Leadership and management development

Abstract

Some are born great, some achieve greatness, and some have greatness thrust upon 'em. (sHAKesPeARe, TWELFTH NIGHT) l E a R N I N g O u TCOm E s When you have completed this chapter, you should be able to: ● understand why organizations invest in leadership and management development and the differences between the approaches; ● understand the dynamic context in which leadership and management development takes place; ● describe the issues that organizations need to consider when designing leadership and management development activities; ● understand the advantages and disadvantages of a variety of approaches to leadership and management development; ● understand the issues involved in evaluating leadership and management development.

Full text

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19
Leadership and
management
development
RONA N CA RBE RY and THOMA S N G ARAVAN
Some are born great, some achieve greatness, and some
have greatness thrust upon ’em.
SHAKESPEARE, TWELFTH NIGHT
LEA RNI NG O UTCOMES
When you have completed this chapter, you should be able to:
● understand why organizations invest in leadership and management
development and the differences between the approaches;
● understand the dynamic context in which leadership and management
development takes place;
● describe the issues that organizations need to consider when designing
leadership and management development activities;
● understand the advantages and disadvantages of a variety of approaches to
leadership and management development;
● understand the issues involved in evaluating leadership and management
development.
Introduction
Organizations are increasingly recognizing that to be competitive they must invest
in leadership and management development. Over the last decade, organizations
and their leaders have experienced major changes in the workplace, including rapid
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technological change, increased globalization, changing organization structures and
major changes in the dynamics of careers. Leaders and managers are considered
a highly inuential group in terms of creating high-performance organizations.
Organizational capability at a management level in an organization is considered
essential to improve competitiveness and ensure future growth. Organizations taking
a proactive and systematic approach to management and leadership development
generally produce more leadership talent, and best-practice rms are characterized
by the intensity and quality of their management and leadership development inter-
ventions. They do as much of the same as other rms but perform it with greater
rigour and consistency.
The chapter aims to provide an overview of the leadership and management
development process. We begin with a consideration of how leadership and manage-
ment development differ from each other. We then focus on the changing context of
leadership and management development. We focus on the issue of whether leaders
can be developed. The chapter discusses the value of leadership competency models
and also considers the different organization-driven and leader-driven approaches
that can be used to facilitate leadership and management development. We will con-
clude the chapter with a discussion of the issues that should be considered when
evaluating leadership and management development.
Management and leadership development:
the same or dierent?
Leaders and managers are increasingly studied in the context of human resource
development (New, 1996; Hall and Moss, 1998; Feldman, 2002), which reveals that
they are expected to initiate development in the absence of organizational guidance.
Moreover, managerial careers are progressively more market-based, with special-
ization considered to be a negative. Also, there is a risk to managers of becoming
trapped in ‘core rigidities’ by over-investing in core competencies that are relevant to
the organization but not of value to the marketplace. Leaders and managers need to
participate in a variety of learning situations that provide them with both behavioural
and cognitive complexity (Karaevli and Hall, 2006) and it is critical for them to be
fast and adaptive learners (Hall, 2002) as well as strong performers. Leaders and
managers are also expected to utilize self-directed career management strategies on
a continual basis (McCall and Hollenbeck, 2007).
An important distinction is made between management, leader and leadership
development (Day, 2000). Management development focuses on the manager getting
to grips with the process or ‘hard’ aspects of managing such as planning, execution,
prioritization and control processes. Leader development focuses on the develop-
ment of a leader or manager’s self-awareness and understanding of self as a leader.
Leadership development focuses on the social dimensions of leadership and includes
such issues as interpersonal awareness and skills, team development processes and
the processes involved in gaining commitment for vision and strategy. For the purposes
of this chapter, we will use the term ‘leadership development’ to include both leader
and leadership development.
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Leadership and management development in organizations can take a number of
forms. It may be organization driven and consist of a variety of formal interventions
such as coaching, mentoring, formal programmes and feedback-intensive programmes.
These activities are directed by organizations and are usually built around competency
models (Garavan, Hogan and Cahir-O’Donnell, 2008). However, organizations are
recognizing that they must also promote and rely on their managers and leaders
to engage in self-directed leadership development (DeRue and Ashford, 2010).
Furthermore, in difcult economic times, formal programmes are both expensive
and time consuming.
Cunningham (1986), for example, identies three different viewpoints on the
relationship between leadership and management. The rst position assumes that
leadership is one competence among a range required for effective management.
A second position, advocated by Bennis and Nanus (2003), suggests that the two
concepts are separate but related, whereas a third position sees both concepts to
be partially overlapping. There is evidence amongst academics that there is a need
to conceptually distinguish leadership from management, often at the expense of
the latter. Management as an activity and concept is often viewed as a ‘second-class
citizen’, something that is very transactional in nature.
Kotter (1988) has argued that leaders and managers are distinct in their roles and
functions. He considers management to be concerned with planning and organizing
whereas leadership is concerned with creating, coping with change and helping
organizations to adapt in turbulent times. Two other recent contributions have
similarly emphasized that the two concepts are different. Boydell, Burgoyne and
Pedler (2004) consider management to be about implementation, order, efciency
and effectiveness. They dene leadership as concerned with future directions in times
of uncertainty, and argue that management may be sufcient in times of stability but
is insufcient when organizational conditions are characterized by complexity,
unpredictability and rapid change.
It is increasingly recognized that all managers, including rst-line supervisors,
need at some level to be leaders and to understand the concept of leadership, albeit
the higher the organizational level, the more complex leadership becomes and the
more it is concerned with broader and long-term aims. In some organizations people
may be senior professionals such as doctors or scientists but not dened as managers
(at least in terms of the formal organizational hierarchy). It would be naive, however,
not to think of them as leaders or potential leaders.
It is therefore not surprising that there are contradictory interpretations of
management and leadership development. Wexley and Baldwin (1986) argue that
management development remains the most ‘ill-dened and variously interpreted’
concept in the management literature. HRD has broadened our thinking about the
purposes and methods of management and leadership development. The majority of
early denitions focused on the formal dimensions and considered both management
and leadership development to be systematic and structured process. Cullen and
Turnbull (2005) argue that the majority of denitions view managers as resources
and consider that management development is driven by a functional performance
rationale. Similarly many of the denitions emphasize management development
driven by organizational rather than individual needs.
In practice, the terms management and leadership development are used
interchangeably and they both represent a set of processes that organizations and
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individuals use to enhance effectiveness in a variety of management and leadership
roles. Increasingly the distinction between the two sets of terms has become
blurred, with ‘management development’ being associated with the UK and Ireland,
while in the United States, ‘leadership development’ is preferred.
The context of management and leadership
development
The context within which management and leadership development occurs is both
complex and dynamic. We focus here on four dimensions of context: globalization,
structural change, the knowledge-based economy and diversity.
Globalization
Globalization is understood as growth in the functional integration of national eco-
nomies, with the ties between countries becoming stronger. It is driven by powerful
economic factors including market cost, and competitive market factors such as the
growth of common customer preferences largely created by successful global branding.
In terms of cost, globalization is said to offer the advantages of economies of scale
and standardization, such as cost advantages in advertising, material sourcing and
economies of scale due to larger market potential. Also, globalization has reduced
the requirement for manual work and fostered new kinds of skills such as those
found in customer service work and call centres. It has enabled managers to work
across spatial boundaries with increased use of forms of virtual teamworking. Leader-
ship and management development will focus less on gaining manager commitment
and loyalty and more on manager engagement. It also requires that managers are
skilled to take decisive action, and in some cases to take tough decisions.
Structural change
Changes to the organizational structure such as downsizing and delayering bring
signicant demands for managers. They are expected to be able to respond rapidly
to changing conditions, to ensure that customer expectations are met while at the
same time matching the supply and quality of labour with demand cycles, and
recognize and reward work in order to gain productivity increases. Organization
structures are also changing as a result of advances in information technology.
One consequence is that the distinctions between management and other employee
categories have become blurred. The evidence indicates that employees have become
more empowered; they have to share information in team settings, and structures
have become much less hierarchical.
The knowledge-based economy
The growth in the knowledge-based economy and knowledge-management initiatives
has major implications for managers and leaders. Managers have a key role to play
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in creating and supporting an organization culture that is conducive to knowledge
sharing, use and development. The provision of appropriate management develop-
ment interventions is most appropriate when the knowledge-management strategy is
focused on building the social capital of its managers and knowledge employees.
Garvey and Williamson (2002) point out that the most valuable management train-
ing and development initiatives are those designed to encourage reexivity, learning
through experimentation and skills in conducting critical dialogues with others.
Knowledge workers also need to be managed in distinctive ways. Horwitz, Heng and
Quazi (2003) suggest that there are distinctive bundles of HR practices that are
effective in motivating and retaining knowledge workers. These HR practices make
signicant demands on managers and require that managers allow high levels of
autonomy, provide interesting work tasks, and ensure signicant opportunities for
self-development.
Diversity
The diversity of the leadership pool in organizations has become a major issue
and it has long been recognized that gender and racial inequality is a problem
(Ayman and Korabik, 2010) for many organizations when it comes to their leader-
ship populations. Women and ethnic minorities are signicantly under-represented
in senior management positions. Eagly and Chin (2010) argue that discrimination
remains commonplace in organizations, primarily in more subtle, covert and
unintentional forms, and that the majority of managerial roles have become
infused with masculinity. This has the effect of excluding particular groups from
leadership roles, including women and minority groups on the basis of race,
ethnicity and sexual orientation. Individuals from these categories have fewer
networking, mentoring and leadership development opportunities (Ardichvilli and
Manderscheid, 2008).
This challenging context has important implications for management and leader-
ship development practices:
● It requires managers who are skilled in operating and managing a global
business.
● Managers are expected to have skills in managing subsidiaries, the transfer of
knowledge and the development of marketing.
● Organizations that desire to be globally competitive will continually need to
develop managers and leaders who have foreign operational experience.
● It requires leaders and managers who are comfortable working in
organizations that regularly contract and expand in different directions.
● Leaders and managers will be expected to manage people during frequent
periods of structural change and reorganization.
● Leaders and managers need to be condent and skilled to cope with
situations of rapid growth and rapid decline.
● Leaders and managers will be increasingly expected to work in organizations
or parts of organizations that are temporary in nature or project based.
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Management and leadership competency models
Many organizations now use competency or behavioural frameworks to develop
managers and leaders. They are extremely popular in multinational organizations; how-
ever, they are not without problems and are often viewed as a one size ts all strategy.
Confusion exists concerning the differences in meaning between the words ‘com-
petence’ and ‘competency’. ‘Competence’ can be dened as the minimum acceptable
standard of performance and relates to the aspects of the job that have to performed
efciently. ‘Competency’ refers to what leaders and managers need to bring to
their roles to perform effectively. It denotes ability and capability and addresses the
behavioural repertoire underpinning excellent performance: that is, what managers
actually demonstrate in performing their role.
Cheng, Dainty and Moore (2005) identify 12 competencies that distinguish superior
from average managers:
● Achievement orientation: The manager’s concern for working towards
a particular standard of excellence.
● Initiative: Taking proactive actions to avert problems in order to enhance job
results and avoid problems.
● Information seeking: An underlying curiosity or desire to know more about
things, people, or issues.
Merck, Sharp and Dohme (MSD), the global healthcare company, starts with the most basic
of questions when it comes to selecting individuals for leadership development: How
developable is the individual? Given the investment in resources required to develop a leader,
this represents a fundamental question. It is answered by using a systematic leader
assessment process that focuses on three key criteria:
●
Self-confidence: It is well established that developable leaders possess strong self-
confidence. They project confidence in their interactions with others. They are confident;
however, they are not arrogant. Arrogance is considered a significant derailing factor.
●
Competence: Competence is considered an essential prerequisite for consistent, strong
performance. Competence typically focuses on assessing baseline competencies that
can be further developed. These include drive for results, rapid and disciplined decision
making, strategic thinking and tolerance of ambiguity.
●
Emotional intelligence: Emotional intelligence consists of both self and social-awareness
components and includes interpersonal, conflict management, influencing and
relationship management components.
Careful attention to these characteristics when selecting leaders for development will
significantly enhance the prospects of future leadership success.
In practice: Are Leaders Developable?
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● Focus on clients’ needs: Focusing efforts on discovering and meeting their
clients’ requirements, coupled with a desire to help or serve others.
● Impact and inuence: The intention to persuade, convince, inuence or
impress others in order to support their agenda, or the desire to have
a specic impact or effect on others.
● Directiveness/assertiveness: Intentions to ensure that subordinates comply
with their wishes. Directive behaviour has a theme or tone of ‘telling people
what to do’. The tone ranges from rm and directive to demanding.
● Teamwork and cooperation: The genuine intention to work collaboratively
with others as opposed to separately or competitively.
● Team leadership: The intention to take a role as leader of a team or other
group. Although it implies a desire to lead others and so can be manifested in
the form of formal authority and responsibility, effective team leadership also
requires the leader to know when not to act authoritatively if they are to
extract the best out of the team.
● Analytical thinking: The ability to understand a situation by breaking it apart
into smaller pieces, or tracing the implications of a situation in a step-by-step
causal way.
● Conceptual thinking: Understanding a situation or problem by putting the
pieces together, seeing the large picture. This includes identifying patterns or
connections between situations that are not obviously related, and identifying
key or underlying issues in complex situations.
● Self-control: The ability to keep emotions under control and to restrain
negative actions when tempted, when faced with opposition or hostility from
others, or when working under conditions of stress.
● Flexibility: The ability to adapt to and work effectively with a variety of
situations, individuals, or groups.
Competency modelling has become widespread. The models describe the particular
competencies that are needed by individuals to effectively perform their work. Organ-
izations like them because they provide a consistent framework for integrating human
capital management systems and can help align employee actions with common
strategic organizational goals, and facilitate performance improvement through a
competency-based development process. Competency models are based on the idea
that every position requires the job incumbent to possess certain competencies in
order to perform at his or her highest level.
Competency-based management and leadership development typically involves
the following key activities:
● identication of the core competencies needed for high-level performance in
a specic position;
● assessment of the extent to which a particular job incumbent possesses those
core competencies;
● creation of specic developmental opportunities to match the requirements of
the competency.
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Competency models, while popular in organizations, are again adopted much as an act
of faith rather than on the basis of their actual contribution to business performance.
There is relatively little research that demonstrates a link between bottom-line business
performance and competency-based approaches to management and leadership
development. They do not necessarily lead to greater transfer of learning and enhanced
leader effectiveness. Other problems associated with the use of competency-based
approaches to leadership development include the following: they fail to account for
context; they are often designed with limited research into the behaviours required
for effective performance; they are considered to be static rather than dynamic
concepts; there is a lack of clarity concerning competencies; and many competency
frameworks contain overlap and lack of contract validity.
Genworth Financial is a leading worldwide financial services organization. It believes that good
leadership makes a significant contribution to organizational success. All leadership development
programmes within the organization are designed by using a process that answers the Why, Who, What,
How and When questions. This process is very much driven by the senior executives of the organization
in collaboration with the HR Function. The issues that are considered under each of these questions
include, but are not confined to, the following issues:
●
Why leadership development? This question seeks to establish the purpose of the leadership development
intervention. Is it to develop first-line supervisors, enhance the middle management team or develop
senior leadership capability? The intervention for leadership development needs to be clearly articulated.
In Genworth this may involve a series of discussions and consultations with key stakeholders.
●
Who will be the focus of leadership development? Like other organizations, Genworth has a limited
resource pool and has to make difficult choices concerning who should participate in leadership
development. Questions that are asked in Genworth Financial include: Who will have the greatest
impact on the organization? Who is motivated to attend the leadership development programme?
Where does the organization have critical gaps in leadership capability? Where will the areas of
business growth occur in the future?
●
What are the objectives for the leadership development programme? The answers to this question
focus on what participants are expected to learn. In Genworth Financial the learning objectives are
shaped by the competency framework, the outputs of the performance management process, the
talent management framework and data derived from the employee engagement survey.
●
How will we develop our leaders? Genworth Financial utilizes a broad spectrum of strategies, including
structured feedback, formal MBA programmes, structured in-house programmes, and coaching and
mentoring. There is a strong emphasis on promoting self-awareness, the mastery of management
skills and the transfer of these skills to the workplace. The type of strategy chosen to develop leaders
always comes back to the objectives set for leadership development in the organization.
●
When will we develop our leaders? Genworth Financial focuses on a number of issues when making
this decision. It recognizes that people learn and develop over time; therefore they require space to
develop. Particular interventions have a definite endpoint and Genworth utilizes a blended approach
where each element builds on what has gone before.
These questions are answered through the collection of data, the analysis of individual and
organizational data, and careful consideration of the value of the investment to the organization.
In practice: Designing leadership development initiatives
at Genworth Financial
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FIG URE 19.1 Management and Leadership units (with acknowledgement to the Council for Administration,
www.cfa.uk.com)
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FIG URE 19.2 Management Standards Unit 5 Providing direction:
provide leadership for your team
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FIG URE 19.2 continued
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FIG URE 19.2 continued
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Leadership and Management Development
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Selecting management and leadership
development strategies
Organizations have a variety of choices when it comes to management and leader-
ship development strategies. These range from the formal to the informal, and from
those that are organization-directed to those that are self-directed. Table 19.1 provides
a summary of management and leadership development strategies.
It is generally accepted that the majority of management and leadership development
activities in organizations are both formal and organization-driven. It is assumed
that these interventions will produce change in managers; however, there is strong
evidence to suggest that most learning to manage actually occurs informally on the
job (Dawes et al, 1996) in tacit, culturally embedded ways through people’s work
practices within organizations, groups and other communities (Lave and Wenger,
1991). A product of learning from experience in these settings is tacit knowledge
(Nonaka and Takeuchi, 1995), believed to be one of the most important factors dis-
tinguishing successful managers from others (Wenger and Snyder, 2000). Denitions
of formal management and leadership development suggest that it: is concerned with
unambiguous objectives, highly structured interventions, where the locus of control
is outside managers, and the learning may be real or disconnected, and articial in
nature. Leaders and managers tend to perceive formal development opportunities as
a mechanism to develop more transferable competencies and to remain marketable
and employable (Garavan, Hogan and Cahir-O’Donnell, 2008). Managers do not
necessarily view formal development interventions as a basis for advancement or
progression. It is more about the manager maintaining his/her value in the labour
market (Carbery and Garavan, 2007).
Formal learning and development interventions have the potential to enhance
the development of organizational competencies. Specic aspects of competency that
are increasingly valued by organizations include planning of work, organizing and
reconguring resources, dealing with crises, taking risks, and problem-solving and
decision-making skills. The possession of organizational competencies helps the
organization to achieve competitive advantage. There is some evidence that manager
recruitment and retention is a knock-on effect of the provision of formal learning
and development opportunities, and managers are highly attracted to organizations
that can offer formal development opportunities.
Informal and non-formal management and leadership development activities
primarily tend to be self-directed. Such development occurs naturally through day-
to-day work processes. The contemporary viewpoint is not to see formal and informal
leader ship and management development as competing paradigms, but to consider
them as two sides of the same learning process. Garavan, Hogan and Cahir-O’Donnell
(2008) suggest that, at the level of the manager, formal and informal learning activi-
ties are inter related, contributing in different ways to the building of knowledge and
competency.
Informal management and leadership development differs from formal activities
in that it is incidental to everyday endeavours. Sometimes led by the learner, or
assisted by friends or work colleagues, it occurs in the workplace, family, community,
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TAB LE 19. 1 The spectrum of management and leadership development
interventions
Organization-directed Self-directed
Formal
approaches
●
Multi-source feedback
●
Action learning
●
Feedback intensive
programmes
●
MBA programmes
●
Executive programmes
●
Outward bound programmes
●
Developmental assessment
and accreditation centres
●
Individual development
plans
●
Individual career planning
●
Self-directed
developmental counselling
Job-based
approaches
●
Stretch assignments
●
Hardship experiences
●
Special projects
●
Secondments
●
International assignments
●
Acting up
●
Voluntary activities
●
Participation in CSR
activities
●
Shadowing
Relationship-
based approaches
●
Peer coaching
●
Executive external or internal
coaching
●
Peer mentoring
●
Hierarchical mentoring
●
Developmental relationships
●
Peer support groups
●
Feedback seeking
●
Career exploration
●
Observation
●
Questioning
Informal and
non-formal
approaches
●
Learning from mistakes
●
Communities of practice
●
Reflection
●
Interaction with peers
●
Participation on networks
SOURCE: Garavan, Hogan and Cahir-O’Donnell, .
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or among a network of colleagues. In these situations, learning is a side product
of some other activity such as management meetings or project teamwork, and is
unplanned, unintentional or interdependent learning that derives from experience
and is highly self-directed on the part of the individual. Informal learning is a multi-
dimensional and multi-faceted concept that occurs in many different environments.
The extent to which informal learning is effective in a leadership and management
development context depends on the broader organizational, social, cultural and
political context within which it is located, as well as the learning practices utilized.
The term ‘experiential learning’ is increasingly used to capture the informal or
non-formal nature of learning that is based upon reective experiences. This change
in rubric has been driven by the move from ‘instruction’ to ‘learning’ (Margerison,
1991). One example includes Lave and Wenger’s (1991) theory of situated learning,
which emphasizes the interaction between individual learning, practice and everyday
work tasks. Another example is Brown and Duguid’s (1991) theory of communities
of practice, which stresses the term community and social relationships around
the learner. Drawing on Polanyi’s (1966) distinction between explicit and tacit
knowledge, the latter is often regarded as being the most valuable for a successful
managerial career (Wenger, McDermott and Snyder, 2002) and is thought to be
one of the most important factors distinguishing successful managers from others
(Argyris, 1999; Wenger and Snyder, 2000). Tacit knowledge, which can only be
derived from experience, is essentially knowledge that people don’t know they have.
Managers often use a variety of other non-formal strategies such as observation,
reection, questioning, interpersonal interactions and learning from mistakes.
Bristol-Myers Squib is a leading global company dedicated to the discovery, development
and delivery of innovative medicines that help patients conquer serious diseases. One of its
major strategic initiatives is called a ‘String of Pearls’ that combines strategic alliances,
partnerships and acquisitions to achieve strategic growth. In 2010 it invested over US $4
billion in research and development (R&D).
Within the corporate, general managers (GMs) are considered a vital strategic group.
There are both commercial GMs who bring products to markets, and technical operations
GMs who have responsibility for both the manufacturing and quality of products. General
managers within BMS manage multiple functions, they focus on strategy creation and they
have ultimate decision-making authority, in both contracts and technical operations. They
work within matrix structures and are considered a vital component of the corporation’s
leadership pipeline. Global managers are expected to manage multiple paradoxes, including
being both global and local, focusing on both strategy and execution, being decisive as well
as emphasizing collaboration, and balancing innovation and risk.
The leadership development strategy within BMS, the Global Learning and Management
Development function, implements a development approach that focuses on the unique
needs of GMs. A number of unusual features of their approach include:
In practice: Aligning leadership development with global
business strategy: the Bristol-Myers Squib experience
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Evaluating management and leadership
development
There are a number of particular challenges encountered when evaluating man-
agement and leadership development activities (Chapter 18 provides a discussion of
evaluation in general). A number of problems can be highlighted here. The generic
nature of most evaluation models makes them difcult to apply to leadership and
management development. The further up the organizational hierarchy, the more
intangible the nature of development. The soft skills involved in developing leaders
and managers are much more difcult to evaluate than hard skills. Given that most
training and development evaluation models are geared towards highly structured
formal events, they ignore the context in which leadership and management develop-
ment takes place.
Dening learning objectives for leadership and management development pro-
grammes is generally more difcult than for more task-specic training and they
tend to be vague and lack objective precision. They tend to be learning aims rather
than objectives.
There are also signicant challenges in establishing that management and leader-
ship development impacts on the bottom line. The imprecise nature of leadership
and management development, combined with the complex and dynamic context
in which organizations operate, makes any causal links between leadership and
management development and organizational performance particularly tenuous and
difcult to establish.
Management and leadership development may have a limited direct effect on
organizational performance; however, it may have a signicant indirect effect on
aspects of organizational culture such as improved morale, increased exibility and
●
comprehensive needs analysis based on a multi-source, multiple-perspective view
of managers;
●
careful leveraging of existing learning resources within BMS;
●
the utilization of blended learning approaches such as social networking, leader-led
development and e-learning;
●
the establishment of a General Manager Advisory Council (GMAC) to provide input and
guidance, and overcome organizational barriers to development;
●
the implementation of an exclusive on-boarding process for newly promoted general
managers;
●
a peer-coaching process designed to leverage the skills that GMs will bring to their roles.
The leadership development strategy within BMS is based on the involvement of key
stakeholders throughout the process, the leveraging of visible champions for development,
the effective utilization of resources and the use of blended solutions. It views general
managers as central to its strategic transformation process.
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adaptability, and a more responsive management style. While evaluation models may
nd limited direct returns on investment from leadership and management develop-
ment programmes, the activities may have a signicant indirect effect on the workplace
that many evaluation models overlook.
Increasingly organizations have begun to focus on ‘return on expectation’ rather
than return on investment. Such an approach requires that various stakeholders
articulate their expectations for management and leadership development. It is then
the task of the evaluation process to gather evidence to determine whether those
expectations have been met or not. Such an approach emphasizes a satisfying rather
than optimizing approach to evaluation.
Conclusion
Management and leadership development represents an important HRD activity
undertaken by organizations. Given the complex and dynamic external environment
within which organizations operate, management and leadership development activities
are considered vital to enhancing leadership capability and the leadership pipeline.
Management strength represents an important source of competitive advantage, and
organizations use a variety of management and leadership development strategies
to develop this human resource pool. Investment in management and leadership
development is driven by the belief that it confers signicant benets to both indi-
vidual leaders and organizations. Individual benets highlighted include enhanced
leadership skills, increased self-awareness and condence, enhanced interpersonal
and emotional management skills, and broadened perspectives. Specic organizational
benets highlighted include productivity, nancial performance and competitive
advantage.
Increasingly managers are expected to take responsibility for their development;
however, organizations also have responsibilities in this respect, and use a variety of
development strategies to develop their managers. These organizational-driven strategies
include: multi-source feedback, formal in-house programmes, coaching, mentoring,
acceleration centres and a variety of planned job assignments. Self-directed methods
include: reection, observation, questioning and learning from mistakes.
The evaluation of management and leadership development is a difcult task.
Traditional evaluation models prove difcult to apply to development activities that
are more intangible, less clearly dened and lacking in clear learning objectives.
Questions for reflection
● Compare and contrast management and leadership? Support your argument
with evidence.
● What impact does the knowledge-based economy have on the practice of
leadership and management?
● Develop a management development programme; explain the reasoning for the
structure and contents.
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Managing HRD
404
Further information sources
Management Standards Centre: www.management-standards.org
Council for Administration: www.cfa.uk.com
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