of majority groups as "dominant" because they control the group and its culture, and the minority category individuals as "tokens", "loners" or "solos", as if single individuals. ...
The main objective of this study was to analyse the eventual negative effects associated with male teachers in Portuguese secondary education as well as their strategies for integrating into a profession where women are in the majority. We carried out sixteen individual semi-structured interviews with eight male and eight female teachers and with the contents then submitted to thematic analysis. The analytical findings demonstrate how men, in this context, experience different consequences from those experienced by women facing similar situations while also identifying advantages accruing due to membership of the minority. The experiences of men and the perceptions of women suggest the existence of pressure for men to portray, as teachers, the traits of hegemonic masculinity.
... Rosabeth Moss Kanter (1977Kanter ( , 1993 foi pioneira no estudo da teoria do tokenism, através do estudo das dinâmicas de grupo e das desigualdades entre homens e mulheres em contextos organizacionais. A sua teoria tem sustentado várias pesquisas orientadas para a análise dos efeitos do equilíbrio e da distorção numéricos nas relações e entre grupos constituídos, especialmente, com base no gênero (Santos & Amâncio, 2014). ...
... No seu estudo, realizado nos Estados Unidos da América, Kanter analisou as dinâmicas organizacionais num contexto marcado pela sub-representação de um grupo (as mulheres) em relação a outro (os homens), compreendendo, dessa forma, como a interação entre ambos era afetada pelo desequilíbrio numérico muito acentuado e a que tipo de consequências as mulheres estavam sujeitas, enquanto membros do grupo sub-representado. A autora concluiu que a proporção numérica dos grupos é um fator fundamental na vida social, e que esta tem efeitos nas interações estabelecidas entre os membros de cada um deles (Kanter, 1977(Kanter, , 1993. Kanter (1993) começou por definir quatro tipos de grupos existentes em contexto organizacional, categorizando-os pela proporção numérica da sua composição: i) os "grupos uniformes", homogéneos, são constituídos por apenas uma categoria socialmente significativa, numa proporção de 100:0; ii) os "grupos distorcidos", compostos de uma proporção de cerca de 85:15, nos quais existe o predomínio de uma categoria, sendo nestes que se verifica o "fenômeno do tokenism". ...
... A autora concluiu que a proporção numérica dos grupos é um fator fundamental na vida social, e que esta tem efeitos nas interações estabelecidas entre os membros de cada um deles (Kanter, 1977(Kanter, , 1993. Kanter (1993) começou por definir quatro tipos de grupos existentes em contexto organizacional, categorizando-os pela proporção numérica da sua composição: i) os "grupos uniformes", homogéneos, são constituídos por apenas uma categoria socialmente significativa, numa proporção de 100:0; ii) os "grupos distorcidos", compostos de uma proporção de cerca de 85:15, nos quais existe o predomínio de uma categoria, sendo nestes que se verifica o "fenômeno do tokenism". A autora designou os membros dos grupos maioritários como "dominantes", pois controlam o grupo e a sua cultura, e os indivíduos da categoria minoritária, como "tokens", "solitários" ou "solos", caso sejam um único indivíduo. ...
Resumo Este estudo analisou os possíveis efeitos negativos associados aos homens docentes do ensino secundário português, bem como as suas estratégias para se integrarem em uma profissão em que as mulheres são maioritárias. Foram realizadas 16 entrevistas individuais semiestruturadas com 8 professores e 8 professoras, e os seus conteúdos foram submetidos a uma análise temática. A análise evidencia que os homens, nesse contexto, experienciam consequências distintas daquelas que as mulheres em situações similares vivenciam, assinalando-se, ainda, vantagens pela pertença à minoria. As experiências dos homens e as perceções das mulheres sugerem a existência de pressão para que os homens evidenciem, enquanto professores, os traços da masculinidade hegemônica.
... The psychological dimension of empowerment emphasizes the team member's perception of work and self-efficacy to achieve an effective empowerment process (Conger & Kanungo, 1988). National and international studies refer to Kanter's (1977) structural empowerment (SE) and Spreitzer's (1995) psychological empowerment (PE) theories to provide grounds for the empowerment of nurses. These two theories form the theoretical background of this study, which we conducted to examine the SE and PE levels and related factors in NGNs. ...
... The CWEQ-II for nurses, which was developed to measure SE levels of nurses based on Kanter's (1977) SE theory, was revised by Laschinger et al. (2001). The validity and reliability study of the CWEQ-II in Turkey was conducted by Mortaş in 2005. ...
Aims
To discuss the levels of structural empowerment (SE) and psychological empowerment (PE) and the factors that influence perceptions of empowerment among newly graduated nurses (NGNs).
Design
Mixed methods study.
Methods
The quantitative part of the study was conducted with 220 NGNs with <1 year of job experience. The study was conducted between February and May 2023. Focus group discussions were conducted with 30 NGNs. Data were collected by using the Conditions for Work Effectiveness Questionnaire (CWEQ‐II), the Psychological Empowerment Scale (PES) and a Semi‐Structured Interview Form. Quantitative data were analysed using stepwise regression analysis. Content analysis was used to analyse qualitative data.
Results
CWEQ‐II and PES were moderate. The regression analysis showed that NGNs' SE scores increased in association with the following factors, including an increase in the total score on the PES, being married/having a partner, working a day shift, having career planning, increased satisfaction with the orientation programmes of the institution and increased satisfaction with the employing institution. As a result of the descriptive analysis of the focus group interviews conducted to determine the empowerment perceptions of NGNs, we identified three contexts along with the associated themes and subthemes. These three contexts were the ‘concept of power’, ‘professional impression’ and ‘empowerment process’.
Conclusion
The results of this study indicate that the SE and PE levels of NGNs are moderate, and their empowerment perceptions are influenced by many factors that can be individual, organizational and work environment relevant.
Impact
This study's findings will guide policymakers, educators, researchers and administrators in empowering NGNs essential to the healthcare workforce.
Reporting Method
The paper adheres to the COREQ checklist.
Patient or Public Contribution
No patient or public contribution.
... La première théorie permet d'analyser les opportunités et ressources mobilisées par les candidates au cours des élections régionales. La seconde établit un baromètre dans l'étude de la représentation des femmes au sein des régions avec le pourcentage de 30%, comme seuil minimal international à partir duquel l'on peut considérer que les femmes y sont représentées et impactent sur la culture organisationnelle (Kanter, 1977 ;Dahlerup, 1988Dahlerup, , 2006Childs & Krook, 2008). Quant à la dimension méthodologique, elle permet d'analyser les « cadres de signification » (Hall & Taylor, 1997) de l'institution régionale qui dictent l'action des acteurs. ...
... Celui-ci désigne « l'ensemble des mécanismes visibles et invisibles qui empêchent aux femmes d'accéder aux postes les plus élevés dans la hiérarchie » (Achin & Bereni 2013 : 209). Plusieurs auteurs de la théorie des organisations ont contribué à enrichir ce concept, en le plaçant dans sa réalité matérielle, c'est-à-dire au coeur des organisations (Kanter, 1977 ;Acker, 1990). Selon une analyse de Jacqueline Laufer et Annie Fouquet (2001), le niveau des organisations « organise la rareté » des femmes à toutes les étapes de la carrière, du recrutement à la promotion. ...
Au Cameroun, il a fallu attendre l'année 2013 pour que les femmes atteignent la masse critique de 30 % à l'Assemblée nationale. La région comme circonscription politique effective institutionnalise un nouvel espace élitaire qui semble ne pas rétablir l’équilibre entre hommes et femmes aux postes électifs. En fait, le champ politique à l’épreuve du genre est dynamique. La très haute compétitivité en son sein a structuré la configuration d’une nouvelle strate d’élite durant les dernières élections régionales.Cette étude porte sur les raisons de l’absence des femmes au poste de président de région. Elle conclut que cette absence n’est pas
uniquement le résultat de l’existence d’un sentier de dépendance qui cantonne les
femmes aux fonctions d’assistante de responsables masculins, loin des fonctions
de souveraineté. Cette absence est aussi le résultat de la somme des rationalités de
certaines candidates. Cette étude pose les bases de la prise en compte de la participation politique des femmes comme ce qu’elle est en réalité : une politique publique partiellement implémentée.
... This extract reveals two different topics: the perceptions/representations of the female figures in science and the importance of networks and social capital in organizations. On the first point it should be observed that the woman's position (W/X) as a minority subject can be described in terms of both visibilityshe is seen as an anomalyand invisibilityshe is not recognized as a legitimate leader (Kanter, 1977). In society and in the organization there is a wide range of activities that refer to symbolic categories and collective representations that reflect the polarity of genders. ...
... Tokenism is a theory based on interactions and numerical proportions within a group. When there is a large preponderance of one group over another, the minority-group members are called tokens because they are typically treated as symbols of their category rather than as individuals (Kanter, 1977). Moreover, in situations in which the borders among groupsbetween men and womenare somewhat permeable, only a few members of the minority group will manage to gain access to nondisadvantaged positions. ...
The hard recognition of women-scientists' role is a central issue for national and supra-national institutions and organizations. Despite the growing access of women in scientific fields of study, the female presence in scientific institutes and equal career opportunities are struggling to establish themselves. These institutes refer to a gendered organizational structure able to reproduce differences in status of women and men. Focusing on the astrophysical sector, the article summarizes the results of a qualitative research that explores the role that gender plays in career paths. In fact, social and cultural practices related to gender can be considered as interpretative keys through which investigate the process of stratification and mobility and the power relations in the workplace. Within organizations, the way in which women-scientists define themselves is the result of processes that interactively act on different levels and spheres of life, and are linked to social norms and representations related to gender roles. Only re-defining the relationships that women have established with the political and social order of the scientific environment gender equality can be achieved.
... We use the presence and proportion of female directors on the board to measure board gender diversity. Using the proportion of female directors addresses the issue of tokenism (Kanter, 1977). 3 We use product market competition and CT orders as proxies for high proprietary costs. ...
... First, prior studies suggest that having only one female director on a board may often serve as tokenism (e.g., Bourez, 2005;Kanter, 1977;Kramer et al., 2006). Also, having only one female director on a board may not be sufficient to constitute gender diversity, especially for large boards. ...
We examine whether gender-diverse boards prioritize product market concerns over capital market incentives when proprietary costs are high. We argue that gender-diverse boards protect their firm’s competitive edge and maximize long-term shareholder wealth by ethically and carefully maintaining the confidentiality of proprietary information. Due to the reduced disclosure of proprietary information, firms with gender-diverse boards are likely to face more adverse selection when proprietary costs are high. However, the reduced disclosure of proprietary information enables firms with gender-diverse boards to enhance and maintain their competitive edge and gain higher long-term returns. Using a matched sample of the United States-listed companies, we find that firms with gender-diverse boards, relative to similar firms with all-male boards, (1) are associated with higher adverse selection costs and (2) higher long-run stock returns when the firm faces high product market competition. Collectively, our results suggest that firms with gender-diverse boards, which initially experience higher adverse selection in a competitive environment, are rewarded with a net gain of about 10 percent of their stock price in three years. Our research contributes to the literature by highlighting the importance of board gender diversity in fostering the ethical redaction of proprietary information for proprietary cost-based motives as opposed to agency cost-based motives. Our findings have important implications for regulators, firms, and shareholders by identifying gender-diverse boards as an antecedent for the ethical redaction of proprietary information.
... Cultural norms around work contribute to these divisions. A foundational labor norm is the ideal worker, a mythological archetype who is independent, unemotional, and completely committed to their employer (Abramovitz, 1996;Acker, 2006;Davies & Frink, 2014;Moss Kanter, 1977). It relies on the privilege of individual workers to be free from any distractions, passions, or obligations outside of work. ...
... These policies at once incentivize workers to avoid taking time off for work and punish them when they must or choose to take time off, despite the time off being earned and in many cases necessary for caregiving. These experiences may be exacerbated by strong workplace culture in healthcare settings, including healthcare workers' resistance to calling off (Szymczak et al., 2015), the hierarchical discrimination of Black and female workers (Khan, 2022), and the broader impact of the ideal worker archetype (Moss Kanter, 1977). Other research has shown that workplaces where the culture discourages calling off can result in differential punishment for those who use the policy (Thébaud & Pedulla, 2022). ...
Access to paid time off in the United States is limited compared to most other nations due to lacking federal paid leave policies. Within the labor market access is unequal, with workers with less racial, class, and gender privilege having less access. In the absence of federal policy, most research compares the experiences of those with and without paid time off, building an argument for this important policy. However, research examining the experiences of workers with paid time off who are relatively unlikely to have it is lacking. Applying a critical ecological framework, the current study draws from interviews with 21 single parents working low paying healthcare jobs to extend the literature by examining how they experience workplace paid leave policies. The findings illustrate how the power of a beneficial workplace paid leave policy can be limited by interaction with other workplace policies, policy implementation practices, and the broader social ecology. This interaction transforms this universal policy into a racialized, gendered, and classed policy that can punish low-paid single mothers, who are primarily Black women, for using their earned time for caregiving, thereby contributing to employment instability. The findings of this study add nuance to the available literature and suggests that examining marginalized workers’ experiences of workplace policy implementation can reveal mechanisms by which institutional discrimination is maintained in workplaces.
... The third purpose of our study was to examine the impact of perceived workplace discrimination on work attitudes and organizational outcomes. Related theory on racism and sexism in organizations holds that perceptions of discrimination have a negative impact on workers' attitudes and organizational outcomes (Kanter, 1977;Pettigrew & Martin, 1987), and emerging perspectives predict that similar relationships for gay men and lesbians may be expected (cf. Croteau, 1996;Diamant, 1993;Fassinger, 1996). ...
... The practice of welcoming a gay partner at social events sends a very distinct message to both gay and heterosexual employees, which may affect perceptions of discrimination and organizational climate. This practice not only reflects a level of comfort with gay employees in social settings but also acknowledges that exclusion of gay employees from social events constitutes a subtle but pervasive form of discrimination; informal networking and the sharing of important work-related information often occur during such events (Kanter, 1977). The practice of welcoming gay partners at social events may also be an example of organizations that "walk the talk" with respect to accepting sexual orientation diversity and may reflect a deeper level of commitment to diversity than other policies and practices. ...
A model of perceived sexual orientation discrimination was tested in a national sample of 534 gay and lesbian employees. The effects of legislation, organizational policies and practices, and work group composition on perceived sexual orientation discrimination were examined, as well as the attitudinal and organizational outcomes associated with discrimination. Gay employees were more likely to report discrimination when employed in groups that were primarily heterosexual and in organizations that lacked supportive policies and were not covered by protective legislation. Disclosure of sexual orientation at work was related to discrimination and antecedent variables. Perceived discrimination was associated with negative work attitudes and fewer promotions. Organizational policies and practices had the strongest impact on perceived discrimination and were directly related to outcomes.
... Although there are a number of reasons for expecting gender differences in the history and termination of mentoring relationships, it should be pointed out that the first two of the three reasons just cited may reflect opportunity and organizational barriers rather than protege sex. In fact, a structuralist perspective (Kanter, 1977) holds that many gender differences in organizational behavior are really a function of gender differences in rank and organizational power and that differences in rank should be controlled for when conducting comparative gender research. This caveat certainly applies to the present study. ...
... Although our study may provide indirect support for a structuralist interpretation of gender differences in mentorship (Kanter, 1977), it is important to recognize that we did not attempt to compare structural and gender effects. A comparative analysis of structural and gender effects would require matched samples of male and female employees at high and low ranks in an organization; within-group gender differences would support a gender explanation, whereas between-levels differences would support a structuralist explanation. ...
The relationship between gender and the termination of mentoring relationships was assessed in a matched sample of 142 male and female ex-protégés. Counter to prevailing assumptions, when gender differences in rank, salary, tenure, and other demographic and organizational variables were controlled, women did not differ from men in the number or duration of prior relationships or in their reasons for terminating the relationship.
... Entre los principales logros del largo camino desarrollado por las mujeres y del avance en estos temas durante la transición democrática se destacan: la reforma del Código Civil con la sanción de Ley de Patria Potestad Compartida, la Ley de Divorcio, la ratificación por Ley de la Convención para la Eliminación de Todas las Formas de Discriminación Contra la Mujer (CEDAW), en 1987, y su incorporación en la Constitución Nacional en 1994; la Ley del Cupo Femenino en 1991 y la Ley de Cupo del Senado en 2001, la Comisión Tripartita para la Igualdad de Oportunidades en el Mundo Laboral, avances en términos de salud reproductiva y violencia familiar, entre otros. 3 El techo de cristal es un concepto acuñado en USA en los años setenta para describir las barreras invisibles creadas por perjuicios de comportamiento y organizacionales que impiden a las mujeres a acceder a las responsabilidades más altas (MossKanter, 1977). ...
Luego de 4 décadas de la vuelta a la democracia argentina, reflexionar sobre la inserción de las mujeres en la política exterior nos lleva a recorrer sus presencias y ausencias en la vida diplomática nacional y vislumbrar el rol de las mujeres en las misiones de paz al resignificarse como protagonistas y convertirse en piezas claves en los procesos de construcción de paz. La inauguración en los últimos años de un nuevo paradigma de Política Exterior Feminista (PEF) liderado por países vanguardistas y que llega más tardíamente a América Latina de la mano de México, Chile y Argentina, abre un nuevo desafío donde se vuelve a analizar desde perspectivas críticas el rol de las mujeres y las contradicciones y limitaciones de la nueva propuesta. Feminismo de Estado, Feminismos institucionales y Feminismos de coloniales enmarcan el debate en torno a los balances y desafíos de la región latinoamericana.
... Here, Kati reflects on her experiences as a "token" (Kanter, 1977;Lewis and Simpson, 2012), suggesting that a more gender balanced team could shift the focus on other differences than gender. ...
Purpose
The purpose of this study is to understand how executives in technology companies relate to targets for gender equality, especially pertaining to top management.
Design/methodology/approach
The study draws on 19 interviews of CEOs, senior line managers and HR directors in ten technology companies operating in Finland. The method is (reflexive) thematic analysis.
Findings
Previous studies on the role of executives in promoting gender equality provide somewhat mixed results: while their role is vital, senior leaders may not be inclined to support gender equality targets and measures. Drawing on critical feminist theorizing, this study identifies three ways in which the executives in technology companies related to gender equality targets: endorsing, negotiating and resisting. However, all these responses were constrained by the executives’ assumption that their companies are meritocratic. The study illustrates how executives’ narrow understanding of gender equality and reliance on the presumably well-working systems, combined with underlying doubts about the competence of women, hinder the advancement of women to top management.
Originality/value
While previous studies have evaluated targets to increase the number/percentage of women, both in certain “ideal case” companies and in terms of their effectiveness more broadly, this study discusses how technology company executives navigate these targets in relation to women's assumed “competence”.
... Given that the district is predominantly White, have indicated they struggle with hiring teachers of color, and has a preference to hire from within and those in-network, perpetuation of the current lack of diversity in the district will extend to the future. Research has suggested that people are typically networked with those that have similar attributes (Marin & Wellman, 2011), and in the hiring context, this results in a homologous reproduction of similar type individuals in the organization, making the organization racialized (Kanter, 1977;Ray, 2019). Additionally, the practice of hiring based on connections and in-network is inherently a gendered practice as well (Mastracci & Arreola, 2016). ...
This study leverages the theories of racialized and gendered organizations as frameworks to examine a Southeastern school district's aspiring leadership program and hiring practices to determine the extent to which they produce and reproduce gender and race-based norms that promote workplace exclusion for women and people of color interested in the school principalship. Data were obtained from interviews with district administrators, school administrators, and teachers (n = 12). Findings provide support that the district operates in a manner consistent with a racialized and gendered organization. Results are discussed, and implications for improvement are provided.
... In contrast, Helgesen (1990) and Rosener (1990) found that women tended to share information, invite participation in decisions making, engage in relationship building, ensure others felt included, and take a long-term focus. Female leaders did not perceive themselves as "company women" following typecast norms (see also Kanter, 1977). Instead, they saw themselves and their colleagues as humans with varied backgrounds who react differently to work challenges. ...
Growing evidence suggests the presence of a female leadership advantage (FLA), such that women leaders tend to be associated with more effective outcomes in uncertain conditions. However, mechanisms linking women's leadership to effective outcomes are less well understood. We integrate FLA insights with ethics of care philosophical framework to conceptualize how women leaders achieve effective outcomes in the context of the urban revitalization crisis in the United States. We propose and empirically test the mediating role of ethics of care leadership in the relationship between women mayors and economic health of their cities. We used data from the Urban Institute that includes 272 United States cities and measures of variables in our conceptual model at five points in time spanning 36 years (n = 1185 city-year observations). We capture ethics of care leadership focused on racial inclusion with an index measure of a city’s racial spatial segregation, homeownership gap, poverty gap, and education gap, and we capture economic health with an index measure of a city’s employment growth, unemployment rate, housing vacancy rate, and median family income. We found that female-led cities were associated with better economic health, and this association was mediated by female-led cities’ association with greater racial inclusion. Ethics of care leadership appears to be one pathway through which a FLA manifests itself in the context of the urban revitalization crisis. This underscores the importance of city leadership that balances social and economic prerogatives. Implications are discussed.
... Moreover, we find that the presence of women in the TMT of Italian public hospitals does not affect the hospital financial performance. This result is in line with the research on gender diversity (Torchia et al, 2011) suggesting that when women represent only simple tokens (Kanter, 1987), they are not able to influence the processes and dynamics of TMTs. This finding also confirms those studies on financial performance in the public and healthcare sector (Veronesi et al, 2014) according to which female managers, as their male counterparts, are not particularly concerned with cutting costs to the detriment of the quality of cares and tend to comply with budget constraints (Ellwood et al, 2015;Dunham and Yhouse, 2007). ...
Several public reforms have tried to ensure the involvement of women in hospital governance to encourage their career advancement and their representation in top management positions. However, literature suggests that women are still under-represented in global health leadership and highlights a strong gender discrimination in the healthcare sector due to the barriers that limit their career advancement. Despite the evidence shows that women are still under-represented as leaders, there are many reasons to believe that including women in the top management team (hereafter TMT) may be beneficial for hospital outcomes. Relying on various gender theories, previous corporate governance research has extensively
shown that board gender diversity fosters the close monitoring of the strategic decisions, brings to the boardroom critical resources, and stimulates the debate among directors enhancing the exchange of ideas. However, limited efforts have been made with regard to the performance effects of women involvement in hospital governance. The article investigates the effect of women in TMT on hospital performance. To this aim, it examines a sample of 102 Italian public hospitals, including general, teaching and research hospitals. We collect information on hospital performance and composition of TMTs from multiple data sources (i.e. NHS databases, hospital reports, and hospital websites). We capture hospital performance with reference to both financial and non-financial outcomes. Indeed, much of the criticism of focusing only on the impact of women on financial performance stems from the idea that it may diminish prospects for overall improvement due to the complex and multifaceted purposes of healthcare organizations. Findings document that the presence of women in hospital
TMT does not affect the financial performance, while it has a negative effect on non-financial dimensions. The paper has contributions for theory and practices. From a theoretical standpoint, analyzing financial and non-financial performance
implications of women in hospital governance, our results contributes to the existing empirical research on women in governance by providing insight into the healthcare sector that is still under-explored. From a practical standpoint, our research suggests the importance of fostering the participation of women on TMT to bring hospital governance with values, backgrounds and skills able to improve organizational results. Thus, it calls for proper normative actions aiming to foster a
higher participation of women at apical positions in hospital governance.
... This new component of the model capitalizes on the growing body of work that documents the unique challenges individuals face in organizations because of the social categories to which they belong. While a wide range of organizational outcomes have been examined in relation to social categories and particularly gender -including careers, social networks, and negotiation (Ibarra, 1992;Kanter, 1977;Kray et al., 2001) -less attention has been given to the relationship between social categories and decision making. We examine how belonging to a social category may influence decision makers' self-enhancing propensity and consequently the decisions they make under ambiguity. ...
Although ambiguity is a pervasive feature of organizations, its influence on organizational decision making is often overlooked. We aim to advance understanding of decision making under ambiguity in organizations by combining insights from organizational research within the Carnegie perspective with psychological research on fundamental human motives. We propose the Carnegie plus Self-Enhancement (CSE) model, integrating the influence of self-enhancement-a fundamental psychological motive-on organizational decision-making under ambiguity. To develop our model, we review existing literature on how self-enhancement influences interpretation of ambiguity in organizational decision making. We then expand on this research by linking self-enhancement to individuals' social categories (gender and social class), identifying previously unexplored sources of variation in self-enhancement in organizational decision-making. Our analysis elaborates on how belonging to a social category influences decision-makers' self-enhancement and, consequently, decision-making in ambiguous situations. This approach offers a nuanced decision-making model that considers societal positions, thereby contributing to a more complete understanding of organizational decision-making.
... Therefore managers with (a) longer service in a particular organization (organizational tenure) or (b) career history as a manager (role tenure) may be more likely to integrate policies and procedures into their framing biases and behave accordingly. Further, managers with longer organizational tenure have more familiarity with the organization's standing operating procedures, people, and culture (Kanter, 1977), probably have greater commitment to the existing systems and the status quo (Hambrick, Geletkanycz, & Fredrickson, 1993) and are biased to general conformity (Finkelstein & Hambrick, 1990). Because of this they are more likely to follow the policies and procedures of the organization. ...
The workplace reintegration of employees that have recovered from longer-term injury or illness is usually legally required and often challenging to complete. This article pertains to disability management policies, managerial behaviours, and return-to-work outcomes of such reintegration activities. Previous research has neglected the intermediary role of managers in the return-to-work process. To remedy this gap, descriptions and categorizations of pertinent disability management policies, manager behaviours, and outcomes, as well as theoretical explanations for the connections between these constructs, are presented. The central nature of managerial behaviours is noted. Consequently, the article provides structure to support additional research on the relationship between policies, behaviours, and outcomes. Further, the presented logical model offers pathway guidance for diagnostic and initiative actions for the reintegration of employees to the workplace.
... In the current study, the Cronbach α of the whole scale was 0.896, and the correlation coefficient of its dimensions was 0.978. CWEQ-II was developed based on the theory of work effectiveness, which resulted from an initial ethnographic study (Kanter, 1977). The instrument was finally developed by Laschinger et al. in 1996. ...
Background: Nurses significantly contribute to the healthcare system, constituting the highest number of healthcare staff. A positive attitude or mindset at work increases the ability to carry out the organization’s duties, tasks, and plans. This study investigates the relationship between work effectiveness and work engagement of nurses in the selected hospitals affiliated with Iran University of Medical Sciences (IUMS), Tehran City, Iran, in 2021. Methods: This descriptive cross-sectional study has employed a correlational design. A total of 255 nurses working in selected hospitals affiliated with IUMS were recruited through proportionate stratified sampling. The study data were collected using the utrecht work engagement scale (UWES) and conditions for work effectiveness questionnaire II (CWEQ-II). Statistical analyses involved descriptive statistics, the independent t-test, analysis of variance, the Pearson correlation, and regression in SPSS software, version 22. The significance level was set at P<0.05. Results: The Mean±SD work effectiveness among nurses was found to be 37.31±7.41, indicating their medium-to-high work effectiveness. Also, their Mean±SD work engagement was 68.96±15.48, indicating the high work engagement of nurses. There was also a significant positive relationship (r=0.656, P<0.001) between the total work effectiveness score and work engagement. The results showed that the “support” dimension of work effectiveness exhibited the highest correlation with work engagement (r=0.606, P<0.001). Also, the “absorption by work” dimension of work engagement had the highest correlation with work effectiveness (r=0.653, P<0.001). Conclusion: According to the study results, increasing the work effectiveness of nurses necessitates the creation of a positive attitude and perspective through managerial actions.
... Underlining this point, gender parity targets have also focused only on the professional level, ignoring the feminized support categories where women have always been well represented. The focus on professional women-characteristic of liberal feminism (Kanter 1977)-also leaves undisturbed institutional practices and deep-seated power dynamics not only between men and women, but also among and between different nationalities, staffing categories, and ethnicities. ...
This article will shed light on an under-researched aspect of the implementation of gender policies in the UN Secretariat—the administrative and budgetary committees that establish the staff regulations for civilian personnel. The article will explore how the politics of UN recruitment invokes two primary identities—nationality and gender—and how these conflict with each other. Using demographic analysis of UN civilian staff in peace operations and a micro-case study of an ongoing attempt by the Secretary-General to change the staff rules and regulations to introduce a form of affirmative action to reach gender parity, this article finds that efforts to achieve the representative provisions of UN Security Council Resolution 1325, including through gender parity of civilians in peace operations, are hampered by the primacy of national identity in international organizations as well as by the highly politicized and nation state-driven process of administrative and budgetary decision-making. By focusing on the inner dynamics of decision-making in the United Nations, the article contributes to the literature on international organizations and gender by demonstrating how normative goals can be undermined by competition among member states over internal administrative processes arising from complex principal–agent relationships.
... There are two forms of empowerment: structural and psychological. Structural empowerment has several components, including development opportunities and access to information, support, and resources; formal power indicating visibility and flexibility; and informal power incorporating relationships and networks (Kanter, 1993). Psychological empowerment (Spreitzer, 1995) has four dimensions: meaning, competence, autonomy and impact. ...
Background
Authentic leadership and empowered nurses are necessary if a healthy work environment is to be created and patient safety maintained; however, few studies have examined the impact of authentic leadership, on nurse empowerment and the patient safety climate.
Purpose
The aim of the study was to investigate the impact of an educational intervention delivered through a multi‐faceted training programme on nurses' perceptions of authentic leadership, nurse empowerment (both structural and psychological) and the patient safety climate.
Design
A quasi‐experimental study using a one‐group pretest–posttest design consistent with TREND guidelines.
Methods
The study was conducted in a university hospital between December 2018 and January 2020. Participants were followed for 6 months. The programme involved 36 head nurses (leaders) and 153 nurses (followers). The effectiveness of the programme was evaluated using repeated measures of analysis of variance, dependent sample t‐tests and hierarchical regression analysis.
Results
Following the intervention, safety climate and authentic leadership scores increased among both leaders and followers. Structural and psychological empowerment scores also increased among followers. We found that authentic leadership and structural empowerment were predictors of safety climate.
Conclusion
The implementation of the education programme resulted in positive changes in participants' perceptions of authentic leadership and empowerment, which can enhance patient safety.
Implications
Healthcare organizations can implement similar multi‐faceted training programmes focused on authentic leadership, and nurse empowerment to increase patient safety. Achieving effective results in such programmes can be facilitated by motivating participants with the support of the top management.
Patient or Public Contribution
The study included nurses in the intervention and the data collection processes.
Impact
Patient safety is a global concern, and improving patient safety culture/climate is a key strategy in preventing harm.
Authentic leadership and nurse empowerment are essential in creating healthy work environments and delivering safe, high‐quality care.
Training programmes addressing these issues can help bring about improvements in healthcare organizations.
... A more critical interpretation (Kanter, 1977;Beccalli, 1991;David and Vicarelli, 1994) suggests that, because women have not usually been able to wield formal authority in the organizations for which they work, they have been forced to develop other strategies to that end, most notably an ability (typical of those in positions of inferiority) to «feel» and anticipate the reactions of others. ...
While Experiential Learning has been an influential methods in the education and development of managers and management students, it has also been one of the most misunderstood. This Handbook offers the reader a comprehensive picture of current thinking on experiential learning; ideas and examples of experiential learning in practice; and it emphasises the importance of experiential learning to the future of management education. Contributors include: Chris Argyris, Joseph Champoux, D. Christopher Kayes, Ruth Colquhoun, John Coopey, Nelarine Cornelius, Elizabeth L. Creese, Gordon Dehler, Andrea Ellinger, Meretta Elliott, Silvia Gherardi, Jeff Gold, Steve G. Green, Kurt Heppard, Anne Herbert, Robin Holt, Martin J. Hornyak, Paula Hyde, Tusse Sidenius Jensen, Sandra Jones, Anna Kayes, Kirsi Korpiaho, Tracy Lamping, Enrico Maria Piras, Amar Mistry, Dale Murray, Jean Neumann, Barbara Poggio, Keijo Räsänen, Peter Reason, Michael Reynolds, Clare Rigg, Bente Rugaard Thorsen, Burkard Sievers, Stephen Smith, Sari Stenfors, Antonio Strati, Elaine Swan, Jane Thompson, Richard Thorpe, Kiran Trehan, Russ Vince, Jane Rohde Voight, Tony Watson, and Ann Welsh.
... Regarding the findings, gender contributed the greatest influence with the female gender weakening the interdependence and professional activities dimensions, while males did vice versa. Both genders had different qualitative interactional pattern in the process of collaboration (Kanter, 1977;Ibarra, 1992;Smithlovin and McPherson, 1993). Male tends to have dominant networks, whereas women tend to have female or mixed networks (McKinsey and LeanIn. ...
Collaboration competence is a competence that needs to be mastered by every guidance and counseling teacher. It functions as a means of supporting the provision of guidance and counseling services at a school. Further, interdisciplinary collaboration is partnership cooperation in a team that involves professionals from various fields of science. It is done through coordination and collaboration for the sake of having the best decision-making in an effort of developing programs. This study attempted to determine the level of guidance and counseling teachers' interdisciplinary collaboration competence viewed from gender, age, and educational levels. In terms of methods, the current study used the scale of the Index of Interdisciplinary Collaboration (IIC) designed by (Bronstein, 2002). A total of 1161 guidance and counseling teachers throughout Indonesia were selected as respondents. Their data were analyzed using a descriptive analysis technique. Based on the findings, it is concluded that the overall level of guidance and counseling teachers' collaboration competence is low.
... Typical leaders may also engage less with emotional labour than atypical leaders, as their power and legitimacy derive from established norms and traditions that trigger homosocial reproduction (Kanter, 1977). This tendency is particularly strong in environments where there is a high degree of uncertainty. ...
Leaders from typically privileged backgrounds, such as white, male, elite-educated, and upper-class individuals, often find it easier to craft an authentic identity in professional settings than their atypical counterparts. These atypical leaders, which include women, LGBT+, ethnic minorities, or those from less affluent socioeconomic backgrounds, can indeed construct an authentic workplace identity. However, this often demands significant emotional investment and the navigation of challenges, such as reconciling conflicting identities, especially in institutions tailored predominantly for the typical leaders. While authenticity and diversity are highly desired qualities in leadership, we argue that authenticity remains a privilege primarily enjoyed by leaders from typical backgrounds. By drawing on Hochschild's notion of emotional labour and Castoriadis's concepts of autonomy and heteronomy, we shed light on the dynamic interplay between authenticity and atypicality. Further, we present a conceptual framework that outlines how atypical leaders can manifest authenticity in their roles, and the ensuing implications for driving organisational change rooted in diversity.
... This argument was born out of a shift in how the sociological literature views the role of women leaders in organisations. Female leaders have been 'cogs in the machine', i.e. displaying masculine traits (Miliopoulou & Kapareliotis, 2021), bias in favour of men (Dutton, 2018), or lacking power to affect gender-positive change (Kanter, 1977). ...
Employer family policy tends to be conceived as employers’ response to economic pressures, with the relevance of normative factors given comparatively little weight. This study questions this status quo, examining the normative relevance of public childcare and female leadership to employer childcare. Logistic regression analyses are performed on data from the 2016 National Study of Employers (NSE), a representative study of private sector employers in the United States. The findings show that public childcare is relevant for those forms of employer childcare more plausibly explained as the result of employers’ normative as opposed to economic considerations. The findings further suggest that female leaders are highly relevant for employer childcare, but that this significance differs depending on whether the form of employer childcare is more likely of economic versus normative importance to employers. The study provides an empirical contribution in that it is the first to use representative data of the United States to examine the relevance of state-level public childcare and female leadership. Its theoretical contribution is to show that normative explanations for employer childcare provision are likely underestimated in U.S. employer family policy research.
... Tis theory posits that structural empowerment materializes when individuals are granted an approach to information, resources, support, and opportunities for learning and development. Consequently, when nurses have access to these invaluable resources and opportunities, they are more likely to experience feelings of competence, autonomy, and control over their work, which, in turn, can foster heightened psychological empowerment [16,17]. ...
Aim. The objective was to investigate the impact of structural empowerment and demographic factors on the psychological empowerment of nurses. Background. The empowerment of nurses plays a crucial role in improving patient care and achieving successful healthcare outcomes. When nurses feel empowered in their work environment, they tend to remain dedicated to their jobs and experience higher levels of job satisfaction and engagement. Methods. This cross-sectional study utilized a convenience sample of 287 nurses recruited from various hospital units, resulting in a response rate of 94.7%. Data were collected through a paper survey consisting of three sections: structural empowerment, psychological empowerment, and demographics. Results. The first hierarchical regression explains 57.0% variance in nurses’ psychological empowerment (F = 78.52, p < 0.001). Age (β = 0.37, p < 0.01) and structural empowerment (β = 0.69, p < 0.001) have a positive influence on nurses’ psychological empowerment. Conversely, having a bachelor’s degree (β = −0.16, p < 0.01) had a negative impact psychological empowerment. The second hierarchical regression clarifies the specific aspects of structural empowerment that influences positively on nurses’ psychological empowerment: access to opportunities (β = 0.13, p < 0.01), support (β = 0.13, p < 0.01), resources (β = 0.35, p < 0.001), and informal power (β = 0.12, p < 0.01). Conclusion. This study emphasizes the importance of considering demographic variables, such as age and education, in conjunction with structural empowerment to effectively enhance nurses’ psychological empowerment. Implications for Nursing Management. Nursing managers should tailor their empowerment strategies based on the demographic characteristics of their nurses. It is essential to focus on providing nurses with access to opportunities, support, resources, and informal power. These insights provide valuable guidance for nursing managers to enhance nurses’ psychological well-being, job satisfaction, and overall quality of life. Ultimately, this contributes to positive outcomes for patients, nursing staff, and healthcare organizations.
... Structural explanations of gender in organizations examine the effect of position of women in organizational hierarchy and the ratio of women for understanding career and work situation. For example, Kanter (1977) found that those in minority will experience pressures that will cast them into stereotypes. This will apply to the situation of women in science. ...
Scientific research is conducted in organizations which are believed to be rational and gender-neutral. However, this belief masks ‘hegemonic masculinity’ embedded in the organizations that hinder full utilization of potential of women scientists. Gender relations are reproduced in organizations through interactions, perceptions and beliefs. Using the concepts from gender and organizations and from gender and science, this study attempts to unravel how gender is done in scientific research organizations. This study is based upon the in-depth survey of men and women scientists in two CSIR labs and two reputed private research labs. The findings indicate that gender is done through various organizational practices and scientific norms.
... Structural explanations of gender in organizations examine the effect of position of women in organizational hierarchy and the ratio of women for understanding career and work situation. For example, Kanter (1977) found that those in minority will experience pressures that will cast them into stereotypes. This will apply to the situation of women in science. ...
... One of the consequences of the continued patriarchal bias in cor porations is that women in corporations often must go through a process of masculinization to be accepted as legitimate leaders. This process normally encourages individuals to conform to the idealistic and normative social beha vior of corporate cultures, defined by dominant men (Moss Kanter, 1977). As a result, many women in corporate leadership positions believe that they must avoid marriage and childbearing to compete with male workers (Patterson & Bae, 2013). ...
... They introduce a dynamic that cannot be fully appreciated as simply the effects due to the sum of the individual descriptors. Kanter (1977) offered an example when she argued that proportions of individuals in organizations will often have important effects on those who are in minority groups. This was due to the increased visibility and scrutiny of minority group members. ...
Organizational demography contends that demographic characteristics of individuals, examined at individual, dyadic, group, and organizational levels of analysis, exert significant effects on organizational processes. The purpose of this article was to test the contextual effects created by the interaction of work-group age composition and supervisor age on supervisor evaluations of subordinate performance. Two competing models of age demography were tested. The similarity model predicts that supervisors similar in age to the work group they supervise will issue generally higher performance ratings. The dissimilarity model, developed in this article, predicts the opposite. Support was indicated for the dissimilarity model. Implications of the results are discussed.
... Yet it appears that women are not being effectively integrated into certain occupational roles, particularly high-status, managerial positions (Brown, 1979;Riger & Galligan, 1980), and consequently, the composition of work groups may still be determined to some extent by members' gender. The continued sex structuring of work roles has been attributed to discrimination stemming from a variety of factors, including the impact of sex role stereotypes on women's behavior in employment settings (Schein, 1978), women's relative lack of managerial skills and abilities (Harragan, 1977;Hennig & Jardim, 1977), and such organizational influences on women's behavior as the role of token woman or a lack of access to institutional power bases (Kanter, 1977(Kanter, , 1981. ...
To examine the impact of sex composition of groups on productivity, a meta-analytic review was conducted on the findings of past laboratory research. Two classes of factors were distinguished to account for any performance differences obtained: (a) task contents or settings that favor the interests and abilities of one sex over the other and (b) group-level factors, such as men's and women's interaction, in particular, the tendency for men in groups to offer opinions and suggestions and the tendency for women to act friendly and agree with others. Overall, all-male groups were found to perform better than all-female ones. This appeared due to tasks or settings that favored men's interests and abilities over women's. The effects of group-level factors, such as interaction style, became apparent when tasks were classified in terms of the type of interaction required for completion. Female group members' interaction apparently facilitated performance at tasks requiring positive social activities, including friendliness and agreement with others. Men's interaction style slightly, although not reliably, facilitated performance on tasks requiring task-oriented behavior, such as giving opinions and suggestions. The few findings located concerning mixed-sex groups demonstrated a slight, though not significant, tendency for mixed-sex groups to outperform same-sex ones.
... A self-confident woman ward councillor can join any network or group within the council irrespective of whether it is male or female dominated. Kanter's (1977) theory of tokenism holds that underrepresented individuals require unique strategies for success and achievement because they often must respond to different expectations and have different resources than their mainstream peers. The concept of "tokenism" has been used widely to explain many of the difficulties women face as they enter traditionally male dominated occupations. ...
This study explores the intra‐organizational antecedents of sustainable governance by examining the impact of female presence at the corporate apex. Drawing upon the upper echelon theory, we investigate whether women in top positions influence sustainable governance practices. Our research focuses on a sample of companies operating within two distinct market economies: liberal market economies (LMEs) and coordinated market economies (CMEs). The United States, represented by the S&P100, and the United Kingdom, represented by the FTSE100, serve as examples of LMEs. Conversely, Germany (DAX30), France (CAC40), Spain (IBEX35), and Switzerland (SMI) are illustrative of CMEs. Analyzing archival data spanning from 2010 to 2019, we confirm that the presence of a critical mass of women on the board of directors significantly increases the likelihood of establishing a sustainability committee within organizations. This relationship holds true across both LMEs and CMEs, highlighting the universal importance of gender diversity in driving sustainable governance initiatives. Interestingly, we observe that the impact of women with structural power on sustainability committee formation is specific to LMEs, suggesting the context‐dependent nature of female leadership in sustainable governance.
This paper offers a thorough examination of case studies within the realm of management science research, specifically concentrating on the intersecting themes of digitalization and sustainability. Emphasizing case studies as a central research methodology, it underscores their effectiveness in exploring nuanced aspects of management, especially in light of contemporary challenges posed by digitalization and sustainability. The article highlights the significance of case studies in uncovering the intricate dynamics of digitalization and sustainability within organizational frameworks. It explores how these studies yield insights into the integration of digital technologies, the optimization of sustainable practices, and the complex interplay between the two. Additionally, it underscores the capacity of case studies to provide valuable empirical evidence, fostering a contextualized understanding of how organizations navigate the complexities associated with digital transformation while prioritizing sustainability goals. In conclusion, the paper advocates for the continual exploration and application of case studies as a robust methodology in management science research. It argues that case studies offer a holistic and practical approach to examining the intricate relationship between digitalization and sustainability, contributing to a nuanced understanding of management practices in the evolving landscape of contemporary business environments.
Los Critical Management Studies (CMS) es un movimiento académico que ha tenido como objetivo principal el proporcionar análisis críticos del mundo empresarial dentro de unos espacios tradicionalmente hostiles a ópticas alternativas, como son los de las escuelas de negocios y los estudios de administración de empresas. La perspectiva teórica de los CMS ha estado fuertemente ligada a las teorías y filosofías postmodernas, con un interés especial en los elementos culturales y simbólicos presentes en las organizaciones en un momento histórico marcado por la hegemonía del neoliberalismo. Es por ello por lo que la preocupación por las cuestiones relacionadas con el feminismo y el género ha sido fundamental en los análisis críticos de este movimiento, y merece la pena ser explorado, sobre todo una vez que la producción académica sobre estas cuestiones ha sido muy extensa y fragmentada. En este artículo, nuestra propuesta es la de realizar una revisión de los análisis con perspectiva feminista que, en los CMS, se han realizado a lo largo de las últimas tres décadas, así como la recepción que, en dicho espacio, han tenido debates procedentes de otras áreas de conocimiento como la filosofía o los estudios de género.
This chapter sheds light on the institutional and individual factors that are part of the vicious cycle (or limbo) of casualisation. The PhD may bring with it a perception of a rise in status, along with greater confidence. However, for many respondents this shift was not accompanied by a real difference—rather, the situation felt less stable, with professional identity and sense of institutional place being compromised, leading respondents to tolerate exploitative conditions for the sake of a tenuous academic identity. The chapter ends by considering the role of academics’ investment in their work and the difficulty of horizontal solidarity in the hierarchical space of academia. Without access to space and time for research, and finding themselves on the outside of their academic community, casualised academics seek non-institutional support and community elsewhere. Considering the changes over the years in participants’ views of their academic identity, the chapter notes the short-term and long-term impacts of casualisation on both an individual and an institutional level.
The study answered the research question, ‘why are minority groups underrepresented in police firearms teams?’ by critically examining; the perceptions of firearms teams’ culture among two groups: current and former AFOs; and non-AFOs; assessing cultural barriers to improving inclusion and diversity within firearms teams; AFO practice (to determine whether elements of the role exclude or limit diversity); and whether there are any aspects of uniform, equipment, or training that impact upon diversity and inclusion in firearms teams. It is available for download from the LJMU depository at https://researchonline.ljmu.ac.uk/id/eprint/19429/
Purpose
The purpose of this study is to investigate the association between three corporate governance (CG) idiosyncrasies, namely audit committee characteristics, external audit quality (AQ), board diversity and firm performance (FP) in the South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation (SAARC) nations.
Design/methodology/approach
The study used a sample of 200 listed nonfinancial firms in the SAARC nations from 2012 to 2021. The System Generalized Method of Moment model was applied to the data consisting of 2000 firm-year observations. The Generalized Estimating Equation population-averaged model was also employed for added robustness. The study employed Tobin's Q as the measure of FP.
Findings
The findings revealed that amongst the CG variables tested, external AQ exhibited a significantly positive relationship with Tobin's Q. Significant negative influences on FP have been demonstrated by the variables of audit committee meeting and board's independence. Furthermore, gender diversity, CEO duality, audit committee strength and independence failed to record any significant association.
Originality/value
This study is one of the first to investigate the association between CG idiosyncrasies and FP in the SAARC nations. The study findings have important implications for policymakers and regulators in the region.
Small and medium-sized enterprises (SMEs) are major sources of economic activity and employment due to their volume of business. Improving SMEs’ working conditions and the occupational safety, health, and well-being (SHW) of their employees is important for not only businesses but also their employees’ work ability and productivity. SMEs are more often characterised by higher injury rates and severe injury types than large enterprises. They often lack the resources and competence needed to effectively manage and develop SHW. Thus, more research into practices that help SMEs in developing occupational SHW is needed. The aim of this study was to investigate the development needs and practical measures for developing SHW in SMEs. The data were collected during company-specific development processes in nine SMEs in which the employers and employees cooperatively created a development plan with an accurate schedule and assigned responsibilities. Several job resources were highlighted, including a positive work climate, support from colleagues and good work-related equipment. The most common development needs were related to communication, community spirit, the flow of information and order and tidiness. Related development activities were suggested. This study emphasises the need for cooperation between employer and employees to enhance SHW, productivity, and organisational performance.
The third chapter deals with the theoretical connections between power and organisation and explores the cultural-historical and philosophical prerequisites for explaining and delimiting the concepts of power, power encroachment and structural violence. The first section is dedicated to the topic of power as a social phenomenon and examines the historical development of the research of power starting from the texts of Machiavelli and Hobbes to those of Arendt, Foucault and Bourdieu. The second section deals with the destructive side of power: with abuse and violence, and opens up a view of the spaces of violence in Elias, Baumann and Baberowski. The third section deals with the relationship between organisation, structure and power as an essential theoretical prerequisite for the present study and investigation. The focus here remains on the aspects of political language, structural power asymmetry in organisations and formal and informal power structures in Crozier and Friedberg. The fourth section deals with the topic of organisational culture as a carrier of power. Finally, there is a section on the possibilities of measuring power and an outlook on alternatives.
Athletic Diversity and Inclusion Officers (ADIOs) are novel leadership positions in sport tasked with creating and sustaining diverse, inclusive, and equitable athletic departments. Interestingly, Black women have assumed many of the Division I ADIO positions. Thus, they seek to lead inclusionary efforts in an organizational field with sustained issues of gender and racial exclusion. This hermeneutic phenomenological study applied a Black feminist lens to examine what it means to be a Black woman ADIO who leads diversity, equity, and inclusion initiatives in gendered and racialized Division I collegiate athletic departments. This study has three themes: (a) the ADIO position elicits the Strong Black Woman stereotype, inducing emotional fatigue; (b) Black women ADIOs are positioned as athletic departments’ conscience, often interpreting substantive and symbolic diversity, equity, and inclusion practices; and (c) Black women ADIOs center their perception of affirmative prescriptions of Black womanhood in an attempt to withstand the adverse realities of ADIO leadership.
The authors examined, in 2 studies, the effects of equal employment opportunity/affirmative action (EEO/AA) policies on Whites' job-related attitudes. First, in an experiment, White prospective job recruits, as expected, rated a potential employer whose EEO/AA policies were framed as targeted to benefit Blacks as less attractive than a potential employer whose EEO/AA policies were framed more generally. Second, the results of a field study showed that prejudice against Blacks moderated the relationship between Whites' perceptions that their organization's EEO/AA policies were targeted to benefit Blacks and their satisfaction with promotion opportunities. Specifically, among prejudiced Whites, this relationship was negative and considerable in size (r = –.39, p<.01); whereas, among nonprejudiced Whites, it was negligible (r = –.04, ns). The implications of our findings for the study of prejudice in organizations are discussed.
Background
Establishing and maintaining relationships and ways of connecting and being with others is an important component of health and wellbeing. Harnessing the relational within caring, supportive, educational, or carceral settings as a systems response has been referred to as relational practice. Practitioners, people with lived experience, academics and policy makers, do not yet share a well-defined common understanding of relational practice. Consequently, there is potential for interdisciplinary and interagency miscommunication, as well as the risk of policy and practice being increasingly disconnected. Comprehensive reviews are needed to support the development of a coherent shared understanding of relational practice.
Method
This study uses a scoping review design providing a scope and synthesis of extant literature relating to relational practice focussing on organisational and systemic practice. The review aimed to map how relational practice is used, defined and understood across health, criminal justice, education and social work, noting any impacts and benefits reported. Searches were conducted on 8 bibliographic databases on 27 October 2021. English language articles were included that involve/discuss practice and/or intervention/s that prioritise interpersonal relationships in service provision, in both external (organisational contexts) and internal (how this is received by workers and service users) aspects.
Results
A total of 8010 relevant articles were identified, of which 158 met the eligibility criteria and were included in the synthesis. Most were opinion-based or theoretical argument papers ( n = 61, 38.60%), with 6 (3.80%) critical or narrative reviews. A further 27 (17.09%) were categorised as case studies, focussing on explaining relational practice being used in an organisation or a specific intervention and its components, rather than conducting an evaluation or examination of the effectiveness of the service, with only 11 including any empirical data. Of the included empirical studies, 45 were qualitative, 6 were quantitative, and 9 mixed methods studies. There were differences in the use of terminology and definitions of relational practice within and across sectors.
Conclusion
Although there may be implicit knowledge of what relational practice is the research field lacks coherent and comprehensive models. Despite definitional ambiguities, a number of benefits are attributed to relational practices.
Systematic review registration
PROSPERO CRD42021295958
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