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URBANISM, ETHNICITY AND ALIENATION:
A MULTIDIMENSIONAL STUDY OF
BALOCHISTAN
A thesis
submitted to the Department of Sociology,
University of Balochistan, Quetta
in partial fulfilment of the requirements
for the degree of
Master of Philosophy in Sociology
HAMID SARFRAZ
ii
ii
1995-97
In the name of Allah, Most Gracious, Most Merciful
CERTIFICATE
It is certified that this research work for M. Phil. in Sociology titled
‘Urbanism, Ethnicity and Alienation: A Multidimensional Study of Balochistan’
has been genuinely designed, carried out and completed by Mr. Hamid Sarfraz,
Lecturer, Department of Sociology, University of Balochistan, Quetta, under my
guidance and supervision.
I have thoroughly gone through his dissertation, based upon extensive
review and empirical research. Undoubtedly, it is a significant addition to the
existing knowledge in the area of alienation. I, therefore, recommend and
approve this thesis for submission.
(Prof. Ghulam Nabi Achakzai)
Advisor / Chairman
Department of Sociology
University of Balochistan
Quetta
iv
BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCH
The researcher born to Mr. and Mrs. Mansoor Ahmed on 15th April
1965 at Khanpur (Rahimyarkhan). He passed his Matriculation examination from
the Government High School, Khanpur in 1981 and Intermediate in 1986. In the
meantime, he received Diploma in Medical Laboratory Technology from the
National Institute of Health, Islamabad. He graduated from University of the
Punjab, Lahore in 1988 with Sociology and Journalism as majors. He obtained
the degree of Master of Arts in Sociology from the Department of Sociology,
University of the Punjab, Lahore in 1992. The title of his MA’s thesis was
‘Authoritarianism and Women’s Rights’. He joined the Department of Sociology,
University of Balochistan, Quetta as a Lecturer in the same year. Till now he
has produced many research articles and publications apart from his columns in
the international newspapers. He started the present research for the degree
of Master of Philosophy in Sociology in September 1995.
v
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Allah, the Almighty, blessed a lot and enabled me to complete this uphill
task. I can hardly find any words of gratitude to express my feelings of
indebtedness for the painstaking guidance and precious suggestions by my
research advisor Prof. Ghulam Nabi Achakzai. I have the same feelings of
approbation for my friend Dr. Saifur Rehman Sherani who not only provided
thought provoking criticism and advice on the research topic but helped me
when and wherever I needed.
I feel myself fortunate to have such loving parents who have always
sheltered me with their warm love. My brother Amir has ever been a source of
confidence to me. My wife Kaukab, a precious gift of life, has never let me feel
alone, even in the moments of great depression and disappointment. And
matchless to anything in the universe, Saad, my son, has been a ray of hope all
the times. They all have been a source of encouragement during this whole
strenuous task.
I am greatly indebted to my friends Dr. A. Q. Sikander Riaz and
Muhammad Ilyas who reassured me during the whole epoch with unforgettable
love and affection. Their criticism motivated me to strive for the best.
I am also grateful to the interviewers and the interviewees for their nice
co-operation with which they ameliorated this tough job for me.
vi
ABSTRACT
Alienation, a psycho-social phenomenon which has persisted through the
ages, was assumed to be positively associated with a relatively new phenomenon
– urbanism. The theoretical framework of the present research was based upon
Seeman’s (1991) six variants of alienation while works of other social scientists
helped in conceptual clarity. An extensive review of literature provided
foundations for the research hypothesis ‘the higher the level of urbanism, the
higher the level of alienation’.
Balochistan, a detribalising society, was selected as the universe. A total
of 137 randomly selected respondents were interviewed to determine their
levels of urbanism and alienation. The majority of the respondents having a high
level of urbanism were found to be having a high level of alienation. The
statistical analysis of the data established a highly positive association between
the two variable – urbanism and alienation – at 0.05 level of significance. The
present study’s theoretical assumptions were supported by the empirical
evidence and the research hypothesis was upheld.
vii
CONTENTS
Chapter I INTRODUCTION 1
♦ Statement of the Problem 1
♦ Objectives of the Study 10
♦ Sociological Significance of the Study 11
Chapter II REVIEW OF RELEVANT LITERATURE 12
Chapter III THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK 21
♦ German Idealistic Approach 22
♦ Marxist Perspective 23
♦ Weberian Thought 24
♦ Anomie 25
♦ Variants of Alienation by Seeman (1991) 28
Powerlessness 28
Normlessness 29
Meaninglessness 30
Self-Estrangement 31
Social Isolation 33
Cultural Estrangement 34
The Epilogue 35
♦ Application to the Present Study 36
Chapter IV OPERATIONALISATION OF THE CONCEPTS 44
♦ Urbanism 44
Rationality 44
Impersonal Social Relationships 45
Mobility 45
Formal System of Control 45
♦ Alienation 46
Powerlessness 46
Normlessness 46
Meaninglessness 47
Self-Estrangement 47
Social Isolation 47
Cultural Estrangement 48
Chapter V RESEARCH PROCEDURE 49
♦ The Universe 49
♦ Sampling 49
♦ Tool of Data Collection 50
viii
♦ Pre-testing 50
♦ Data Collection and Field Experiences 50
♦ Scoring 51
♦ Construction of Scale 52
♦ Test Statistics 52
Chapter VI FINDINGS AND ANALYSIS 54
♦ Urbanism 54
♦ Alienation 56
♦ Testing the Hypothesis 59
Chapter VII SUMMARY, CONCLUSION AND SUGGESTIONS 66
♦ Summary 66
♦ Conclusion 68
♦ Suggestions 69
SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY 70
ANNEXES
1. Interview Schedule 94
2. Coding Scheme 101
3. Master Data Sheet 104
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LIST OF FIGURES AND TABLES
Figure 1 Respondents’ Sex and Age 54
Figure 2 Respondents’ Native Language 55
Figure 3 Respondents’ Marital Status 55
Figure 4 Respondents’ Educational Level 55
Table 1 Respondents’ Level of Urbanism 57
Table 2 Demographic Characteristics of the Respondents by
their Level of Urbanism 58
Table 3 Respondents’ Level of Alienation 60
Table 4 Demographic Characteristics of the Respondents by
their Level of Alienation 63
Table 5 Respondents’ Level of Urbanism by their Level of Alienation 64
INTRODUCTION
Chapter I
INTRODUCTION
The concept of alienation has ever been a matter of central concern in the sociological
analyses regarding human behaviour in its social, cultural, political, economic, religious,
productive and aesthetic spheres of life. Such a wide usage of the concept resulted in a
variety of terms, definitions and explanations. ‘At present time, in all the social sciences, the
various synonyms of alienation have a foremost place in studies of human relations.
Investigations of the “unattached”, the “marginal”, the “obsessive”, the “normless” and the
“isolated” individual all testify to the central place occupied by the hypothesis of alienation
in contemporary social science’ (Nisbet 1953, p. 15).
No doubt that in one or the other form, the notion of alienation has been the focus of
contemporary sociology, the history of sociological thought, the literature and other aesthetic
arts in all the times. No matter, whether it is in the classics of Rousseau, Hegel, Schiller,
Marx, Engels, Weber, or Durkheim; in the contemporary sociological thought of Merton,
Seeman, Fromm, Kaufmann, Neal, Aiken, Maddi, Hajda, Dean, Middleton, Schacht or
Josephson; or it is in the masterpieces of Goethe, Chekhov, Shakespeare, Matthew Arnold,
James Joyce, Eliot or Faiz; alienation is everywhere, all the times.
Literature is considered to be a true portrait of the society. All the writers get
impressed by their social milieu and try to depict it in their writings. Alienation, being the
incessant phenomenon in almost all the societies, has ever been a topic of interest for the
writers. Jaspers (1957) quotes an Egyptian chronicler of four thousand years ago:
2
Robbers abound.... No one ploughs the land. People are saying: ‘We do not
know what will happen day to day.’ ... Dirt prevails everywhere, and no
longer does any one wear clean raiment.... The country is spinning round and
round like a potter’s wheel.... Slave-women are wearing necklaces of gold and
lapis lazuli.... No more do we hear any one laugh.... Great men and small
agree in saying: ‘Would that I had never been born.’ ... No public office
stands open where it should, and the masses are like timid sheep without a
shepherd.... Artists have ceased to ply their art.... The few slay the many....
One who yesterday was indigent is now wealthy, and the sometime rich
overwhelm him with adulation.... Impudence is rife.... Oh that man could
cease to be, that woman should no longer conceive and give birth. Then, at
length, the world would find peace (E. Josephson and M. Josephson 1962, pp.
16-17).
A similar moral collapse was described by Thucydides in Greece during the
Peloponnesian war. Huizinga wrote about the Middle Ages that wars, class struggles,
hysterical crowd behaviour, vice and crime, plagues, scarcity, superstitions, the conviction
that world was coming to an end were the dominant features of medieval Europe. A late
medieval (fifteenth-century) French poet, Eustache Deschamps, cried:
Why are the times so dark
Men know each other not at all,
But governments quite clearly change
From bad to worse?
Days dead and gone were more worth while,
Now what holds sway?
Deep gloom and boredom,
Justice and law nowhere to be found.
I know no more where I belong.
(Josephson and Josephson 1962, p. 17)
The picture Engels portrayed of London in 1844 clearly depicts a widespread
phenomenon of alienation which was rather more intensified. He wrote:
3
The restless and noisy activity of the crowded streets is highly distasteful and
it is surely abhorrent to human nature itself. Hundreds of thousands of men
and women drawn from all classes and ranks of society pack the streets of
London. Are they not all human beings with the same innate characteristics
and potentialities? And do they not all aim at happiness by following similar
methods? yet they rush past each other as if they had nothing in common.
They are tacitly agreed on one thing only – that every should keep to the right
of the pavement so as not to collide with the stream of people moving in the
opposite direction. No one even thinks of sparing a glance for his neighbours
in the streets (Josephson and Josephson 1962, p. 32).
And now comes the twentieth century featured with miraculous innovations and
discoveries in science and technology. The rapid industrialisation, and consequent
mechanisation of productive processes, has transformed the work from consummatory activi-
ty into instrumental activity. Work is no more a source of intrinsic satisfaction. Religion is no
more viable as a code of work ethics because of ever increasing sense of insecurity about
future. People not only want to have maximum of their share but somewhat more.
Urbanisation has resulted in large crowds but men alone. Individuals have become more and
more self-centred. Alienation is on in all its forms. W. H. Auden (1955, p. 36) writes about
powerlessness in his poem ‘The Shield of Achilles’:
A crowd of ordinary decent folk
Watched from outside and neither moved nor spoke
As three pale figures were led forth and bound
To three posts driven upright in the ground.
The mass and majesty of this world, all
That carries weight and always weighs the same,
Lay in the hands of others; they were small
What their foes liked to do was done;
Similarly in ‘The Hollow Man’, Eliot (1958, p. 101) writes about meaninglessness:
4
We are the hollow men
We are the stuffed men
Leaning together
Headpiece filled with straw. Alas!
Our dried voices, when
We whisper together
Are quite and meaningless
As wind in dry grass
Or rats’ feet over broken glass
In our dry cellar
Shape without form, shade without colour,
Paralyzed force, gesture without motion;
Those who have crossed
With direct eyes, to death’s other Kingdom
Remember us all – if at all – not as lost
Violent souls, but only
As the hollow men
The stuffed men.
An other description of alienation is by Matthew Arnold (1968, p. 444) in his poem
‘To Marguerite’ about isolation:
Yes! in the sea of life ensiled,
With echoing straits between us thrown,
Dotting the shoreless watery wild,
We mortal millions live alone.
So this is the world of individuals; powerless, meaningless, normless, isolated,
socially and culturally estranged or simply alienated. The level of alienation may vary
individual to individual and society to society but no one can probably be said free of
alienation. According to Durkheim’s perspective, when people cannot keep the pace with
changing social order they become anomic which results in their withdrawal from that social
order or, in other words, they become isolated and culturally estranged.
5
Although alienation was existent in pre-industrial societies to some extent but it
escalated to its maximum in industrial societies. ‘With the wide-ranging economic and social
changes that industrialisation generated, life is reputed to have become more individualised,
privatised and, in many ways, more selfish’ (Allan 1989, p. 1). Industrialisation as its
consequence generated and promoted urbanism and the society transformed from ‘folk
society’ into ‘urban society’ (Redfield 1947). The complexity of an urban society in itself is
sufficient for inducing a sense of alienation in the people. Urban societies are characterised
with a high degree of bureaucratic hierarchy, impersonalisation, specialisation and routinised
and segmented work activities. A very few hands, that of power elite, control various events
of life and all the others have to follow the orders, either manifest or veiled. Impersonality of
the social control and notions like ‘you cannot beat the system’ intensifies the sense of
powerlessness. Impersonal rationalised control is the only way to achieve sufficient
integration of a complex interdependent structure in today’s urban societies but it gives very
little control and freedom to a substantial segment of the population over the important
events that shape their lives. Most commonly it results in apathy or in other words isolation.
Because dealing with and beating the system requires a waste experience, high level of
education and formal organisation. A sense of powerlessness and resulting apathy are more
common among relatively less educated urban people in blue-collar occupations.
Normlessness also is a product of the social structure of urban societies. The
economic development has so monopolised the attention and energy of urban societies that
economic achievement has become the major determinant of social status. The culture of
industrialism (or urbanism as a consequence) is built around the goal of continued economic
growth and it is the most common measure of a person’ worth (Faunce 1981, p. 148). But
6
despite the universal idea of virtue in affluence there is a large segment of population which
cannot aspire to this goal. According to Merton, normlessness is inevitable when socially
defined means are not available for achieving culturally prescribed goals. A much common
response to this situation is denigration of the importance of economic achievement. There
are aphorisms like ‘it is not what you know but who you know’. These cynical views are
common among people in working and lower-class positions. This rejection of the value
placed upon economic success has alienated them from the segment of society for whom this
value is important.
A rapid social change and structural differentiation in urban societies often result in a
feeling of meaninglessness. According to Faunce (1981, pp. 148-9), the fractionated
character of industrial life means that each individual plays many more social roles and,
consequently, has many more self-identities based on his self-images constituted by his
social relationships. These relationships are isolated from each other and often involve distin-
ctly different conception of self and distinctly different basis for maintaining self-esteem.
This discrepancy often makes the overall pattern of life meaningless. The extensive division
of labour upon the job of an industrial worker also produces meaninglessness. He has to do
his part and has no concern that how his job is related to the total production process. His
work has no meaningful relationship to the rest of his life. The capacity of the people to think
independently and make their own judgements about various events of life – in Mannheim’s
words ‘substantial rationality’ – has been decreased. In the performance of highly specialised
tasks, activities become routinised and it becomes much easier simply to conform to external
controls regulating behaviour than to reason why, how or when things should be done; hence
little ‘substantial rationality’ is required over there (Faunce 1981, p. 149).
7
The second type of meaninglessness is a consequence of rapid social change – as a
result of urbanisation – that the individual cannot accurately predict behavioural outcomes.
Riesman (1953) has described a series of character types beginning with ‘tradition-directed’,
which characterises a person whose behaviour is guided by a stable set of traditions. The
second type ‘inner-directed’ denotes a person who is directed by a set of values that he
regards as ‘his own’ and not by the societal values. This perception of values as ‘his own’
develops in the process of individuation which is a consequence of social change. When pace
of social change accelerates and degree of structural differentiation increases, value conflict
becomes intense and the individual feels himself unable to decide whether or not his own
values are correct. He has a wide range of values, mutually discrepant, as a result of various
roles and relationships he has in that changing society. Previously acquired values remain no
longer valid thus social encounters become uncertain. Such a person can be defined as
‘other-directed’. He imitates the behaviour of others in order to avoid behavioural
inconsistency. Since he no longer uses his own will in social events thus all the behaviours
are meaningless for him. The consequence of meaninglessness, either because of structural
differentiation or a rapid social change, may be hyper-conformity.
Generally alienation is defined as ‘a feeling of non-involvement in and estrangement
from one’s society and culture. The values and social norms shared by others seem
meaningless to the alienated individual. Thus he feels isolated and frustrated. Alienation also
involves a feeling of powerlessness’ (Scott 1988, p. 9). The main causes of this phenomenon
might be industrialisation and consequent urbanism which gave rise to structural
segmentation and a rapid socio-cultural change. As visualised by Wirth (1938, p. 12),
8
The superficiality, the anonymity, and the transitory character of urban social
relations make intelligible, also, the sophistication and the rationality
generally ascribed to city-dwellers. Our acquaintances tend to stand in a
relationship of utility to us in the sense that the role which each one plays in
our life is overwhelmingly regarded as a means for the achievement of our
own ends. Whereas the individual gains, on the one hand, a certain degree of
emancipation or freedom from the personal and emotional controls of intimate
groups, he loses, on the other hand, the spontaneous self-expression, the
morale, and the sense of participation that comes with living in an integrated
society. This constitutes essentially the state of anomie, or the social void.
Statement of the Problem
Pakistani society has been primarily ‘folk’ in its structure – based on primary mode of
economy – but now it is transforming into an ‘urban’ one. The pace of urbanisation in
Pakistani society is much faster than those societies which went through the process of
urbanisation two or three decades back. The reasons may be revolution in information
technology, communication networks, increasing literacy rate and changing mode of
economy. The phenomenon of alienation which struck urban societies at their mature stage is
striking Pakistani society at premature stage. Old values are changing, traditions are being
broken and individuals have a number of norms but hardly a single one viable.
In the past the members of the community were compelled by strong ties of
family and occupation to uniform behavior with little scope for asocial
activities. Social development and modern lifestyle today has brought about
the drift to large towns and hence broken family ties, occupations are largely
outside family circle and old values have been dissolved without new ones
being created. The individual finds himself more and more in a social
vacuum, unconnected to any one place, occupational group or tradition. The
members of the community have become more isolated and anonymous
(Niaz-Anwar 1993, p. 4).
9
In today’s urban Pakistani society lack of effective social control is giving way to
deviance. Life is going in its full swing but individuals are not enjoying it because most of it
is meaningless to them. Fashion and fads have resulted in high aspirations. Material entities
are status symbols and economic achievement is a dominant value. On the other hand, the
socially defined and approved means are not available to attain these culturally prescribed
ends. People are no more in a capacity to control the polity or other events of life. Vote has
lost its sovereignty. No one knows what will happen tomorrow, even in the next moment.
Behavioural predictability has been decreased to its minimum. Structural segmentation is too
much and people are unable to find any relationship between various activities of life. There
can be seen frequent feelings of normlessness, meaninglessness, cultural estrangement, social
isolation and powerlessness in the people of Pakistan.
Balochistan, with its unique history of ethnicity and tribalism, is relatively slow in
socio-cultural change, a manifest consequence of industrialisation and urbanisation. But as
the change is inevitable due to spread of communication, media invasion, migration and
social mobility, the Balochistani society is becoming more and more identical with that of
the other provinces of Pakistan – characterised with urbanism and, consequently, emerging
phenomenon of alienation. The long persisted tribalism is giving way to detribalised society
and the old family patterns are changing. Sources of social control and authority are no more
ancestral and inherited. Ethnicity has loosened its reins on the individuals tied in tribal
system of social relations. However, ethnic identification is still a major determinant of
social status in some parts of Balochistan. Although the process of detribalisation has
reduced the intensity of ethnic feelings to some extent, still the ethnicity seems less relevant
to the extent of urbanism – an aftermath of detribalisation. The provision of civic facilities,
10
increased exposure to mass media and increasing trend of education, of both males and
females, have also contributed significantly towards urbanisation.
A good stock of cross-societal studies (Seeman 1971; Fischer 1972, 1973; Cotgrove
1972; Killian and Grigg 1962; and Axelrod 1956) has evidenced the relationship between
urbanism and alienation. It has been ascertained that the feelings of powerlessness,
normlessness, meaninglessness, social isolation and cultural as well as self-estrangement are
dominant attributes of an urban society. Urbanism provides an augmenting atmosphere for
individualism, value conflict, a complex division of labour, secularism, contractual
relationships, automatism and rationally organised behaviour towards given goals. These
salient features of urbanism are positively correlated to the level of alienation. While
explaining the Seeman’s theoretical model of alienation in terms of urbanism as
characterised by Redfield and other social theorists, a positive relationship between urbanism
and alienation can be hypothesised. Thus it can be assumed that the changing social milieu of
Balochistan, from tribalism to detribalism and from ‘folkism’ to ‘urbanism’, may give rise to
the phenomenon of alienation in the society of Balochistan.
Objectives of the Study
The prime objectives of the present research were:
1. to contextualise the phenomenon of alienation in the ethnic social structure of
Balochistan;
2. to study the impact of urbanism in Balochistan in terms of alienation; and
3. to study the nature and extent of relationship, if any, between urbanism and
alienation in Balochistan.
11
Sociological Significance of the Study
Alienation is assumed to be one of the most dominant phenomena in Balochistan
which is transforming from ‘folk society’ to ‘urban society’. As no significant study on
alienation has yet been conducted in this region, one of the major motives to conduct the
present research is to collect some valuable data on alienation in the urbanising society of
Balochistan in order to contribute theoretically as well as empirically to the existing body of
knowledge.
As it has been assumed that without employing full potential of the individuals in a
society any significant development in natural as well as the human resources – which in turn
are prerequisites for material and moral advancement of the society – is paradoxical. Thus, it
is necessary to find out the impediments to full utilisation of human potential. One of the
manifest factors to under-utilisation of the human potential and, consequently, the low
productivity might be alienation. Having knowledge of the nature and level of alienation in
relation with the phenomena of urbanism in Balochistan, some positive strategies might be
worked out to enhance human potential.
Alienation is also an important element in social control. It is thought to be the root
cause of non-conformity, psychological depression, aggression, deviation and asocial as well
as anti-social behaviour. Therefore, a study on alienation might help improving the social
order in a changing society like that of Balochistan.
Subject to the availability of data on alienation from other societies, a valuable
comparison may also be executed on the basis of the present study which may help initiating
an inter-societal approach towards alienation.
REVIEW OF RELEVANT LITERATURE
Chapter II
REVIEW OF THE RELEVANT LITERATURE
According to Nisbet (1953), the concept of alienation has taken a central place in
contemporary social sciences. The richness of sociological literature on alienation can be
imagined by the entries in bibliographies on alienation. Up to 1974, three bibliographies
(Geyer 1972, 1974; Lystad 1969) containing a total of 2,050 entries had been published and
since then this aggregate may have been doubled. It was not possible to review such an
enormous amount of material, however an attempt has been made in order to outline some
important researches.
From Marx to the contemporary sociologists, workers’ alienation has always been a
matter of central concern, especially in the industrialised societies because workers are a
major segment of almost every society. In this connection, some researches has been quoted.
Kohn and Schooler (1969); Morse and Weiss (1955); and Sykes (1965) found that
social class and occupational differences determine the values attached to intrinsic and
extrinsic work outcomes. They suggested that white-collar workers are more likely to hold
middle class values stressing the importance of intrinsic outcomes, such as personal
autonomy, achievement and control in the job. On the other hand, blue-collar workers seem
to emphasise extrinsic job outcomes, such as pay and security. Therefore, blue-collar worker
is more likely to be alienated than white-collar worker. In Kohn and Schooler’s (1969, p.
677) words
Conditions of occupational life at higher social class levels facilitate interest
in the intrinsic qualities of the job, foster a view of self and society that is
13
conducive to believing in the possibilities of rational action toward purposive
goals, and promote self-direction. The conditions of occupational life at lower
social class levels limit man’s view of the job primarily to the extrinsic
benefits it provides (and) foster a narrowly circumscribed conception of self
and society.
Blauner (1964) conducted a research on workers from four different industries:
textile, printing, chemical and automobile. These organisations varied in terms of division of
labour, extent of mechanisation of technology, concentration of economic structure and
bureaucratisation. This study revealed that workers in textile and automobile industries were
more alienated than the workers in printing and chemical industries. The prime factor to this
variation was the freedom and integration at work provided to the workers by craft
technology involved in printing and continuous-process technology in chemical industry as
compared with the assembly-line technology in automobile industry and machine-tending
technology in the textile industry. Blauner concluded that work alienation results from
segmented work-flow, repetitive job carried out at a constant pace and the mechanical
control of work operations.
Seeman (1984) re-interviewed parallel samples of French and American workers in
1973 who were originally interviewed in 1967. He was interested to examine changes in
alienation – chiefly, feelings of powerlessness and self-estrangement in work – and the
relation of the original level of alienation to subsequent engagement in the French Events of
May (1968). He found that
(1) low powerlessness (but not work alienation) in 1967 correlated with strike
participation; (2) postcrisis (1973) levels of alienation were not significantly
related to either participation in, or attitudes concerning, the May events; (3)
patterned overall changes in political powerlessness occurred in the United
States, but not in France; (4) participants in the French strikes exhibited a
14
modest increase in powerlessness; and (5) those most favorable to May tended
to be both low in powerlessness and from the political left (1984, p. 437).
Trist and Bamforth (1951) studied the effect of mechanisation on British coal miners.
They found that workers were less alienated when coal-mining operation were carried out by
small, cohesive and self-chosen groups. The workers worked in a close proximity to one
another and experienced strong interpersonal bonds. The introduction of mechanical coal-
cutting and transportation equipment resulted in meaninglessness, a sense of anomie and
isolation – and, consequently, in low productivity.
Toor (1982) assumed that workers’ dissatisfaction with working conditions produces
the feelings of alienation. His research confirmed that there is a strong positive relationship
between dissatisfaction with working conditions and all the five variants of alienation (i.e.,
powerlessness, meaninglessness, normlessness, isolation and self-estrangement). It was also
noted that most of the respondents had strong feeling of powerlessness, meaninglessness and
normlessness while a few were found isolated or self-estranged.
Aiken and Hage (1966, pp. 497-507) asserted after a comparative analysis of
organisational alienation, ‘highly centralized and highly formalized organizational structures
are characterized by greater work alienation and greater alienation from expressive relations’
(p. 506). Alienation results when staff is not provided with opportunities to participate in
decisions concerning organizational policies and individually assigned tasks. It is manifested
where there are strict rules governing jobs and where rules are rigidly enforced.
Cotgrove (1972, pp. 437-51) in his work on ‘Alienation and Automation’ asserted
that ‘it is the form of the wage-contract and not the wage-contract per se, which determines
the extent to which the employee is subject to an alien will’ (p. 447).
15
Political alienation has been the topic of interest for many sociologists, especially in
the United States. Quinney (1964) conducted a research on ‘Political Conservatism,
Alienation and Fatalism’. He found that the political alienation was a function of low social
status and high religious fundamentalism. He argued that the working or the lower class had
the weakest ties to the social order not only because they received the smallest benefit from it
but also that they had the fewest opportunities to participate in it .
Thompson and Horton (1960, pp. 190-5) conducted a study on ‘Political Alienation
as a Force in Political Action’. They summarised their findings as the ‘political alienation is
inversely related to socio-economic status and ... political alienation leads to an attitude on a
given issue which represents a protest against the existing power structure in the community’
(p. 195).
In another study they (1962) proposed that negative voting among the socially and
economically deprived segments of the population is a function of powerlessness. The voting
against local issues expresses political protest on the part of powerless and apathetic
members of the community.
After a research on alienation and its consequences, Nachmias (1974) asserted that:
(a) powerless-alienated individuals were more likely to withdraw themselves from politics;
(b) distrustful individuals tended to approve of and engage in illegitimate modes of
participation; (c) meaningless-alienated individuals tended to employ legitimate modes of
participation; and (d) isolation-alienated individuals tended to respond by political
withdrawal coupled with unconventional social protest.
Dean (1960, pp. 185-189) concluded after a study on ‘Alienation and Political
Apathy’ that there is very low magnitude of the correlation coefficient regarding a positive
16
relationship between alienation and political apathy. Although, statistically that hypothesis
was upheld but practically that was rejected.
Faia (1962) in a study on college students found that the degree of alienation was
positively related to the degree of perceived structural and personal inadequacy. And again
the higher degree of perceived structural and personal inadequacies led to higher degree of
political deviancy according to Merton’s hypothesis of deviancy.
Coleman (1964) viewed alienation as affecting a large proportion of lower class
urban Negroes. He proved that the Negroes were more likely to be alienated because they
were more likely, than whites, not to belong to any organisation. Hypothesis that members of
‘work-based’ mediating organisations are less likely to be alienated than non-members was
strongly supported by the findings of Neal and Seeman.
Bullough (1967, pp. 469-79) conducted a study on ‘Alienation in the Ghetto’,
investigating two samples of middle-class Negro subjects, one group living within the
traditional Negro ghetto areas and the other, the integrated one, living in a predominantly
white suburban area. He observed, ‘The integrated subjects expressed fewer feelings of
alienation; they felt less powerless and scored lower on the anomia scale’ (p.469).
Seeman, M., A. Seeman and A. Budros (1988) conducted a longitudinal study on
alienation and alcohol use. This research was a replication and refinement of an earlier study
on bearing of three varieties of alienation – powerlessness, work alienation and social
isolation – on the use and abuse of alcohol. A sample of 500 respondents, composed of both
a recaptured group (interviewed after a four-year interval) and a newly interviewed group.
The findings were same as in the original study. Seeman et. al. found that
17
1) powerlessness is related directly to drinking and to drinking problems,
while work alienation and network (friendship) integration are not; and 2) the
latter variables interact with powerlessness to produce distinctive outcomes.
The longitudinal design allows us to demonstrate further that 1) change in
powerlessness is associated with change in drinking, and 2) intervening stress
experience (but not unemployment in particular) is associated with increased
drinking problems (1988, p. 185).
Seeman and Lewis (1995, pp. 517-525) surveyed national samples of older men (age
45-59 in 1966) and mature women (30-44 in 1967) periodically over more than a decade for
‘Powerlessness, Health, and Mortality: A Longitudinal Study of Older Men and Mature
Women’ and found an association over time between the sense of powerlessness and various
indices of health status (chiefly, psychosocial symptoms and limits on physical activities).
They ascertained that
The results are basically coordinate for men and women, and they are
replicated for initially healthy and initially impaired subsamples. The results
show that: (1) in each year, powerlessness is associated with greater activity
limits and more psychosocial symptoms; (2) powerlessness also provides
prospective prediction, since high initial powerlessness scores are associated
with health problems observed five and ten years later, with initial health
controlled; (3) increasing powerlessness accompanies deterioration in health
(with stringent controls on prior health); and (4) for a subsample of men,
mortality between 1976 and 1981 is associated with initially high
powerlessness scores (with prior health controlled). These results are
discussed for their import in relation to the steadily growing interest in social
psychological factors in health.
Bolton (1972) in a study of peace group members found that the degree of alienation
was positively associated with degree of radicalness of the groups to which people belonged.
Rose (1962) found that group leaders were less likely to be alienated than the general
population; however, only a small fraction of general population was found significantly
alienated.
18
Levens (1968) conducted a study of members and non-members of a welfare client
organisation and found that there was a negative relationship between organisational
affiliation and feelings of powerlessness among the poor. Also that the participation in
community action organisation produced in them the feelings of destiny control.
Middleton (1963, p. 973-7) studied ‘Alienation, Race and Education’ among the
adults of a small city in central Florida. He concluded that
five types of alienation – powerlessness, meaninglessness, normlessness,
social estrangement, and estrangement from work – are highly intercorrelated,
but sixth, cultural estrangement, is not closely related to the others. The
hypothesis that social conditions of deprivation are related to alienation is
generally supported. Subordinate racial status and limited education are
strongly associated with all but one type of alienation. Several other factors,
such as occupation of head of household, family income, sex, marital status,
and size of community of origin, also tend to be related to alienation, but the
coefficients of association are not as high as for race or education (pp. 976-7).
Bonjean and Grimes (1970, pp. 365-73) in their research on ‘Bureaucracy and
Alienation’ negated the generalisation that there is a direct relationship between
bureaucratisation and alienation. However, they suggested some patterns of relationships that
(1) bureaucracy may be directly related to alienation among blue-collar
workers, but not among salaried mangers or independent businessmen; (2) the
authority dimension of bureaucracy is more closely related to measures of
alienation than other bureaucratic characteristics among hourly paid workers;
and (3) that form of alienation most closely related to bureaucratization
among hourly paid workers is self-estrangement (p. 365).
Simpson (1970, pp. 1002-13) conducted a study on ‘Social Mobility, Normlessness
and Powerlessness in Two Cultural Contexts’ in two Latin American countries – Costa Rica
and Mexico – and the United States of America. He evidenced that
19
(1) Educational and occupational mobility produces intense normlessness in
the more ascriptive societies but not in the United States; (2) downward
educational mobility produces an intense sense of powerlessness in three
countries; (3) there are large differences between the United States and the
Latin American countries in terms of both normlessness and powerlessness;
and (4) a negative relationship between normlessness and occupational level
appears in the United States but not in Latin America (p. 1002).
Iqbal (1983) conducted a research on ‘Social Isolation in Old Age’ in different
localities of Lahore, Pakistan. The sample was comprised of 70 (35 males and 35 females)
retired old-aged respondents. He concluded that retired males were more socially isolated
than females while the age and income did not make any difference.
Perveen (1981) hypothesised that the greater dissatisfaction with socio-economic
status leads to greater social isolation in female teachers. She interviewed 150 married
respondents teaching in various colleges of Lahore, Pakistan. She found that highly educated
and highly paid respondents were more likely to be dissatisfied with their socio-economic
status, may be a result of heightened concern and preoccupation with material aspirations,
which breed in them the feelings of alienation.
Hajda (1961) found in an analysis of graduate students that a purely alienated
individual cannot be an intellectual. Such a person lives by negation only, having no identity
of his own, belonging nowhere and having no goals. Therefore, this experience makes his life
unexcited and meaningless which has no use.
Zablocki (1982) stated that powerlessness, normlessness, meaninglessness and value
isolation are most endemic to western societies just like plague.
On the basis of above quoted researches, a few assumptions can be made:
• Alienation is a function of complex division of labour;
20
• Alienation stems from contractual rather than communal relationships;
• Alienation has a positive relationship with size of the population, level of
heterogeneity, extent of secularism and magnitude of automatism;
• Alienation is a function of lower socio-economic status;
• Age has a positive relationship with alienation;
• Females have more tendency to become alienated than males;
• Occupational status negatively affects the level of alienation and specially
normlessness;
• Community participation is negatively related to the sense of alienation;
• Segmented work-flow, repetitive job carried out at a constant pace and the
mechanical control of work operations are likely to produce more alienation in
workers;
• Dissatisfaction with work conditions may produce alienation in workers; and
• Highly centralised and formalised organisational structures tend to produce more
alienation in workers.
It has previously been ascertained that complex division of labour, contractual
relationships, large size of population, heterogeneity, secularism and automatism are
indicators of urbanism. A high degree of social stratification in urban society results in a
wide range of educational, occupational and social disparities which in turn result in
alienation. Thus a positive correlation between the levels of urbanism and alienation can be
hypothesised.
THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK
Chapter III
THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK
The word alienation, originated from a Latin noun alienatio which in turn is derived
from a Latin verb alienare
meaning to ‘take away’, ‘remove’, or ‘cause a separation to
occur’, was initially popularised in theological writings. In Bible, Paul characterised the
gentiles as ‘darkened in their understanding, alienated from the life of God’ (Ephesians 4, p.
8). While commenting on the spiritual death, Calvin (1854, p. 219) wrote ‘spiritual death is
nothing else than alienation of the soul from God’. Not only the Christianity but also the
Hinduism and the Buddhism had interpreted alienation in terms of separation or dissolution
from God (Kanungo 1982, p. 9). The main cause of alienation to most of the theologians was
worldly (material and sensuous) involvement and in order to avoid spiritual alienation they
encouraged alienation from the physical and social world. The primitive Christianity
preached that the world belonged to the devil, nature was the enemy, and the body was a
prison (Kanungo 1982, p. 9). According to Kaufmann (1971, p. liv), ‘the sages of the
Upanishads sought to estrange their disciples from nature, from society, from their own
bodies and from whatever they might consider their own selves’. Work alienation was
desirable if work was a means to satisfy personal material (physical), social, or ego needs. In
Hindu scripture Bhagavad Gita, karma (work) was considered desirable only when it was
performed as a pure sense of duty without any attachment to its outcomes or without any
desire for personal gain (Kanungo 1982, pp. 9-10). In Muslim sufism
, the state of maraqba
resembles to estrangement from the outer world and, even, from the individual himself.
22
German Idealistic Approach
The German idealistic philosophy introduced the notion of alienation, in to the
modern sociological literature. Although some social-contract theorists like Grotius, Hobbes,
Locke and especially Rousseau have also used the concept to explain man’s surrender of his
personal rights, liberty, powers and control to the general will of the community or
organisation, but they assumed alienation as desirable. It was Hegel who put the concept of
alienation on an analytic footing and laid the intellectual foundation for understanding the
problem of alienation in modern society (Fromm 1941, 1966). He was much influenced by
Rousseau’s discussion of alienation as a surrender of personal self and control and also by
Schiller’s theological use of the term as a state of separation. That was the reason that Hegel
used two distinct German words entausserung (surrender or divestiture) and entfremdung (a
state of separation) for describing the dual nature of alienation (Kanungo 1982, p. 11). In his
book Phenomenology of Mind (1949), he has used these two words interchangeably as
different types of alienation. According to Hegel (1949), alienation is of two types. In the
first form, the individual experiences a state of separation. He ceases to identify with the
‘social substance’ or the social, political and cultural institutions. It is neither intention nor
the deliberate action of the individual to be alienated. It is rather imposed alienation. In the
second form of alienation, the individual himself surrender or transfer his rights to someone
else. ‘It involves a conscious relinquishment or surrender with the intention of securing a
desired end; namely, unity with the social substance’ (Schacht 1970, p. 36). Hegel suggested
that first type of alienation is undesirable for the individual while the other one is desirable;
thus, in order to avoid imposed alienation, the individual should surrender himself for a unity
23
with the social system which results in the self-fulfilment of mankind. In this way the
‘universal essence of man’ is realised.
Marxist Perspective
Marx was much influenced by Hegel’s notion of the ‘universal essence of man’ in his
thinking on human nature but most part of his belief in the universal nature of human being
was referred to the productive activity or labour. According to Marx (1932, pp. 87-8), labour
represents ‘existential activity of man, his free conscious activity – not as a means for
maintaining life but for developing his universal nature’. ‘For Marx, man’s essential
characteristics are those of individuality, sociality, and sensuousness’ (Schacht 1970, p. 74).
To Marx, alienation means,
That man does not experience himself as the acting agent in his grasp of the
world, but that the world (nature, others and himself) remain alien to him.
They stand above and against him as objects, even though they may be objects
of his own creation. Alienation is essentially experiencing the world and
oneself passively, receptively, as the subject separated from the object
(Fromm 1966, p. 44).
Marx perceived the ‘process of alienation expressed most forcefully in work and in
the division of labour, but he also speaks of religious alienation, of political alienation, and of
alienation from one’s fellow men’ (Coser and Rosenberg 1976, p. 395). While explaining
alienation of labour Marx (1963, pp. 85-6) wrote:
What constitutes alienation of labor? First, that the work is external to the
worker, that it is not part of his nature; and that, consequently, he does not
fulfil himself in his work but denies himself, has a feeling of misery rather
than well-being, does not develop freely his physical and mental energies but
is physically exhausted and mentally debased.... His work is not voluntary but
imposed, forced labor.... Finally, the alienated character of work for the
24
worker appears in the fact that it is not his work but work for someone else,
that in work he does not belong to himself but to another person.
Marxist view of alienation, if critically analysed, gives rise to some questions. ‘The
Marxian concept of alienation not only implies a lack of control, autonomy, and ownership
over one’s job, it also implies submission of labor to the direction of another person’
(Kanungo 1982, p. 15). But facts do not support this assumption. If someone works under the
supervision of some senior group member (e.g., in a research organisation) it may not
necessarily be alienating the individual. That individual may have complete self-fulfilment.
‘Schacht (1970) pointed out that such conceptualization suffers from the problems of both
over and under inclusiveness’ (Kanungo 1982, p. 15). Moreover, Marx has that much over-
emphasised the productive activity and the alienation of labour that ‘the role of other human
needs, such as the physical and the social ones, has been completely disregarded’ (Kanungo
1982, p. 16). But still Marxian notions play a fundamental role in the contemporary
theorising regarding alienation.
Weberian Thought
After Marx, Max Weber and Durkheim added a lot to the concept of alienation.
Weber treated the concept of alienation very much similar to Marx. As Gerth and Mills
(1946, p. 50) put it, ‘Marx’s emphasis upon the wage worker as being “separated” from the
means of production becomes in Weber’s perspective, merely one special case of a universal
trend. The modern soldier is equally “separated” from the means of violence, the scientist
from the means of inquiry, and the civil servant from the means of administration’.
25
Both of them were convinced that workers’ individuality or personal worth is
determined by their labour and the working conditions which deny an expression of
individuality, result in alienation. But contrary to Marx, Weber asserted that Protestantism
provided the basis for capitalism by increasing the work involvement of entrepreneurs thus
‘the spirit of the Protestant work ethics is the key to the realization of man’s potentialities to
the fullest extent’ (Kanungo 1982, p. 20). In his view, capitalism was helpful in reducing
alienation rather than increasing as it was assumed by Marx. For Weber, an involved worker
is ‘a type of man, bred by free associations in which the individual have to prove himself
before his equals, where no authoritative commands, but autonomous decisions, good sense,
and responsible conduct train for citizenship’ (Gerth and Mills 1946, p. 18). Weber
advocated the freedom to make decisions, assuming personal responsibility and worthiness
of the individual on the basis of his achievement at work. On the whole, he perceived
alienation as a function of the work set-up which ‘cannot provide an environment that
satisfies the needs of entrepreneurs for individual autonomy, responsibility and achievement,
it will create a state of alienation in them’ (Kanungo 1982, p. 20).
Anomie
Durkheim viewed alienation as the consequence of a condition of anomie, or ‘the
perceived lack of socially approved means and norms to guide one’s behavior for the purpose
of achieving culturally prescribed goals’ (Durkheim 1947; Blauner 1964; Shepard 1971). It
was rather a new explanation of alienation, quite contrary to the previous ones. Durkheim
asserted that if human needs are not proportionate to the available means, no individual can
be happy. But usually human needs are unlimited because all these needs are not bio-genic
26
which may not exceed the physical demands of a body. Most of the human needs are socio-
genic, and in a competitive society, these needs are ever-increasing. ‘The more one has, the
more one wants, since satisfactions received only stimulate instead of filling needs’
(Durkheim 1951). In order to live a happy life, the human passions first must be limited. As
‘the individual has no way of limiting them, this must be done by some force exterior to
him.... the force can only be moral’ (Durkheim 1951). But the passions can only be halted to
the limits considered as just. Beyond these limits, it is very difficult to control human desires
by means of coercive force or just the social norms. Therefore in the dysfunctioning of these
social norms (a state of anomie or normlessness), the individual cannot adjust himself in the
changing social order and, consequently gets alienated. Elaborating this point, Durkheim
(1951) says,
Man’s characteristic privilege is that the bond he accepts is not physical but
moral; that is, social.... But when the society is disturbed by some painful
crises or by beneficent but abrupt transition, it is momentarily incapable of
exercising this influence.... In the case of economic disaster, indeed, some-
thing like a declassification occurs which suddenly casts certain individuals
into a lower state than their previous one.... It is the same if the source of the
crisis is in abrupt growth of power and wealth. Then, truly, as the conditions
of life are changed, the standard according to which needs were regulated can
no longer remain the same; for it varies with social resources, since it largely
determines the share of each class of producers.... The limits are unknown
between the possible and the impossible, what is just and what is unjust,
legitimate claims and hopes and those which are immoderate. Consequently,
there is no constraint upon aspirations.... Ultimately, this liberation of desires
has been made worse by the very development of industry and the almost
infinite extension of the market.
To Durkheim, this process leads to a state where social norms may be present but the
individual feels unable to help him in achieving culturally defined goals. He conceptualised
this state as anomie which necessarily results in alienation. Anomie is often considered a
27
post-industrial phenomenon. As Blauner (1964, p. 24) observed, industrialisation and
urbanisation of modern society have ‘destroyed the normative structure of a more traditional
society up-rooted people from the local groups and institutions which had provided stability
and security’. When people feel themselves unstable and insecure, they become socially
isolated. ‘In social-psychological terms, this variant of isolation seems to stem from the
frustration of social and security needs, the need to belong to groups for social approval and
social comparison’ (Festinger 1954; Maslow 1954).
Durkheim’s concept of anomie was further refined by Merton. He described anomie
as ‘breakdown in the social structure, occurring particularly when there is an acute
disjunction between the cultural ... goals and the socially structured capacities of members of
the group to act in accord with them’ (Merton 1957, p. 162). He identified five modes of
individual adaptation to this ends-means dilemma: conformity, innovation, ritualism,
retreatism and rebellion. The ultimate resultant of innovation, ritualism, retreatism and
rebellion is more likely to be the alienation. Innovation and rebellion lead to establishment of
a new normative system and, consequently, to social isolation. Similarly, ritualism and
retreatism results in self-estrangement.
In the contemporary sociological thought on the subject of alienation, there is a long
list of social scientists who have made very precious contributions to various aspects of the
concept, theoretically as well as empirically. For example, Miller (1967) conceived of
alienation in terms of ‘the lack of intrinsic pride or meaning in work’. Likewise Blauner
(1964, p. 15) suggested that ‘alienation exists when workers are unable to control their
immediate work processes, to develop a sense of purpose and function which connects their
28
jobs to the overall organization of production, to belong to integrated industrial communities,
and when they fail to become involved in the of work as a mode of personal self-expression’.
As the alienation is a multi-dimensional phenomenon, the need for dis-entanglement
of its varied meanings has always been craved. To fulfil this need, Seeman (1991) proposed
six major variants of alienation (powerlessness, normlessness, meaninglessness, self-
estrangement, social isolation and cultural estrangement) in order to integrate various
meanings of the concept.
Variants of Alienation by Seeman (1991)
1. Powerlessness
This phenomenon was at first discussed by Marx in terms of ‘lack of control’.
Seeman (1959, p. 784) developed it as ‘the expectancy or probability held by the individual
that his own behavior cannot determine the occurrence of the outcomes, or reinforcements,
he seeks’. He asserted that powerlessness is a socio-psychological phenomenon rather than
an objective condition in society. Although the social conditions are important from causal
standpoint in the explanation of powerlessness but ‘the objective features of the situations are
to be handled like any other situational aspect of behavior – to be analyzed, measured,
ignored, experimentally controlled or varied, as the research question demands’ (Seeman
1959). This definition of powerlessness resembles Rotter’s (1966) conception of the
‘externals’. As Kanungo (1982, p. 25) pointed out,
Rotter distinguishes two types of people, internal and external, on the basis of
their differential learning history. Early socialization experiences condition
the externals to perceive themselves as pawns controlled by external forces.
Internals, on the other hand, are conditioned to perceive themselves as capable
29
of controlling their own environment. Thus, externals would very much
resemble people experiencing the powerlessness variant of alienation.
Seeman (1959) recognised this resemblance as useful in creating a closer bond
between the learning theory and the theory of alienation; but he also indicated a problem that
‘these two constructs, though intimately related, are not generally used to understand the
same things’. Although Seeman’s conception of powerlessness seems applicable to all the
events but he himself restricted its implication to the socio-political events only. As he
(1959) said, ‘I would limit the applicability of the concept of expectancies that have to do
with the individual’s sense of influence over socio-political events (control over the political
system, the industrial economy, international affairs, and the like)’. Powerlessness, in other
words, might be said to be a sensed inability to control events and their consequences.
2. Normlessness
This variant of alienation has its roots in the concept of anomie as conceived by
Durkheim (1947) and Merton (1949). Traditionally, ‘anomie denotes a situation in which the
social norms regulating individual conduct have broken down or are no longer effective as
rules for behavior’ (Seeman 1959). Merton (1957) asserted that anomie is a failure of institu-
tionally prescribed means or conduct to achieve culturally prescribed goals. In such a
situation ‘the technically most effective procedure, whether culturally legitimate or not,
becomes typically preferred to institutionally prescribed conduct’ (Merton 1949, p. 128).
Following Merton’s analysis, Seeman (1959) assumed that the anomic situation may lead to
low predictability in behaviour (meaninglessness) as well as the belief in luck (power-
lessness). To Merton (1949, p. 128), ‘in such a society [suffering from anomie] people tend
to put stress on mysticism: the workings of Fortune, Chance, Luck’. The idea of
30
normlessness has been used in both the sociological as well as psychological contexts like
personal disorganisation, cultural breakdown, reciprocal distrust and so on. Seeman (1959, p.
788), while following Merton’s lead, defined the anomic situation for an individual as ‘one in
which there is a high expectancy that socially unapproved behaviors are required to achieve
given goals’. According to Seeman this version of alienation is independent of the other two
(i.e., powerlessness and meaninglessness). In short, normlessness is a situation in which the
individual feels the previously approved social norms no longer effective in guiding his
behaviour for the achievement of culturally defined or personal goals.
According to social-influence theory, the individuals depends upon group norms for
self-evaluation and for evaluating their abilities and opinions (Festinger 1954). Group norms
usually provide information regarding behavioural standards. When these useful information
for self-evaluation are not provided by the group, the individuals perceive themselves
separate from the group as well as its norms. As a result, they experience a state of
normlessness.
3. Meaninglessness
This category of alienation indicates a cognitive phenomenon when ‘the individual is
unclear as to what he ought to believe – when the individual’s minimal standards for clarity
in decision-making are not met’ (Seeman 1959, p. 786). According to Seeman (1959) this
type of alienation refers to the individual’s sense of understanding the events in which he is
engaged. In the state of meaninglessness, individual’s ability to predict about social
situations and the outcomes of their own and others’ behaviour is diminished.
Meaninglessness is independent of the first category, i.e., powerlessness because the
expectancy for personal control over some events, sometimes, may not necessarily coincide
31
with the cognitive clarity of these events. Some other sociologists have viewed the
meaninglessness as individual’s failure to understand ‘the very events upon which life and
happiness are known to stand’ (Dean 1961, p. 754) or what is going on in the world today
(Middleton 1963). Indicating towards the use of the concept by other social scientists,
Seeman (1959) wrote,
The post-war German situation described by Adorno was ‘meaningless’ in the
sense that the individual could not choose with confidence among alternative
explanations of the inflationary disaster of the time.… In Mannheim’s
depiction, the individual cannot choose appropriately among alternative inter-
pretations (cannot ‘act intelligently’ or ‘with insight’) because the increase in
functional rationality, with its emphasis on specialization and production,
makes such choice impossible.
For Seeman, these alternatives may involve either the simply descriptive beliefs
(interpretations) or the beliefs involving moral standards (norms for behaviour). In either of
the case, the ‘meaningless’ individual is likely to have a low level of confidence in predicting
the consequences of acting on his belief. This aspect of alienation may be characterised by ‘a
low expectancy that satisfactory predictions about future outcomes of behavior can be made’
(Seeman 1959). In simple words, meaninglessness is sensed inability to predict behaviour
outcomes. Kanungo (1982, p. 26) suggested that meaninglessness may also be termed as
incomprehensibility or inability to understand one’s complex environment or goals. It may
also ‘represent purposelessness or the lack of any goal or goal clarity (not because of goal
complexity, but because of an unstructured goal or the simple absence of any goal)’
(Kanungo 1982, p. 26).
32
4. Self-Estrangement
The fourth variant of alienation, self-estrangement was most extensively used by
Fromm (1955, p. 120) in The Sane Society: ‘By alienation is meant a mode of experience in
which the person experiences himself as an alien. He has become, one might say, estranged
from himself.’ Similar was the description by Mills (1951, pp. 184-8) that ‘in the normal
course of her work, because her personality becomes the instrument of an alien purpose, the
salesgirl becomes self-alienated.... Men are estranged from one another as each secretly tries
to make an instrument of the other, and in time a full circle is made. One makes an in-
strument of himself and is estranged from it also.’
Seeman (1971, p. 136) himself admits that self-estrangement is an ‘elusive idea’ but
he goes on to operationalise the concept. ‘According to Seeman, a person is self-estranged
when engaged in an activity that is not rewarding in itself but is instrumental in satisfying
extrinsic needs, such as the need for money and security’ (Kanungo 1982, p. 28). For Seeman
(1959), as for Marx also, self-estrangement is generally ‘the loss of intrinsic meaning or
pride in work’. Making the concept more manageable, he (1959) poses,
One way to state such a meaning is to see alienation as the degree of
dependence of the given behavior upon anticipated future rewards, that is
upon rewards that lie outside the activity itself. In these terms, the worker who
works merely for his salary, the housewife who cooks simply to get it over
with, or the other-directed type who acts ‘only for its effect on others’ – all
these (at different levels, again) are instances of self-estrangement. In this
view, what has been called self-estrangement refers essentially to the ‘in-
ability of the individual to find self-rewarding – or in Dewey’s phrase, self-
consummatory – activities that engage him.
Marx has used this idea of self-estrangement as an important element in his analysis
of alienation. Following his tradition, many sociologists placed self-estrangement at a central
33
position in the phenomenon of alienation as all the other variants seem to end in self-
estrangement. Attesting this belief, Blauner (1964, p. 3) writes, ‘When work activity does not
permit control (powerlessness), evoke a sense of purpose (meaninglessness), or encourage
larger identification (isolation), employment becomes simply a means to the end of making a
living’. Likewise, Faunce (1981, p. 135) says, ‘The worker who feels powerless and who
sees the work place as meaningless and normless is unlikely to be very concerned with the
goals of the work organization and is therefore isolated or alienated from it.... A person who
is isolated ... in any social situation is necessarily self-estranged in that situation.’
In motivational terms, Blauner (1964) observed that whenever individuals find their
environment (either the work place or the whole society) unable to provide opportunities for
the satisfaction of self-actualisation needs through the expression of their potentialities, they
become self-estranged.
5. Social Isolation
When an individual finds that he can no longer share the normative system for the
attainment of his goals due to its ineffectiveness, he may develop norms of his own to guide
his behaviour (‘Innovation’ in Merton’s model). Having his own normative system, different
from others, the individual feels himself separate from the society and its normative system.
His dissociation from others and overall social system leads to a perception of social
isolation (‘rebellion’ in Merton’s model). This concept is more commonly used in the intel-
lectual context where writers refer this concept to the ‘detachment of the intellectual from
popular cultural standards’ (Seeman 1959). According to the reward values perspective,
socially isolated individuals ‘assign low reward value to goals or beliefs that are typically
highly valued in the given society’ (Seeman 1959, p. 789).
34
From the standpoint of social-influence theories, every individual fulfils his need to
belong, to love, and to be loved by others by adhering to the group norms as a member of
that group (Jones and Gerad 1967). If the group norms are too restrictive and in conflict with
the individual’s personal goals (i.e., need affiliation), the group loses its normative influence
on the individual and, as a consequence, the individual becomes isolated from the group.
Social isolation, like self-estrangement, stems from normlessness and by a cyclic process
results in normlessness again.
6. Cultural Estrangement
This final variant of alienation is characterised by ‘the individual’s rejection of, or
sense of removal from, dominant social values’ (Seaman 1991, p. 351). The culturally
estranged individual feels that his ideas and opinions about the important as well as everyday
affairs are different from those of people in his primary and secondary groups. He feels
himself maladjusted hence unable to actively participate in the community life. When he
finds his ideas inconsistent with those of the masses, either he becomes retreatist or
innovator. Cultural estrangement is a little bit different from the remaining types of
alienation. Powerlessness, self-estrangement and normlessness represents a negative
judgement of self while cultural estrangement does not necessarily represent a negative
judgement of self, but often means quite the opposite, that the individual is sufficiently
secure in his judgement of self to be independent of his values (Kohn and Schooler 1983, p.
90).
While keeping in view Diaz-Guerrero’s work on socio-cultural premises (SCPs) and
active-passive dichotomy, cultural estrangement seems characteristic of active endurers of
stress (AEsS) as ‘one would expect a far greater number of majority shared SCPs and more
35
organic SCP systems in PES (passive endurer of stress) societies than in AES societies’
(Diaz-Guerrero 1967 a, p. 86). Passive endurers of stress try to ‘agree with others, enduring
their actual disagreement to avoid active interpersonal stress’ as obedience and authority is
considered far more important in PES societies (Diaz-Guerrero 1967 a, p. 86).
The Epilogue
Although these all variants of alienation seem conceptually independent of one
another but actually they are inter-related in one or the other way. According to Faunce
(1981, p. 135)
They may form a causal chain in which one or more types of alienation tend
to produce another. The combination of powerlessness, meaninglessness, and
normlessness is very likely to result in isolation. People who have little
control over the factors that affect the achievement of a goal, who are unclear
about what the goal should be, and who feel that whatever the goal is it cannot
be achieved through approved means frequently respond by placing a low
value upon achievement of that goal and are consequently alienated from a
society in which it is typically highly valued.
From motivational standpoint, the frustration of basic needs may result in alienation.
For example, frustration of need for belongingness may lead to social isolation while
frustration of need evaluation may end in feeling of normlessness. Social-influence theories
also support the idea that absence of two basic social influences (i.e., normative and
informational) may determine isolation and normlessness forms of alienation respectively. In
the framework of active-passive syndrome typology, the items used to measure ‘views of
life’ (Diaz-Guerrero 1973, pp. 199-203) can also be interpreted in terms of alienation. All the
variants, except cultural estrangement, represent various sub-syndromes of passivity while
activity can be translated in terms of cultural estrangement.
36
Seeman (1991) conceptualised alienation as a phenomenon in which the individual
perceives himself as: unable to control socio-political events occurring around him; unclear
about his beliefs (either interpretations or norms) and the world around, unable to make
decisions, and thus unable to predict consequences of his own behaviour; facing disjunction
between his personal goals and socially approved means to attain those goals; different from
others and the normative system in the society, hence separated from others and the society
at large; and, as a consequence, estranged from himself.
Application to the Present Study
Alienation is often assumed as a post-industrial phenomenon which is likely to exist
at its maximum in industrialised, technologically developed and urban societies. It is
perceived as a function of mechanisation and automation which, as a consequence,
diminishes personal craft and creativity. From the standpoint of ‘prismatic society’, a variety
of specialisation has occurred which leads to bureaucratic hierarchy or, in other words,
decreased control by craftsman. According to anthropological point of view, inevitable
evolutionary process has changed the culture. Hedonistically speaking, man has changed his
orientation toward material goals and now wants to grab as much as possible because
material objects are valued in the developed societies. Man contends to attain his personal
goals even by using technically, but not socially, legitimate means. All the social institutions
are under drastic change. Patterns of social control are different from those of earlier days.
Family is under a change in its structure as well as its functions. Religion, previously an
effective organ of social control, has lost its influence upon society and secularism is a value.
Political system is corrupt and democracy is in fact an illusion. Economic affairs are being
37
handled by just a few hands and distribution of wealth is considered unjust by majority of the
people. Education is being used for indoctrination rather than transmission of knowledge.
Various social and moral dilemmas have become disastrous. Normative and value system is
no more effective to guide and predict human behaviour. All these are the glimpses of
industrialised and urban societies.
Pakistani society, having a long history of agro-feudal economy and social order, has
changed very rapidly especially in the last two decades of 20
th
century. Although, Pakistani
society is still dominated by old social patterns, the changing world order has influenced it
very much and a noticeable change may be observed, especially in its urban community. No
doubt that the old elite are once again holding the top positions in the new social order – old
wine in the new bottle – and the common man is still being exploited for his basic needs, but
now, in addition to his previous deprivations, he has to face a new phenomenon, i.e.,
alienation.
As it has been discussed that the Pakistani society, especially the rural fragment, has
been a traditional one, characterised by feudalism, agro-economy, male domination, fatalism,
ethnocentrism, linguistic fanaticism and caste oriented social stratification. In such kind of
society, the extended family system was prevalent which was supportive to its members in
their psycho-social and economic needs. Family played an important role in occupational as
well as cognitive socialisation. Family craft was supposed to be transmitted generations after
generations. As most of the people were engaged in primary occupations – farming, fishing,
mining and hunting – they were dependent upon nature for their economic and, consequently,
social well-being. Although these productive activities were not sufficient for their basic
economic needs, they had to be patient. As a result, they developed fatalistic attitudes in
38
order to counter their deprivations. Religion provided a justification for divine distribution of
wealth and power, thus social stratification was considered no less than a blessing. Horizons
of education were limited to the teaching of family trade, hence activating no conscious
thought processes regarding socio-political affairs.
In such an environment, individuals were less likely to be alienated because they did
not perceive lack of power or control as their shortcoming. They considered their
powerlessness as God-given. Powerlessness saved them of decision-making which they
tended to avoid because of their ‘other-directed’ or ‘authoritarian’ personality orientation. As
their sphere of activity was very limited, the division of their responsibility was divine to
them and they had a fatalistic attitude toward causes and consequences of that activity. They
did not need any cognitive clarity about their beliefs and outcomes of their behaviour. Thus,
meaninglessness was non-existent. “Folk society’ had very simple norms, usually consistent
with cultural as well as personal goals. Religion had a powerful role in formal as well as
informal control. Division of labour was quite simple. That was the reason that the
individuals were less likely to be victimised by normlessness. Family was a supportive
institution to the individual in distress – either psychological, social or economic. The
individual had no feelings of detachment either on micro or macro level. As normlessness
was rare, chances for the individual to be socially isolated were also very rare. As the
individual was not supposed to take decisions on important affairs and he was well adjusted
in his ‘close’ society, he was less likely to be culturally estranged. In the absence of other
five variants of alienation, self-estrangement was also less likely to be existent. But this
whole description, for most of it, depicts the life in rural or ‘folk society’ which is, if not
entirely, different from the ‘urban society’ to a great extent.
39
Today’s urban life in Pakistan, and Balochistan as well, is characterised by a complex
division of labour, industrialisation, mechanisation of the crafts, materialism, selfishness,
contractual relationships, unemployment, status conscious middle class, anonymity,
illiteracy, increasing crime rate, exaggeration by mass-media, increasing nuclear families,
psychosis, unplanned annexation of cities, and a new phenomenon – alienation. The
urbanism in Balochistan may be said as ideal for alienation in its various forms. This
situation can be analysed in the framework of Seeman’s (1991) variants of alienation.
Industries are being established in or near the large cities, for many reasons like
provision of skilled labour, communication networks and infra structure. These industrial
sites are giving rise to labour colonies which are no more than slums having no urban
facilities but a sense of urbanism. Industries are using mechanised technology in which
worker has no role as a craftsman. He has to perform a routine work according to prescribed
procedures. This reutilization is likely to produce work alienation in the workers, especially
the feelings of powerlessness, meaninglessness and isolation. The wages of the workers are
below than the lowest level of subsistence. This low economic, and consequently, social
status may result in normlessness, isolation, and sometimes self-estrangement. If the basic
facilities like drinking water, electricity and hygienic housing are not being provided to the
workers and their families, a negative attitude towards political system and political figures
may develop which may lead to political alienation in the form of powerlessness and norm-
lessness.
The non-industrial worker is likely to be alienated not less than the industrial one. His
socio-economic status is also low, his basic needs are also unfulfilled, and he is experiencing
the same problems as the industrial worker. Threat of unemployment, especially to an
40
unskilled worker, may produce ritualistic behaviour but it also indicates anomie or, in other
words, normlessness. A complex division of labour and hierarchical structure in modern
occupations, where the individual has become just a tool, is another source of powerlessness
and self-estrangement
The present system of higher education is producing degree holders, not the educated
citizens. In most of the cases, a student who has a master degree in certain subject, does not
know the basics of that subject. He is unclear about the concepts and what he has been
taught, hence unconfident and afraid of competition. He tries to find some shortcuts and
becomes a normless individual. In case of failure, he may become rebellious or retreatist. As
he is unclear about his future and fed up of the society, he may also become meaningless and
socially isolated. This situation may lead to self-estrangement and it is substantiated by
incidents of suicide by unemployed educated youngsters.
The educators may held responsible for the failure of education. They are, although
not all of them, indulged in malpractice. They are interested in material, rather than academic
progress. True, they also are human being and have lot of responsibilities and obligations to
fulfil but to transfer knowledge, to develop the personality of the student, and to widen their
own as well as the student’s horizons is also their responsibility. But it is only the one side of
the picture. On the other hand, the educator himself is alienated. Being the most educated
individual in the society, he is more likely to be aware of inconsistencies between ideal and
real. He knows in depth the socio-political dilemmas. He knows the root causes of failure of
education; how the education is being politicised, how the social inadequacies are creating a
class society, how the education is becoming selective, and how the education is deliberately
being used as a tool to indoctrination – but he is powerless. He fantasises an ideal society in
41
peace and calm. Incongruity in his ideals and realities of the society forces him to become
alienated, in Marx’s words, from his work (teaching), from his product (students), from his
fellows and from himself. He may also be said, in Seeman’s perspective, as powerless,
meaningless, normless, socially isolated and culturally as well as self-estranged.
Women, constituting approximately half of the population, are likely to be the most
alienated individuals in the urban society. Despite their exposure and potential, they are
considered, by the male-dominated society, physically as well as psychologically weak,
hence unable to decide even about their own life. Their rights are deliberately infringed by
males just to maintain masculine supremacy. Home is assumed as the only sphere of activity
for them and working women have to face sharp criticism. They have no individual identity,
their identity is only in relation with some male family member. Most of the educated
females have no chance for expression of their creativity. With their exposure to out-world
and awareness about their capabilities, this situation may give rise to the feelings of
powerlessness and isolation.
The preceding description was concerned with some specific segments of the society.
Let’s come to the common man. In the urban society, most of the relationships are of
contractual nature. Rationality rather than morality is preferred mode of behaviour for
achievement of given goals. Most of the people are illiterate, craftless, fatalist and optimist,
therefore, unable to change their low socio-economic status by legitimate means. Also the
stratification oriented society limits the scope for social mobility. Moreover, the modern life
style, exaggerated by the mass-media, motivates the people to have more and more material
objects which are culturally appraised. When they find socially approved means as unable to
satisfy their fantasised goals, either they become innovators or rebellious, or they become
42
conformist or ritualist. Both the situations result in anomic condition which, consequently,
may lead to alienation in the form of powerlessness, normlessness, meaninglessness and
social isolation. Religion, which has been a major organ of social control and helpful in
abating the deprivations of a common man, has, unfortunately, lost its influence; mostly
because of its misinterpretation by so called religious leaders having their own vested
interests. This misinterpretation of religion has alienated the common man from religion
itself and secularism has become a value. To him, religion is just an aggregate of rituals
which he is performing very well. He cannot interpret his daily life in terms of his religion.
The only external force to control his behaviour is the societal law which again is alien to
him because he has no role in law-making. Therefore, instead of regulating his behaviour, the
societal law tends to create feelings of powerlessness and isolation. Because the individual
has not internalised the societal law, so he has the feelings of fear instead of respect for such
law. It is the reason that most of the people try to find out some loopholes in the body of law
in order to attain their personal goals. This situation may lead to normlessness.
The entire political system, which is responsible for channelling the behaviour of
individuals in a society, has become corrupt – it is evinced by everyday statements of various
political leaders about one another and the system. The common man seems depressed of
nepotism, bribery, power mania and violation of meritocracy (common practices in politics
of developing urban societies), hence prone to be politically alienated. He is not sure what
will happen in the country next morning. The only activity, he tends to engage in is bread-
winning. Since he has no autonomy or control in this power game and he is unable to predict
about socio-political events, he may feel himself meaningless, isolated and powerless.
Furthermore, in these circumstances, people from all walks of life feel their future insecure.
43
To make their future secure they want to grab the material entities as much as they can. The
individual who fails to do so becomes victim of normlessness and social isolation.
The educated, even in a small proportion, segment of the urban society is likely to be
alienated because of its knowledge. An educated individual is concerned about the ongoing
affairs of the society. He is able to think and develop his own ideas. He has a small
opportunity to express his opinion. But, unfortunately, in most of the cases he finds his
ideology and opinion controversial to that of the masses as well as the ‘power elite’. This
situation is likely to produce a sense of cultural estrangement. The general socio-cultural
milieu of the urban society in Balochistan is changing very rapidly either because of inward
information flow by means of mass media or due to the sense of insecurity which leads the
individuals to innovate new behaviour patterns viable to incur more and more material assets.
In this situation, cultural estrangement is no wonder. These all social, cultural, political,
religious and economic scenarios of the urban society in Balochistan might be held
responsible for alienation in its one or the other form to varying extents.
On the basis of preceding discussion and assumptions made after the review of
relevant literature, it seems viable to hypothesise that there is a positive relationship between
urbanism and alienation in a changing society of Balochistan. The research hypothesis can be
phrased as:
‘The higher the level of urbanism, the higher the level of alienation.’
OPERATIONALISATION OF THE CONCEPTS
Chapter IV
OPERATIONALISATION OF THE CONCEPTS
After an exhaustive review of the literature and theoretical discussion, the research
hypothesis was phrased as ‘the higher the level of urbanism, the higher the level of
alienation’. The variables – urbanism and alienation – and their indicators were
operationalised and scales were developed to measure these variables.
Urbanism
Urbanism is defined as ‘patterns of culture and social interaction resulting from the
concentration of large populations into relatively small areas. Urbanism reflects an
organisation of society in terms of a complex division of labour, high levels of technology,
high mobility, interdependence of its members in fulfilling economic functions, and
impersonality in social relations’ (Scott 1988, p. 453).
The folk-urban continuum developed by Redfield (1947) and characteristics of
urbanism ascertained by other social theorists were used to develop a scale on urbanism.
Four indicators – rationality, impersonal social relationships, mobility and formal system of
control – were used to measure the respondents’ level of urbanism. Some other
characteristics of urbanism like size and heterogeneity of population, high levels of
technology and complexity of division of labour were societal rather than individual
phenomena thus were not measured.
45
Rationality
It is defined as ‘a state characterised by reasonableness, a willingness to accept that
which is well reasoned’ (Reber 1986, p. 611). An individual having rationale approach is one
who ‘is able to think clearly and to make decisions and judgements that are based on reason
rather than emotions’ (Collins Cobuild English Language Dictionary 1987, p. 1191). He or
she tries to find some logic or rationale behind occurrence of various events and does not
believe in luck, astrology or superstitions. Questions B-1 to B-4 in the interview schedule are
aimed at measuring the level of rationality.
Impersonal Social Relationships
These are formal and contractual relationships between individuals in contrast of
informal, personal and intense relationships. In formal and contractual relationships cost-
benefit analysis regarding inputs to the relationship do matter and every individual tries to
maximise his or her rewards instead of giving priority to the others’ needs. In such
relationships formal legalities are fulfilled whenever the partners enter into a union. Track is
kept of material and non-material transactions. Moreover, formality is observed in social
interaction. To determine the level of impersonality of social relationships, questions B-5 to
B-8 were included in the interview schedule.
Mobility
Mobility simply is a ‘movement or change in relative position, whether it be physical
or social’ (Scott 1988, p. 259). Physical mobility may include change of residence as and
when needed for professional or career growth. Social mobility occurs when an individual
changes his or her occupation for better social status. Questions B-9 to B-11 intended to
measure mobility of the respondents.
46
Formal System of Control
A formal system of social control includes all hierarchical structures having authority
to control social behaviour. This authority may be vested upon these institutions by a
constitution, a parliament or a court of law. An individual having urban orientation always
seeks help of formal institutions of social control to cope with an undesired situation.
Questions B-12 and B-13 were included in the interview schedule to measure the
respondents’ tendency towards formal types of control.
Alienation
Melvin Seeman’s (1991) six variants of alienation – powerlessness, normlessness,
meaninglessness, self-estrangement, social isolation and cultural estrangement – were used
as indicators to develop a scale to measure the level of alienation in the respondents.
Powerlessness
Powerlessness is defined as sensed inability to control events and their consequences.
The powerless individual may feel himself unable to influence society as a whole or its
institutions. This perceived inability to control the events may also be regarding his own
present or future life. In this study questions C-1 to C-4 were included in the interview
schedule to measure the extent of respondents’ powerlessness.
Normlessness
Normlessness is a situation in which the individual feels the previously approved
social norms no longer effective in guiding his behaviour for the achievement of culturally
defined or personal goals. The normless individual may feel that old norms and traditions are
unable to govern the behaviour – whether it is issue of meritocracy, values or laws. In order
47
to measure the extent of normlessness in the respondents, questions C-5 to C-8 were included
in the interview schedule.
Meaninglessness
In the state of meaninglessness, individual’s ability to predict about social situations
and the outcomes of their own and others’ behaviour is diminished, thus, it might be
appropriate to say that meaninglessness is sensed inability to predict behaviour outcomes.
The meaningless individual may feel himself unable to predict about outcome of his or her
behaviour and the future events. Such an individual may perceive his life as purposeless and
the coming days without any meaning and happiness. Questions C-9 to C-12 were asked to
measure the sense of meaninglessness in the respondents.
Self-estrangement
It is defined as loss of intrinsic meaning or pride in the work. The self-estranged
individual may perceive his work or everyday activities just as a routine and without any
enjoyment. Such an individual feel his work as forced labour and accepts it as his/her fate.
He or she finds no sense of creativity in his/her activities. This variant of alienation was
measured through questions C-13 to C-16 in the interview schedule.
Social Isolation
Social isolation is a state of mind when an individual having his own normative
system, different from others, feels himself or herself separate from the society and its
normative system. Such an individual may feel him- or herself as misfit and all alone in the
society. He or she may be afraid of making new friends because of perceiving him- or herself
as an socially isolated individual. The extent of social isolation was measured through asking
questions C-17 to C-19.
48
Cultural Estrangement
The culturally estranged individual feels that his ideas and opinions about the
important as well as everyday affairs are different from those of people in his primary and
secondary groups. He or she feels him- or herself maladjusted hence unable to actively
participate in the community life. The extent of cultural estrangement in the respondents was
measured through questions C-20 to C-23 in the interview schedule.
RESEARCH PROCEDURE
Chapter V
RESEARCH PROCEDURE
The Universe
The entire population of Balochistan was taken as universe for the present study.
However, keeping in view the vastness of geographical area of the province and limited
financial resources of the researches, it was decided that Quetta district can be selected as a
sub-universe. All the households of Quetta district, who were ethnically and geographically
diverse in their origin and almost represent the research universe, were included into the
sampling frame of the present study. The FBS Master Integrated Sample Design was used
which is the most used sampling frame in Pakistan for sample surveys.
Sampling
A well-reputed research organisation was requested to draw a random sample of 150
households located in Quetta district using the FBS Master Integrated Sample Design. The
sample drawn was representative of the population of Quetta district covering all the socio-
economic strata. It was decided that an equal number of male and female respondents will be
interviewed thus the selected households were randomly divided into two equal groups –
Group-A for male and Group-B for female interviewees. Both the male and female
interviewers were assigned the task to interview one adult male or female member (of age 21
years and above) from each of the households in Group-A or Group-B, respectively. Out of
150 respondents, 137 (71 males and 66 females) could be interviewed.
50
Tool of Data Collection
An interview schedule was used to collect data from the respondents. The use of an
interview schedule as a tool of data collection was decided on the basis of two reasons: (1) a
hundred percent completion rate can only be assured through an interview schedule and (2)
with a great educational diversity, only an interview schedule can be the best comprehensible
tool of data collection. As educational qualification of the respondents was expected to be
ranged from ‘no formal education’ to ‘PhD’, the interview schedule was carefully translated
into Urdu language which, irrespective of the level of education, is commonly understood
throughout the country. The Urdu version of the interview schedule was used for data
collection.
The interview schedule was divided into three parts: A, B and C. Part A included 5
open-ended questions to collect demographic data about the respondents, part B comprised
13 close-ended questions about the level of urbanism and 23 close-ended items were
included in part C to measure the level of alienation.
Pre-testing
The interview schedule was pre-tested for its appropriateness and internal validity. A
total of 15 respondents – 8 male and 7 females – were interviewed and the interview
schedule was modified and rephrased after the pre-test.
Data Collection and Field Experiences
The interviews were conducted by two separate teams of male and female
interviewers – 4 interviewers in each team – who have been working for a well-reputed
research organisation and were adequately trained for conducting interviews. A briefing
51
session was arranged for these interviewers. The whole data-collection task took 7 days to be
completed in which 137 interviews were conducted. Generally the interviewees were co-
operative and kind enough to be interviewed. The respondents were informed about
academic nature of the study and confidentiality of their responses was assured to them
which helped in rapport building. Except for refusal by 4 interviewees and inaccessibility to
the remaining 9 households, the interviewers did not face any problem during their data-
collection work.
Scoring
In order to statistically analyse the data, it was quantified using a detailed scoring
scheme which was developed specially for this study and is given in Annex 2. The responses
to questions in Part – A were categorised and were simply numbered. In Part – B, 13
questions were included and each question had 3 structured response categories. The
response categories indicating the highest degree of urbanism were given a score of ‘2’ and
the categories indicating the lowest level of urbanism were scored as ‘0’.
Part – C of the interview schedule was comprised upon 23 questions and each
question had 5 structured response categories. The response category ‘Uncertain’ was given
a score ‘2’ in all items. The response categories ‘Strongly agree’, ‘Agree’, ‘Strongly
disagree’ and ‘Disagree’ were scored according to their indication of the level of alienation.
A score of ‘4’ was given to the category indicating highest degree of alienation and ‘0’ was
allocated to the category indicating least level of alienation.
52
Construction of Scale
Two separate continua were constructed for urbanism and alienation. The minimum
possible score for both the scales was ‘0’. The maximum possible scores were ‘26’ and ‘92’
for the scales on urbanism and alienation, respectively. For both scales lesser score meant
lesser level or extent of the phenomenon, either urbanism or alienation.
In order to perform bivariate analysis the scales on urbanism and alienation were
bifurcated into high and low categories. The arithmetic means for both the scales were
calculated separately. The arithmetic mean for the urbanism scale was calculated as 12.91
and it was decided that the respondents obtaining a higher score than 12.91 will be placed in
‘High’ category while the respondents scoring less than 12.91 will be placed in ‘Low’
category. Similarly, the calculated arithmetic mean for the alienation scale was 48.66, hence
the respondents obtaining a score higher than 48.66 were decided to be placed in ‘High”
category and the respondents with scores lesser than 48.66 were placed in ‘Low’ category.
Test Statistics
Two statistical tests were used in order to measure the nature and extent of
relationship between urbanism and alienation. The Product-Moment Correlation (r) test
developed by Sir Karl Pearson was used to test the nature and extent of association between
the rank ordered variables – urbanism and alienation – as advised by Kurtz (1983, pp. 271).
The formula used for the Product-Moment Correlation ( Pearson’s r) test was:
]
2
)(
2
][
2
)(
2
[ YYNXXN
YXXYN
r
∑−∑∑−∑
∑
∑
−
∑
=
53
The Student’s τ distribution was used to test the significance of the correlation
coefficient (r). This test was to help making assumptions about the character of the data. The
formula (Kurtz 1983, p. 278) used to calculate τ value was:
2
1
2
r
N
r
−
−
=
τ
The second test used to test the significance of the variables – urbanism and
alienation, which were summarised into a contingency table – was the Chi-square (χ²) test.
The test procedure described by Kurtz (1983, pp. 212-16) was used for which the formula
was:
∑
=
−
=
k
i
i
ii
E
EO
1
2
2
)(
χ
FINDINGS AND ANALYSIS
Chapter VI
FINDINGS AND ANALYSIS
The respondents’ demographic characteristics showed a considerable diversity as it
was expected as a result of random sampling from a diverse population. The sex ratio of the
sample was 108 and the age of the respondents ranged from 21 to 69 years which is
indicative of the fact that the sample truly represents the universe. The majority of the
respondents belonged to the middle age group,
i.e., 41-55 and the overall age distribution
reflected a normal curve pattern (see Fig. 1).
However, sex distribution among the age
group categories was not equal. The sample
represented almost all the linguistic groups in
the province. Pushto was spoken by about a
quarter (24.8%) of the respondents (see Fig. 2)
while the second major language was Brahvi
(23.4%) followed by the Balochi (21.3%).
Linguistic diversity is another indicator of urbanisation. A vast majority (80.3%) of the
respondents was married and the divorced respondents were less than one percent (Fig. 3).
The proportion of never married respondents was less than five percent which indicates a
lesser average age at marriage.
Fig. 1: Respondents' Sex & Age
5
3
9
3
10
12
9
8
7
5
5
8
8
8
5
11
11
1
4
5
0 5 10 15
21-25
26-30
31-35
36-40
41-45
46-50
51-55
56-60
61-65
65 +
A
g
e
i
n
y
e
a
r
s
Femal
e
Male
55
Fig. 2: Respondents' Native Language
Balochi
21.2%
Brahvi
23.4%
Hazargi/Persian
11.7%
Punjabi
5.8%
Pushto
24.8%
Sindhi
8.8%
Siraiki
1.5%
Urdu
2.9%
Fig. 3: Respondents' Marital Status
Never married
4.4%
Married
80.3%
Widowed
14.6%
Divorced
0.7%
Fig. 4: Respondents' Educational Level
No formal
education
10.9%
Primary pass
24.8%
Middle pass
5.1%
Secondary
school pass
11.7%
F.A. / F.Sc. /
I.Com.
17.5%
Bachelor's
degree
8.0%
Master's /
Professional
degree
12.4%
Ph.D. / M.Phil. /
Specialisation
9.5%
56
The educational status of majority (52.5%) of the respondents was up to secondary
school certificate (matriculation). As Quetta is the provincial capital and the only metropolis
in the province, majority of the population is engaged in secondary and tertiary occupations
which require certain level of formal education. Due to this fact, only 10.9 percent of the
respondents were without any formal education and even most of these (10.9%) respondents
were able to read the holy Qurãn (see Fig. 4). About a quarter (21.9%) of the respondents had
post-graduate qualifications – including Ph.D., M.Phil., F.C.P.S., M.C.P.S., M.A., M.Sc.,
M.B.B.S. and B.E., etc. – which in itself is evident of high level of urbanisation.
Urbanism
The majority of the respondents agreed with the response categories which indicated
a moderate level of urbanism followed by those respondents who agreed with the response
categories showing extreme urbanism. An extreme urbanism was expressed in case of a
dispute over money or personal hurting (see Table 1). The majority of the respondents
possessed rational approach towards everyday affairs. However, there was relatively less
inclination towards contractual relationships, social mobility and formal modes of social
control.
Among all the situations, the most frequently mentioned response category indicating
extreme urban orientation was in the area of ‘mode of conciliation in case of a dispute over
money’ followed by ‘belief in superstitions’ and then by ‘possibility of success’. On the other
hand, the most frequently mentioned response category indicating least level of urbanism
was in the situation of ‘acceptance of a better job in a remote city’ followed by ‘in case you
have not seen your neighbour for a week’ and then by ‘to visit your friend’s house’. The overall
57
orientation of the respondents can be termed as a low level of urbanism which was expressed by
a majority (52.6%) of the respondents.
Table 1
Respondents’ Level of Urbanism
Response categories
indicating*
extreme
urbanism
moderate
urbanism
least
urbanism
Total
Situations f % f % f % f %
B-1. Mode of conciliation in case of a dispute over money.
60 43.8 48 35.0 29 21.2 137 100
B-2. Possibility of success.
45 32.8 57 41.6 35 25.6 137 100
B-3. Belief in superstitions.
48 35.0 46 33.6 43 31.4 137 100
B-4. Belief in stars’ influence upon ones fortune.
41 29.9 61 44.5 35 25.6 137 100
B-5. In case you have not seen your neighbour for a week.
36 26.3 54 39.4 47 34.3 137 100
B-6. In case you lend some money to a friend.
41 29.9 62 45.3 34 24.8 137 100
B-7. To visit your friend’s house.
32 23.3 59 43.1 46 33.6 137 100
B-8. Belief in legal documentation even in case of
marriage.
34 24.8 64 46.7 39 28.5 137 100
B-9. Acceptance of a better job in a remote city.
27 19.7 61 44.5 49 35.8 137 100
B-10. Feeling of being successful as compared to your
father.
28 20.4 71 51.8 38 27.7 137 100
B-11. Willingness to change the present occupation for a
better social status.
39
28.5
56
40.9
42
30.6
137
100
B-12. In case someone hurts you.
33 24.1 68 49.6 36 26.3 137 100
B-13. Belief in tribal ties as the only way to survive in a
world of violence.
36
26.3
62
45.2
39
28.5
137
100
* As the response categories for all the questions in Part-B of the interview schedule were different in
their phrasing (see Annex 1 for details), a new approach has been adopted to summarise the data. The
response categories are renamed according to the scoring scheme (given in Annex 2).
The data revealed that relatively more female respondents than the male respondents
had high level of urbanism while in all the age groups level of urbanism was relatively low
58
for majority of the respondents. Except for Hazargi/Persian, Sindhi and Siraiki languages,
majority of all the linguistic groups had high level of urbanism. Amongst the married, never
married and widowed respondents, majority was having a relatively low level of urbanism. It
seems difficult to draw some significant inferences as the difference between various sex,
age or language groups is negligible. The reason for a low level of urbanism for majority of
the respondents speaking Hazargi/Persian is obvious that majority of the population in that
community is involved in low-income occupations which can result in a relatively slow
process of urbanisation.
Table 2
Demographic Characteristics of the Respondents by their Level of Urbanism
Level of Urbanism
High Low Total
Demographic Variables f % f % f %
Sex:
Male 31 43.7 40 56.3 71 100.0
Female 34 51.5 32 48.5 66 100.0
Age:
21-40 years 23 46.9 26 53.1 49 100.0
41-55 years 28 48.3 30 51.7 58 100.0
Above 55 years 14 46.7 16 53.3 30 100.0
Native Language:
Balochi 17 58.6 12 41.4 29 100.0
Brahvi 17 53.1 15 46.9 32 100.0
Hazargi / Persian 3 18.8 13 81.7 16 100.0
Punjabi 4 50.0 4 50.0 8 100.0
Pushto 18 52.9 16 47.1 34 100.0
Sindhi 4 33.3 8 66.7 12 100.0
Siraiki 0 0.0 2 100.0 2 100.0
Urdu 2 50.0 2 50.0 4 100.0
Marital Status:
Never married 2 33.3 4 66.7 6 100.0
Married 52 47.3 58 52.7 110 100.0
Widowed 10 50.0 10 50.0 20 100.0
Divorced 1 100.0 0 0.0 1 100.0
Level of Education:
59
Level of Urbanism
High Low Total
Demographic Variables f % f % f %
No formal education 2 13.3 13 86.7 15 100.0
Primary pass 6 17.7 28 82.3 34 100.0
Middle pass 0 0.0 7 100.0 7 100.0
Secondary school pass 10 62.5 6 37.5 16 100.0
F.A. / F.Sc. / I.Com. 10 41.7 14 58.3 24 100.0
Bachelor’s degree 9 81.8 2 18.2 11 100.0
Master’s / Professional degree 15 88.2 2 11.8 17 100.0
Ph.D. / M.Phil. / Specialisation 13 100.0 0 0.0 13 100.0
The most significant relationship was revealed between the respondents’ levels of
education and urbanism. The data indicated that more than 80 percent of the respondents
having an educational level below ‘middle’ had low level of urbanism as compared to more
than 80 percent of the respondents with graduation or above who had a high level of
urbanism. The level of education was found directly related to the level of urbanism. It has
now been well-recognised that higher education results in an increased exposure to the urban
lifestyles and facilitates urbanisation. The findings of the present study seem reinforcing the
findings of previous studies mentioned in Chapter 2 of this thesis.
Alienation
The respondents expressed a diverse response to various statements given to them to
measure their level of alienation. As a whole majority of the respondents was feeling
themselves powerless, normless and culturally estranged (see Table 3). However, relatively a
small number of the respondents had the feelings of meaninglessness, social isolation and
self-estrangement. It seems that the respondents were more alienated on the issues where
their outer world was involved. They, however, were relatively less alienated on the issues
pertaining to their own personality. Among all the statements, the most frequently mentioned
response category indicating highest level of alienation was in the statement ‘you feel
60
yourself unable to do something to stop corruption in the society’ followed by ‘you think that as
a citizen you can influence the government decisions’ and then by ‘you do only that much work
for which you are paid money’. On the other hand, the most frequently mentioned response
category which depicted the lowest level of alienation was in the statement ‘you feel that there is
no rule of law, only “might is right”’ followed by ‘you feel that you are a misfit in the society’
and then by ‘every coming day will surely bring you happiness and prosperity’. However,
majority of the respondents expressed a moderate level of alienation which is evident from a
relatively high frequency of the response category ‘uncertain’.
Table 3
Respondents’ Level of Alienation
Response categories
strongly
agree
agree
uncertain
disagree
strongly
disagree
Total
Statements f % f % f % f % f % f %
C-1. You feel yourself unable to do
something to stop corruption in
the society.
48
35.0
21
15.3
42
30.7
26
19.0
0
0.0
137
100
C-2. You feel yourself unable to
materialise whatever you plan
about your future.
24
17.5
30
21.9
51
37.2
13
9.5
19
13.9
137
100
C-3. You think that as a citizen you
can influence the government
decisions.
11
8.0
21
15.3
44
32.1
23
16.8
38
27.7
137
100
C-4. You feel that you have little
control over the things that
happens to you in everyday life.
16
11.7
28
20.4
51
37.2
23
16.8
19
13.9
137
100
C-5. You feel that there is no rule of
law, only ‘might is right’.
26
19.0
25
18.2
29
21.2
29
21.2
28
20.4
137
100
C-6. Money is money, not
legitimate or illegitimate.
23
16.8
44
32.1
41
29.9
16
11.7
13
9.5
137
100
C-7. Old traditions and social norms
are no more valid in today’s
life.
17
12.4
36
26.3
47
34.3
19
13.9
18
13.1
137
100
61
Response categories
strongly
agree
agree
uncertain
disagree
strongly
disagree
Total
Statements f % f % f % f % f % f %
C-8. Having “pull” is more
important than ability in getting
a job.
26
19.0
21
15.3
38
27.7
30
21.9
22
16.1
137
100
C-9. No body can predict what will
happen tomorrow.
16
11.7
30
21.9
51
37.2
19
13.9
21
15.3
137
100
C-10. Often you feel that your
personal life is without
meaning or purpose.
22
16.1
14
10.2
54
39.4
26
19.0
21
15.3
137
100
C-11.
Every coming day will surely
bring you happiness and
prosperity.
26
19.0
32
23.4
36
26.3
19
13.9
24
17.5
137
100
C-12. You feel yourself unable to
predict about the outcomes of
your behaviour.
20
14.6
29
21.2
49
35.8
16
11.7
23
16.8
137
100
C-13. You do only that much work
for which you are paid.
33
24.1
37
27.0
26
19.0
32
23.4
9
6.6
137
100
C-14. Whatever you do is not
according to your will but
according to your fate.
30
21.9
17
12.4
42
30.7
25
18.2
23
16.8
137
100
C-15. You do not enjoy your
occupation, you work only for
money.
31
22.6
17
12.4
61
44.5
14
10.2
14
10.2
137
100
C-16. There is nothing new or
interesting in your life, only a
routine.
19
13.9
23
16.8
49
35.8
31
22.6
15
10.9
137
100
C-17. You feel that you are a misfit in
the society.
23
16.8
21
15.3
27
19.7
40
29.2
26
19.0
137
100
C-18. Sometimes you feel all alone in
the world.
29
21.2
21
15.3
29
21.2
42
30.7
16
11.7
137
100
C-19. You can always find real
friends because you have a
sociable personality.
23
16.8
28
20.4
34
24.8
27
19.7
25
18.2
137
100
C-20. You feel that you are no more a
62
Response categories
strongly
agree
agree
uncertain
disagree
strongly
disagree
Total
Statements f % f % f % f % f % f %
model for your juniors.
31 22.6 22 16.1 36 26.3 35 25.5 13 9.5 137 100
C-21. Often your ideas and opinion
differ from those of your
friends and relatives.
26
19.0
29
21.2
35
25.5
24
17.5
23
16.8
137
100
C-22. Others cannot understand your
ideas about life and the world.
25
18.2
40
29.2
23
16.8
30
21.9
19
13.9
137
100
C-23. You like to participate in self-
help activities of your
community.
17
12.4
23
16.8
41
29.9
33
24.1
23
16.8
137
100
Although majority of both the male and female respondents scored low on the
alienation scale, a relatively more male than female respondents had high level of alienation.
This might be due to their more active participation in the everyday life events and the
responsibilities they are assigned by their social roles. Alienation was found low in all the
age groups (see Table 4). However, relatively less number of respondents of middle (41-55
years) age group had high level of alienation as compared to the young (21-40 years) and the
old (above 55 years) age groups. The young age group seems more alienated because of
growing economic burdens and decreasing economic opportunities. This group may also be
concerned about limited chances of career growth in the society. The old age group may have
many psychological traumas like illness, death of the spouse, retirement, loneliness,
changing values, nostalgia and generation gap.
The majority of all the linguistic groups, except for Pushto, had low level of
alienation. The similar situation was observed regarding marital status of the respondents
where majority of all the groups had low level of alienation. A significant majority of the
never married group was found low on alienation scale which may be due to a comparatively
63
free of responsibilities lifestyle of unmarried individuals. However, it seems difficult to draw
any significant inference out of cross-tabulation of these demographic characteristics and the
level of alienation.
Table 4
Demographic Characteristics of the Respondents by their Level of Alienation
Level of Alienation
High Low Total
Demographic Variables f % f % f %
Sex:
Male 34 47.9 37 52.1 71 100.0
Female 28 42.4 38 57.6 66 100.0
Age:
21-40 years 24 49.0 25 51.0 49 100.0
41-55 years 24 41.4 34 58.6 58 100.0
Above 55 years 14 46.7 16 53.3 30 100.0
Native Language:
Balochi 13 44.8 16 55.2 29 100.0
Brahvi 15 46.9 17 53.1 32 100.0
Hazargi / Persian 4 33.3 12 66.7 16 100.0
Punjabi 3 37.5 5 62.5 8 100.0
Pushto 19 55.9 15 44.1 34 100.0
Sindhi 5 41.7 7 58.3 12 100.0
Siraiki 1 50.0 1 50.0 2 100.0
Urdu 2 50.0 2 50.0 4 100.0
Marital Status:
Never married 1 16.7 5 83.3 6 100.0
Married 51 46.4 59 53.6 110 100.0
Widowed 10 50.0 10 50.0 20 100.0
Divorced 0 0.0 1 100.0 1 100.0
Level of Education:
No formal education 2 13.3 13 86.7 15 100.0
Primary pass 9 36.0 25 64.0 34 100.0
Middle pass 3 42.9 4 57.1 7 100.0
Secondary school pass 6 37.5 10 62.5 16 100.0
F.A. / F.Sc. / I.Com. 9 37.5 15 62.5 24 100.0
Bachelor’s degree 8 72.7 3 27.3 11 100.0
Master’s / Professional degree 13 76.5 4 23.5 17 100.0
Ph.D. / M.Phil. / Specialisation 12 92.3 1 7.7 13 100.0
64
The level of education was very significantly and directly related to the level of
alienation. A significant majority up to the intermediate level had low level of alienation as
compared to a significant majority of the respondents having graduation or higher
educational qualifications who had high level of alienation. It is now well established fact
that higher level of formal education results in increased exposure to the outer world and
consequent highly ambitious lifestyle. The higher level of education facilitates complex
division of labour and intermingled sort of responsibilities. In an urban setting with complex
system of hierarchical communication and command the mechanical interaction replaces the
human interaction and as a consequence the individual is lost in an highly sophisticated
cybernetic society. Deindividuation is a common phenomenon in such situations and the
individual becomes more prone to be alienated.
Testing the Hypothesis
The proposed hypothesis was tested for its statistical significance by using various
statistical tests. The scales on both the variables – urbanism and alienation – were
categorised into ‘high’ and ‘low’. The data was cross tabulated in a 2×2 contingency table
(see Table 5) and the Chi-square (χ
2
) test was applied. The calculated value of χ
2
was 36.53
which indicates that the null hypothesis ‘there is no positive association between urbanism
and alienation’ was rejected and the research hypothesis ‘the higher the level of urbanism,
the higher the level of alienation’ was upheld at 0.05 level of significance.
Table 5 revealed that a significant majority of the respondents having high level of
urbanism had a high level of alienation while on the other hand a significant majority of the
65
respondents having low level of urbanism had low level of alienation. This diagonal analysis
of the table establishes a positive relationship between the two variables.
Table 5
Respondents’ Level of Urbanism by their Level of Alienation
Level of Alienation
The Respondents’ High Low Total
Level of Urbanism f % f % f %
High 47 72.3 18 27.7 65 47.4
Low 15 24.2 57 75.8 72 52.6
Total 62 45.3 75 54.7 137 100.0
The Product-Moment Correlation (r) test was also applied to test the nature and
extent of association between urbanism and alienation. The calculated value of r was + 0.71
which indicates a very highly positive association between the two variables at 0.05 level of
significance. The calculated Coefficient of Determination (r²) was 0.5041 which means that
50.41 percent of the variation in urbanism and alienation is explained by their association
while the remaining 49.59 percent is the unexplained variance in these two variables which
remains unaccounted for by their association.
The significance of the correlation between urbanism and alienation was testable by
calculating the Student’s τ. The calculated value of τ was 11.75 which is significant at 0.05
level of significance. It means that the r = 0.71 was not occurred by chance but represents a
real relationship that is very likely to be repeated if additional samples are drawn from the
same population.
On the basis of the preceding statistical analysis and theoretical discussion it can
safely be concluded that there is a true and very highly positive association between the
phenomena of urbanism and alienation which can be accepted and replicated statistically as
well as logically.
SUMMARY, CONCLUSION AND SUGGESTIONS
Chapter VII
SUMMARY, CONCLUSION AND SUGGESTIONS
Summary
Alienation, a widespread phenomenon all over the world, was the pivotal theme for
the present study. Balochistan, a society transforming from tribalism to urbanism, was
selected as a universe to contexualise this emerging phenomenon using Seeman’s (1991) six
variants of alienation as theoretical framework. However, thoughts and theories given by
other social scientists were also used for conceptual understanding. Primarily, the study was
aimed at measuring the levels of urbanism and alienation and determining the nature and
extent of relationship between the two phenomena. The research hypothesis for the present
study was ‘the higher the level of urbanism, the higher the level of alienation’.
Although the entire Balochistan province was selected as universe, population
residing in Quetta district was taken as sub-universe keeping in view the time and financial
limitations. A random sample of 150 households was selected using FBS Master Integrated
Sample Design, out of which 137 respondents – 71 males and 66 females – could be
interviewed. A semi-structured interview schedule (see Annex 1) was used as tool of data
collection.
A scoring scheme (see Annex 2) was developed in order to quantify the data as
described in Chapter 5 and a Master Data Sheet (see Annex 3) was prepared. Both the
Product Moment Correlation (r) and Chi-square (χ
2
) tests were applied in order to measure
the extent and nature of the relationship between the two variables. The computed value of r
67
was 0.71 and that of χ
2
was 36.53. The research hypothesis was upheld at 0.05 level of
confidence. Both of the tests proved that there is a significant positive relationship between
urbanism and alienation. Furthermore, significance of the correlation was tested by using
Student’s τ which was calculated as 11.75 which establishes the significance of the r = 0.71
at 0.05 level of confidence.
It was found that majority of the respondents belonged to the middle age (41-55
years) group, hence matured enough in their perception. The major linguistic group was of
Pushto speaking respondents (24.8%) followed by Brahvi (23.4%) and then by Balochi
(21.2%) speaking respondents. A significant majority (80.3%) of the respondents was
married followed by widowed (14.6%) and then by never married (4.4%). About a quarter
(24.8%) of the respondents was educated up to primary level followed by intermediate level
(17.5%) and then by those of master’s or professional level (12.4%).
A thirteen point scale was designed in order to measure the level of urbanism of
respondents. In most of the situations, majority of the respondents choose the response
category indicating the medium level of urbanism (See Table 1). Similarly, the level of
alienation of the respondents was measured by a twenty three point scale. To most of the
statements, the majority of the respondents was uncertain while the selection of the response
categories ‘strongly agree’ or ‘strongly disagree’ was relatively low (see Table 3).
The cross classification of the data revealed that out of those respondents who had
high level of urbanism, a significant majority had a high level of alienation. On the other
hand, out of those respondents who had low level of urbanism, a significant majority had a
low level of alienation. The cross classification and the statistical analysis of the data
68
supported the theoretical expectations in the present study by upholding the research
hypothesis, ‘the higher the level of urbanism, the higher the level of alienation’.
Conclusion
After a detailed theoretical discussion of the phenomena and in-depth statistical
analysis of the obtained empirical data, the researcher has reached the conclusion that a
substantial number (47.4%) of the respondents had a high level of urbanism while about the
same number (45.3%) of the respondents had a high level of alienation. The high level of
urbanism was found in the areas where the respondents had to deal some financial affairs or
they were personally hurt by someone. ‘Mode of conciliation in case of a dispute over money’,
‘belief in superstitions’ and ‘possibility of success’ were the areas in which extreme urbanism
was expressed while in the situations ‘acceptance of a better job in a remote city’, ‘in case you
have not seen your neighbour for a week’ and ‘to visit your friend’s house’ a least level of
urbanism was expressed.
On the other hand a high level of alienation was observed in case the respondents had
to deal with the outer world. The level of alienation was relatively low where the personality
of the respondents was involved. The most frequently ‘strongly agreed’ statements were ‘you
feel yourself unable to do something to stop corruption in the society’, ‘you think that as a
citizen you can influence the government decisions’ and ‘you do only that much work for which
you are paid money’. ‘You feel that there is no rule of law, only “might is right”’, ‘you feel that
you are a misfit in the society’ and ‘every coming day will surely bring you happiness and
prosperity’ were the most frequently ‘ strongly disagreed’ statements. It may be concluded that
there is an element of social desirability behind the expression of the feelings of alienation.
69
Powerlessness, normlessness and cultural estrangement were the variants of
alienation in which most of the respondents expressed their agreement while the variants in
which majority of the respondents disagreed were meaninglessness, social isolation and self-
estrangement. It can, again, be concluded that the respondents were very much concerned
about the phenomenon of face saving. They did not want to pose their alienation as a
manifestation of their personal dilemma.
Finally, it was concluded that urbanism and alienation are positively associated to a
significant extent. However, some spurious variables can distort this relationship which are
necessary to be considered while analysing the association between these phenomena.
Suggestions
1.
The present study was conducted in the Quetta district only due to financial and time
constraints. A large sample size from the entire universe may enhance empirical
reliability and the ratio of explained variance. Thus a macro-scale and comparative study
is suggested to draw more reliable inferences.
2.
A little less than half of the total variance has remained unaccounted for in the present
study. It necessitates another research taking into account of other variables influencing
the phenomenon of alienation. Such variables may include nature of occupation,
household size, level of religiosity and various other personality variables.
3.
The media has become the most powerful agent of socialisation. It can enhance or reduce
the feelings of alienation in the masses. A content analysis of the media can determine
the sources of alienation and strategies to check this widespread phenomenon. Moreover,
70
the mass media can more effectively be used to reorient the masses in a way that
alienation can be reduced.
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ANNEXES
Annex 1
Serial # ___________ Strictly Confidential
DEPARTMENT OF SOCIOLOGY
UNIVERSITY OF BALOCHISTAN, QUETTA
URBANISM, ETHNICITY AND ALIENATION:
A MULTIDIMENSIONAL STUDY OF BALOCHISTAN
INTERVIEW SCHEDULE
PART – A
A-1.
Sex: _____________________
A-2.
Age: ________________ years
A-3.
Education: ___________________________________________________________
A-4.
Native language: ______________________________________________________
A-5.
Marital status: ________________________________________________________
PART – B
B-1.
In case of a dispute over money, you will conciliate through:
court of law
communal method (friends or other elders)
traditional method (merh, marraka, jirga or panchait)
B-2.
To you, success is possible by:
Luck only
both the hard work and luck
hard work only
B-3.
Do you believe in superstitions?
yes, all the times
sometimes
not at all
95
B-4.
Do you believe that stars can influence ones fortune?
yes, always
yes, but occasionally
not at all
B-5.
If you have not seen your neighbour for a week, you will:
go to his home to ask the reason
ask someone else about him
ignore this matter
B-6.
If you lend some money to a friend, you will
ask him for a formal receipt
just write it with you as memorandum
forget it for the time-being
B-7.
Before visiting your friend’s house, you:
inform him formally
do not feel necessary to inform him
feel free to go there without intimation
B-8.
Do you believe that legal documentation is necessary even in case of marriage?
yes, always
Yes, but occasionally
not at all
B-9.
If you are offered a better job in a remote city would you accept it?
yes, of course
may be
not at all
B-10.
As compared to your father how much successful you feel yourself:
too much
a little more
same as him
B-11.
Do you want to change your present occupation for a better social status?
yes
not sure
not at all
96
B-12.
If someone hurts you, will you:
go to the police
seek help of your friends or relatives
seek help of the whole tribe
B-13.
Do you believe that tribal ties are still the only way to survive in a world of violence?
yes
not sure
not at all
PART – C
C-1.
You feel yourself unable to do something to stop corruption in the society.
Strongly agree
Agree
Uncertain
Disagree
Strongly disagree
C-2.
You feel yourself unable to materialise whatever you plan about your future.
Strongly agree
Agree
Uncertain
Disagree
Strongly disagree
C-3.
You think that as a citizen you can influence the government decisions.
Strongly agree
Agree
Uncertain
Disagree
Strongly disagree
C-4.
You feel that you have little control over the things that happens to you in everyday life.
Strongly agree
Agree
Uncertain
Disagree
Strongly disagree
97
C-5.
You feel that there is no rule of law, only ‘might is right’.
Strongly agree
Agree
Uncertain
Disagree
Strongly disagree
C-6.
Money is money, not legitimate or illegitimate.
Strongly agree
Agree
Uncertain
Disagree
Strongly disagree
C-7.
Old traditions and social norms are no more valid in today’s life.
Strongly agree
Agree
Uncertain
Disagree
Strongly disagree
C-8.
Having “pull” is more important than ability in getting a job.
Strongly agree
Agree
Uncertain
Disagree
Strongly disagree
C-9.
No body can predict what will happen tomorrow.
Strongly agree
Agree
Uncertain
Disagree
Strongly disagree
C-10.
Often you feel that your personal life is without meaning or purpose.
Strongly agree
Agree
Uncertain
Disagree
Strongly disagree
98
C-11.
Every coming day will surely bring you happiness and prosperity.
Strongly agree
Agree
Uncertain
Disagree
Strongly disagree
C-12.
You feel yourself unable to predict about the outcomes of your behaviour.
Strongly agree
Agree
Uncertain
Disagree
Strongly disagree
C-13.
You do only that much work for which you are paid.
Strongly agree
Agree
Uncertain
Disagree
Strongly disagree
C-14.
Whatever you do is not according to your will but according to your fate.
Strongly agree
Agree
Uncertain
Disagree
Strongly disagree
C-15.
You do not enjoy your occupation, you work only for money.
Strongly agree
Agree
Uncertain
Disagree
Strongly disagree
C-16.
There is nothing new or interesting in your life, only a routine.
Strongly agree
Agree
Uncertain
Disagree
Strongly disagree
99
C-17.
You feel that you are a misfit in the society.
Strongly agree
Agree
Uncertain
Disagree
Strongly disagree
C-18.
Sometimes you feel all alone in the world.
Strongly agree
Agree
Uncertain
Disagree
Strongly disagree
C-19.
You can always find real friends because you have a sociable personality.
Strongly agree
Agree
Uncertain
Disagree
Strongly disagree
C-20.
You feel that you are no more a model for your juniors.
Strongly agree
Agree
Uncertain
Disagree
Strongly disagree
C-21.
Often your ideas and opinion differ from those of your friends and relatives.
Strongly agree
Agree
Uncertain
Disagree
Strongly disagree
C-22.
Others cannot understand your ideas about life and the world.
Strongly agree
Agree
Uncertain
Disagree
Strongly disagree
100
C-23.
You like to participate in self-help activities of your community.
Strongly agree
Agree
Uncertain
Disagree
Strongly disagree
Annex 2
SCORING SCHEME
Question Number Response Category Score
Male 1 A-1
Female 2
A-2 Age As such
No formal education 1
Primary pass 2
Middle pass 3
Secondary school pass 4
F.A. / F.Sc. / I.Com. 5
Bachelor’s degree 6
Master’s / Professional degree 7
Ph.D. / M.Phil. / Specialisation 8
A-3
Other 9
Balochi 1
Brahvi 2
Hazargi/Persian 3
Punjabi 4
Pushto 5
Sindhi 6
Siraiki 7
Urdu 8
A-4
Other 9
Never married 1
Married 2
Widowed / Widower 3
A-5
Divorced / Disserted 4
Court of law 2
Communal method (friends or other
elders)
1
B-1
Traditional method (merh, marraka, jirga or
panchait)
0
102
Question Number Response Category Score
Luck only 0
Both the hard work and luck 1
B-2
Hard work only 2
yes, all the times 0
Sometimes 1
B-3
Not at all 2
Yes, always 0
Yes, but occasionally 1
B-4
Not at all 2
Go to his home to ask the reason 0
Ask someone else about him 1
B-5
Ignore this matter 2
Ask him for a formal receipt 2
Just write it with you as memorandum 1
B-6
Forget it for the time-being 0
Inform him formally 2
Do not feel necessary to inform him 1
B-7
Feel free to go there without intimation 0
Yes, always 2
Yes, but occasionally 1
B-8
Not at all 0
Yes, of course 2
May be 1
B-9
Not at all 0
Too much 2
A little more 1
B-10
Same as him 0
Yes 2
Not sure 1
B-11
Not at all 0
Go to the police 2
Seek help of your friends or relatives 1
B-12
Seek help of the whole tribe 0
103
Question Number Response Category Score
Yes 0
Not sure 1
B-13
Not at all 2
Strongly agree 4
Agree 3
Uncertain 2
Disagree 1
C-1, C-2, C-4, C-5,
C-6, C-7, C-8, C-9,
C-10, C-12, C-13,
C-14, C-15, C-16,
C-17, C-18, C-20,
C-21 and C-22
Strongly disagree 0
Strongly agree 0
Agree 1
Uncertain 2
Disagree 3
C-3, C-11, C-19 and
C-23
Strongly disagree 4
Annex 3
MASTER DATA SHEET
Demographics Urbanism
S. # A-1 A-2 A-3 A-4 A-5 B-1 B-2 B-3 B-4 B-5 B-6 B-7 B-8 B-9 B-10 B-11 B-12 B-13 Total
1 1 37 7 5 2 2 2 1 1 1 1 2 2 2 2 1 1 1 19
2 1 31 6 2 2 1 2 1 2 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 2 2 21
3 1 63 1 1 2 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 1 1 1 0 1 0 6
4 1 56 2 3 2 1 0 1 2 0 1 1 0 1 0 1 1 1 10
5 1 65 2 5 2 1 1 2 0 2 2 1 0 0 1 1 1 1 13
6 1 44 7 2 2 1 2 2 2 0 2 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 20
7 1 63 6 4 3 1 1 2 1 2 2 2 2 0 1 2 1 2 19
8 1 61 1 6 3 0 0 0 1 1 1 0 1 2 2 1 2 1 12
9 1 42 1 5 2 0 1 1 1 0 1 1 0 1 1 1 0 1 9
10 1 23 5 5 1 2 0 1 2 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 1 18
11 1 35 4 2 2 1 2 0 0 1 2 1 2 1 1 0 1 1 13
12 1 59 4 5 2 0 1 0 1 2 2 1 2 0 0 1 2 2 14
13 1 46 8 2 2 2 2 1 2 2 1 2 2 1 2 2 2 2 23
14 1 32 5 5 1 0 1 2 1 0 1 2 1 2 0 1 0 1 12
15 1 69 1 5 2 0 0 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 1 1 0 6
16 1 45 7 5 2 2 1 2 2 1 1 0 1 2 2 2 1 1 18
17 1 54 7 1 2 2 2 1 1 2 2 2 1 0 1 0 1 2 17
18 1 42 5 5 2 2 1 1 2 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 1 1 10
19 1 26 2 8 1 2 1 1 0 1 0 1 1 0 1 0 1 1 10
20 1 57 2 3 2 1 1 0 1 0 1 1 0 2 1 1 1 0 10
21 1 52 6 6 3 2 1 1 2 0 1 0 1 1 0 0 0 1 10
22 1 68 2 8 3 2 1 2 2 2 2 1 2 2 1 2 0 1 20
23 1 45 8 2 3 2 1 2 0 2 2 1 2 0 1 2 2 2 19
24 1 68 3 6 2 1 1 1 0 1 0 0 1 1 0 1 1 1 9
25 1 59 3 5 2 1 0 1 1 1 1 0 0 0 1 1 1 1 9
26 1 48 5 7 2 1 1 2 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 1 1 0 10
27 1 35 8 1 2 2 2 0 2 1 2 1 2 2 1 2 1 2 20
28 1 49 7 8 2 2 1 2 1 2 2 2 1 1 2 1 2 1 20
29 1 33 8 1 2 2 2 1 2 1 1 2 1 2 2 1 2 2 21
30 1 55 3 6 2 0 1 0 1 0 1 1 0 1 1 1 1 1 9
31 1 60 1 5 2 0 1 1 0 1 0 1 1 0 1 0 0 1 7
32 1 47 1 5 2 1 0 1 1 1 0 0 0 1 0 1 1 1 8
33 1 55 5 2 2 2 2 1 0 1 1 2 0 1 1 0 1 0 12
34 1 45 6 1 2 2 2 0 1 0 2 0 1 2 1 2 2 0 15
35 1 48 8 5 2 2 2 2 2 1 2 2 1 2 1 0 0 1 18
36 1 52 5 6 2 1 1 0 1 1 0 1 0 0 1 1 0 1 8
37 1 49 4 3 2 1 0 1 1 0 1 0 0 0 1 1 0 1 7
38 1 54 7 1 2 2 1 2 2 0 2 0 2 1 2 2 2 2 20
39 1 23 5 5 3 1 2 2 0 1 1 2 0 1 0 1 0 1 12
40 1 56 1 3 3 1 1 0 1 0 0 0 1 1 0 1 0 1 7
41 1 45 5 3 4 2 1 1 0 2 2 1 2 1 1 1 0 1 15
42 1 26 7 1 2 2 1 2 1 2 2 1 2 0 1 2 1 2 19
43 1 57 5 5 3 2 1 2 2 1 0 1 0 0 1 2 2 1 15
105
Demographics Urbanism
S. # A-1 A-2 A-3 A-4 A-5 B-1 B-2 B-3 B-4 B-5 B-6 B-7 B-8 B-9 B-10 B-11 B-12 B-13 Total
44 1 33 7 6 2 2 2 2 1 2 0 1 2 1 2 1 2 0 18
45 1 64 5 4 2 2 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 0 2 9
46 1 50 8 5 3 2 2 2 2 1 1 2 1 0 1 2 1 2 19
47 1 29 5 3 2 2 1 1 2 1 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 2 13
48 1 54 8 1 3 2 2 2 1 2 1 0 1 0 2 2 1 2 18
49 1 46 8 1 2 2 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 0 1 0 17
50 1 43 4 6 3 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 0 1 6
51 1 62 2 3 2 0 1 0 1 0 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 6
52 1 32 1 3 2 0 1 0 1 1 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 1 8
53 1 69 3 2 2 1 2 1 1 0 1 0 1 1 1 1 0 0 10
54 1 48 6 1 2 2 2 1 2 1 0 2 1 0 1 2 2 0 16
55 1 64 1 3 2 1 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 1 0 0 1 1 8
56 1 69 3 1 2 2 0 2 1 0 1 1 0 1 0 1 0 0 9
57 1 44 2 5 2 2 0 1 0 1 1 0 1 0 1 0 0 1 8
58 1 37 1 2 2 0 1 1 1 0 1 0 0 1 0 1 1 0 7
59 1 37 2 3 2 1 0 1 0 1 2 0 1 0 2 1 1 0 10
60 1 35 2 2 2 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 2 0 1 0 1 0 8
61 1 31 2 2 2 1 0 1 1 1 0 0 1 0 1 0 2 0 8
62 1 46 5 1 2 2 2 0 1 0 2 1 0 0 0 2 1 2 13
63 1 54 2 6 2 1 0 1 0 0 1 0 1 1 2 2 1 2 12
64 1 51 1 2 2 0 0 0 2 0 1 1 0 1 1 0 1 0 7
65 1 43 3 1 2 1 0 2 1 2 0 1 0 1 1 0 0 1 10
66 1 25 2 2 2 1 0 2 0 0 1 0 2 1 1 0 1 0 9
67 1 48 1 1 2 1 1 0 0 0 2 0 0 0 1 1 1 0 7
68 1 25 2 3 2 1 0 1 0 1 1 1 1 1 0 1 1 0 9
69 1 47 2 2 2 1 0 0 1 0 1 1 1 1 1 1 0 1 9
70 1 21 5 1 1 2 1 1 2 0 1 0 1 1 1 2 2 0 14
71 1 57 8 4 2 2 2 2 0 1 2 1 2 1 1 2 1 2 19
72 2 54 6 5 2 1 1 2 2 2 2 1 2 1 2 2 1 2 21
73 2 52 7 2 2 2 1 2 1 1 2 2 2 0 0 2 2 2 19
74 2 62 6 1 3 1 0 2 2 0 1 0 1 0 1 2 2 2 14
75 2 24 5 5 2 2 1 2 1 2 1 0 1 0 0 0 1 1 12
76 2 53 2 2 2 1 1 2 1 0 1 1 0 0 0 1 0 1 9
77 2 52 4 1 2 2 1 0 1 2 1 0 1 0 1 1 0 1 11
78 2 49 7 2 2 2 2 0 1 0 2 2 1 0 1 0 0 0 11
79 2 33 7 5 2 2 0 2 2 0 1 2 2 1 2 1 2 1 18
80 2 53 2 2 2 1 2 0 1 0 1 1 1 0 0 0 1 0 8
81 2 29 6 5 2 2 2 2 0 1 2 1 0 1 2 0 2 2 17
82 2 35 4 3 3 1 2 0 1 0 0 2 0 1 0 1 2 1 11
83 2 53 2 2 2 1 2 0 1 2 0 1 1 1 0 1 1 0 11
84 2 67 4 1 2 2 0 2 2 2 1 0 1 1 0 1 0 2 14
85 2 31 8 1 2 2 2 2 1 2 1 2 0 2 1 2 2 2 21
86 2 34 7 3 2 2 1 1 2 1 2 0 0 0 1 2 1 2 15
87 2 48 5 1 2 2 2 1 0 1 1 0 1 0 0 0 1 1 10
88 2 35 5 2 2 0 0 0 1 1 2 1 2 0 1 2 1 2 13
89 2 23 7 6 3 2 2 0 2 1 1 0 1 2 1 1 2 1 16
90 2 49 4 5 2 2 0 2 2 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 2 2 14
91 2 42 7 1 2 2 0 1 0 2 1 0 2 0 2 2 1 0 13
92 2 29 6 5 2 0 0 2 1 0 1 2 2 1 1 0 1 0 11
93 2 46 4 2 2 1 0 1 2 0 1 1 0 1 1 2 2 2 14
94 2 66 5 4 2 0 2 1 0 1 0 1 1 1 2 2 2 1 14
95 2 54 4 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 0 1 1 1 1 0 1 1 16
96 2 36 7 5 2 0 1 1 2 2 2 0 2 2 2 0 0 1 15
106
Demographics Urbanism
S. # A-1 A-2 A-3 A-4 A-5 B-1 B-2 B-3 B-4 B-5 B-6 B-7 B-8 B-9 B-10 B-11 B-12 B-13 Total
97 2 30 8 2 2 2 0 2 1 0 2 0 1 2 2 2 2 2 18
98 2 38 2 3 2 0 0 1 0 1 0 1 1 1 0 1 1 1 8
99 2 64 5 1 3 1 1 0 1 2 2 2 2 2 2 0 2 2 19
100 2 34 8 5 2 1 1 2 2 2 2 0 0 2 2 1 2 1 18
101 2 45 8 5 2 2 2 0 2 1 0 1 2 1 2 2 2 2 19
102 2 39 5 2 2 0 1 0 1 2 0 2 0 1 0 1 1 2 11
103 2 66 2 1 3 2 1 0 1 0 0 1 1 2 2 0 1 0 11
104 2 68 2 2 3 0 0 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 0 0 13
105 2 26 2 1 2 1 1 0 1 2 1 1 1 1 1 0 1 1 12
106 2 64 4 2 2 1 1 2 2 0 2 2 1 0 1 1 0 1 14
107 2 26 6 2 2 2 2 2 2 1 2 1 1 1 0 0 1 1 16
108 2 45 5 1 2 2 2 2 1 1 0 1 0 0 0 1 1 1 12
109 2 36 5 1 2 1 1 0 0 2 0 2 0 2 2 2 0 0 12
110 2 52 2 5 2 1 1 0 1 1 1 2 1 1 0 0 1 0 10
111 2 64 4 8 3 2 2 1 0 1 0 1 1 1 0 1 0 1 11
112 2 37 2 5 2 1 1 1 0 1 0 0 0 1 2 1 2 2 12
113 2 57 4 2 2 2 2 1 0 1 1 2 1 2 2 0 0 1 15
114 2 32 2 2 2 1 1 0 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 0 1 1 14
115 2 52 4 2 2 0 0 0 2 2 2 1 2 1 1 1 1 1 14
116 2 28 2 3 2 0 0 1 2 2 1 1 2 1 1 1 0 0 12
117 2 50 6 6 2 1 2 2 0 1 2 2 2 0 1 1 0 2 16
118 2 51 7 5 2 2 2 2 1 1 0 1 1 2 0 2 2 0 16
119 2 46 7 5 2 2 2 2 1 0 1 0 0 0 1 1 1 1 12
120 2 40 5 2 2 1 1 2 1 2 2 0 0 0 1 0 1 0 11
121 2 25 5 4 2 2 2 2 1 0 0 1 0 1 1 2 1 0 13
122 2 22 5 1 1 2 2 0 2 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 1 0 11
123 2 47 2 4 2 2 1 2 1 2 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 12
124 2 50 4 1 3 2 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 1 1 2 2 1 11
125 2 45 2 2 2 0 1 0 0 0 2 2 2 2 1 1 1 0 12
126 2 27 2 4 2 0 1 0 2 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 1 8
127 2 34 1 3 2 1 0 1 0 1 0 2 0 1 0 1 0 1 8
128 2 24 2 6 1 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 1 0 7
129 2 42 2 5 2 0 0 1 0 1 1 1 1 1 0 1 0 0 7
130 2 39 2 4 3 2 1 2 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 9
131 2 37 3 5 2 1 1 0 1 0 1 1 1 0 0 0 2 2 10
132 2 47 2 7 2 0 2 2 0 1 1 1 2 0 1 2 0 0 12
133 2 47 1 1 2 0 1 0 1 0 1 1 1 1 1 2 2 2 13
134 2 50 4 2 2 0 2 0 2 2 2 2 2 2 1 2 1 1 19
135 2 67 2 6 2 0 2 2 0 2 2 1 2 1 2 0 1 1 16
136 2 27 1 5 2 1 2 2 0 1 2 1 1 2 0 0 1 1 14
137 2 54 2 5 2 1 2 0 2 1 2 1 2 0 1 2 1 1 16
Alienation
S. # C-1 C-2 C-3 C-4 C-5 C-6 C-7 C-8 C-9 C-10 C-11 C-12 C-13 C-14 C-15 C-16 C-17 C-18 C-19 C-20 C-21 C-22 C-23 Total
1 4 4 2 3 4 3 4 3 3 0 3 2 4 3 4 4 4 3 3 2 4 4 2 72
2 4 2 4 3 3 3 4 4 4 2 4 3 3 4 4 3 3 4 3 4 3 4 3 78
3 1 0 2 2 2 0 0 1 1 4 1 2 3 4 1 0 1 1 2 0 0 0 1 29
4 1 2 1 2 0 0 1 2 1 2 4 2 4 2 2 3 1 1 2 3 2 3 2 43
5 2 3 4 2 1 2 3 4 3 2 3 2 3 3 2 2 3 1 0 1 0 0 3 49
6 4 4 2 3 2 4 3 4 3 3 4 4 4 4 4 2 3 3 4 3 4 3 4 78
7 4 4 4 2 3 2 2 3 2 4 2 4 3 4 2 3 4 4 2 3 4 4 3 72
8 2 2 4 2 4 3 0 2 3 0 2 0 1 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 30
9 4 1 2 1 4 2 1 0 1 2 3 3 4 0 2 1 0 1 2 1 0 1 0 36
107
Alienation
S. # C-1 C-2 C-3 C-4 C-5 C-6 C-7 C-8 C-9 C-10 C-11 C-12 C-13 C-14 C-15 C-16 C-17 C-18 C-19 C-20 C-21 C-22 C-23 Total
10 4 2 4 4 4 3 2 1 3 0 4 0 1 2 2 2 2 0 1 4 3 2 2 52
11 3 2 3 2 4 3 2 1 0 1 0 1 2 3 3 3 2 4 0 4 1 4 2 50
12 4 2 3 2 1 2 3 0 1 4 1 4 3 0 1 1 0 1 2 2 0 3 3 43
13 4 4 4 2 3 2 4 4 3 3 0 0 3 2 1 4 4 4 4 1 3 3 3 65
14 2 3 1 1 2 3 2 3 2 1 2 4 3 3 2 2 0 1 1 4 1 0 2 45
15 3 2 3 4 4 2 3 0 2 1 4 2 3 2 4 3 1 4 3 4 2 0 0 56
16 1 2 3 4 4 2 0 3 0 4 2 3 4 4 3 4 3 4 3 4 3 4 3 67
17 2 3 4 3 3 4 2 3 2 4 0 1 4 0 4 0 4 4 4 0 3 3 3 60
18 1 0 0 2 0 3 3 0 4 1 0 2 0 2 1 0 1 0 2 3 0 3 3 31
19 2 3 1 4 0 4 0 4 0 2 1 3 3 2 2 3 2 2 1 1 2 3 3 48
20 2 3 4 0 1 2 0 2 0 2 2 4 1 0 2 1 1 1 0 2 1 1 1 33
21 2 3 3 3 0 0 1 1 4 4 4 4 2 2 2 2 2 3 2 3 0 0 1 48
22 4 2 4 1 1 2 2 3 3 3 3 3 3 4 4 4 1 4 4 2 2 3 4 66
23 4 2 4 4 4 4 2 4 2 2 3 2 0 4 4 4 2 1 3 3 3 3 4 68
24 1 2 2 1 1 2 1 2 2 2 2 2 1 1 1 2 0 1 3 4 4 1 2 40
25 2 1 2 2 3 3 3 2 4 2 2 2 4 0 2 2 1 2 2 2 3 3 3 52
26 3 3 2 3 2 1 2 4 2 3 2 4 1 0 4 2 3 0 3 2 1 4 2 53
27 2 2 4 2 2 3 3 3 2 1 1 3 3 3 2 1 0 0 1 0 1 1 1 41
28 3 2 2 2 4 1 4 0 1 4 4 2 3 2 3 2 1 4 4 4 4 4 4 64
29 4 3 3 3 4 2 3 4 4 2 4 0 4 4 2 3 3 3 2 4 4 4 4 73
30 3 2 4 0 2 4 3 2 1 4 4 1 2 3 3 0 0 3 2 1 0 1 1 46
31 2 0 1 0 2 4 2 1 2 2 2 4 4 1 2 1 4 1 0 2 1 0 1 39
32 3 3 2 2 0 1 2 1 2 1 2 2 2 1 2 2 4 3 3 2 1 3 4 48
33 4 4 4 2 2 3 3 2 2 1 1 2 4 4 4 4 0 0 1 1 1 1 0 50
34 4 3 2 3 3 3 2 2 2 2 1 0 1 1 4 1 0 0 0 1 2 2 3 42
35 4 4 4 4 3 3 3 3 3 2 2 4 3 4 4 3 4 4 1 2 2 2 0 68
36 2 0 0 2 2 0 2 0 0 1 1 2 2 2 2 2 2 1 2 1 2 2 1 31
37 3 3 2 0 1 3 2 1 0 0 0 3 3 3 2 1 1 1 4 2 2 3 4 44
38 4 4 2 3 4 3 4 4 3 0 0 2 4 1 4 4 4 1 3 2 4 4 2 66
39 4 1 4 1 0 3 4 0 4 0 0 3 1 0 2 1 3 4 3 4 3 4 3 52
40 1 0 2 0 2 0 0 1 1 0 1 2 3 4 1 0 1 1 4 0 0 0 3 27
41 1 2 1 2 0 2 1 2 1 3 4 2 4 2 2 3 1 1 2 3 2 4 2 47
42 4 3 4 4 1 2 3 4 3 2 0 2 3 4 2 2 4 4 4 1 4 4 3 67
43 4 4 2 3 2 4 3 1 3 3 4 2 1 4 4 2 2 3 4 0 4 3 4 66
44 4 4 4 3 3 2 2 3 2 4 2 0 3 4 2 3 1 4 4 3 4 4 3 68
45 2 2 4 2 4 1 0 2 3 2 2 0 1 1 0 2 0 1 0 1 2 1 0 33
46 4 4 2 1 4 3 1 0 1 2 1 3 4 4 2 1 0 4 4 1 4 1 4 55
47 4 2 4 4 4 2 2 1 2 0 4 0 1 3 2 2 1 0 1 4 0 2 2 47
48 3 2 3 2 4 4 4 4 0 1 1 2 2 2 2 4 4 2 3 3 4 4 4 64
49 4 4 3 2 3 3 2 0 4 4 4 4 3 2 3 3 1 4 4 4 0 3 3 67
50 1 2 4 3 3 2 0 0 3 0 0 0 3 2 1 4 4 1 4 1 3 3 2 46
51 2 3 1 1 2 3 2 1 2 1 2 2 3 3 2 2 0 1 1 1 1 0 2 38
52 3 2 3 4 4 2 3 0 2 1 4 2 3 2 4 3 1 4 3 4 2 0 0 56
53 1 2 3 3 2 2 0 1 0 4 4 3 4 4 3 1 3 4 3 4 3 2 3 59
54 4 4 4 3 3 1 2 3 1 4 0 3 4 0 4 2 4 2 4 0 3 3 3 61
55 1 0 2 2 0 3 1 2 2 1 3 2 0 2 2 0 1 1 2 3 0 3 3 36
56 2 3 1 2 0 3 0 4 0 3 1 3 2 2 2 1 2 2 1 2 2 3 3 44
57 2 3 4 0 1 2 0 2 0 2 1 4 1 0 3 1 1 4 0 2 1 1 1 36
58 2 3 3 3 0 0 1 2 4 4 4 1 2 2 1 2 2 3 2 3 2 0 1 47
59 4 2 4 1 1 2 2 2 3 1 3 3 3 1 4 4 1 4 4 2 4 3 4 62
60 1 2 4 0 4 4 0 4 2 0 3 3 0 4 2 4 2 1 3 1 3 3 2 52
61 1 2 2 1 1 2 1 2 0 2 0 2 1 1 2 2 0 3 3 4 4 1 2 39
62 1 1 2 2 3 3 3 2 4 2 1 2 4 0 2 2 0 2 2 0 3 3 2 46
63 2 3 1 3 2 4 2 3 1 4 0 0 4 0 4 1 4 4 2 0 3 3 2 52
64 1 0 0 2 0 1 3 0 4 1 0 4 0 2 0 0 1 0 1 3 0 3 3 29
65 2 1 2 1 0 4 3 4 0 3 1 1 3 0 1 3 0 2 0 1 1 3 0 36
66 2 0 3 0 1 2 1 2 0 0 1 2 1 0 0 1 1 1 0 2 0 1 0 21
67 1 1 3 3 0 0 1 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 2 2 3 0 3 0 0 1 32
68 2 2 2 1 1 3 2 1 3 2 3 3 1 4 0 0 1 1 1 2 2 3 2 42
69 4 0 0 4 0 1 2 4 2 2 1 2 0 2 4 2 2 1 1 1 3 2 4 44
70 1 2 2 1 1 2 0 3 3 2 2 2 2 1 1 2 4 1 3 4 4 1 4 48
71 2 1 2 2 3 3 3 2 4 2 2 2 4 0 2 2 1 2 2 2 3 3 3 52
72 4 3 2 4 2 4 2 4 2 4 2 4 1 4 4 2 3 2 4 4 1 4 2 68
73 4 2 4 2 3 3 3 3 2 1 0 3 3 3 3 1 0 2 1 4 1 1 1 50
74 3 2 1 2 4 2 4 0 1 4 1 2 3 2 3 2 1 2 1 1 2 4 3 50
75 2 3 1 3 1 2 3 3 4 2 2 0 1 1 2 2 3 3 2 4 4 4 4 56
108
Alienation
S. # C-1 C-2 C-3 C-4 C-5 C-6 C-7 C-8 C-9 C-10 C-11 C-12 C-13 C-14 C-15 C-16 C-17 C-18 C-19 C-20 C-21 C-22 C-23 Total
76 3 2 0 0 2 4 3 2 1 2 2 1 2 3 3 0 0 3 2 1 0 1 1 38
77 2 0 1 0 2 4 2 1 2 2 2 1 1 1 2 1 4 1 0 2 1 0 0 32
78 1 3 2 2 0 0 2 1 2 1 0 0 2 1 2 2 3 3 3 2 1 3 4 40
79 4 4 4 2 0 3 3 2 2 2 2 2 4 4 4 4 0 2 1 1 2 1 0 53
80 1 1 2 2 3 3 2 2 2 2 1 0 1 1 2 1 0 0 0 1 2 2 0 31
81 4 4 3 4 3 2 3 3 0 2 2 4 2 4 4 3 1 4 1 4 4 2 4 67
82 2 2 0 2 2 0 2 4 0 1 4 2 3 2 2 3 2 1 2 1 3 2 1 43
83 3 3 2 1 1 3 3 1 0 0 0 3 2 3 2 1 2 1 4 2 2 1 4 44
84 1 4 2 3 2 3 4 4 3 0 0 2 4 1 4 2 4 1 3 2 4 1 2 56
85 4 1 4 1 2 3 4 2 4 2 2 3 1 2 2 1 3 4 3 4 3 4 2 61
86 4 4 3 0 2 3 4 1 3 0 3 2 2 2 2 0 2 1 4 4 1 0 3 50
87 1 2 3 2 0 2 3 2 3 3 4 2 4 2 2 1 1 1 0 3 2 0 2 45
88 3 3 2 3 0 1 2 1 3 1 3 2 2 1 0 2 4 3 4 2 1 3 2 48
89 4 4 4 2 3 3 3 2 2 2 1 0 4 0 4 4 0 0 1 2 1 1 2 49
90 4 2 2 3 3 3 2 2 2 2 1 0 1 2 4 1 0 2 0 1 2 2 1 42
91 2 2 1 1 1 1 3 1 2 2 2 1 3 1 4 2 1 2 1 2 2 1 0 38
92 2 0 1 2 2 1 2 0 1 1 0 2 1 2 0 2 1 1 2 0 2 2 1 28
93 3 3 3 0 3 3 2 1 2 0 2 3 3 3 2 3 1 1 2 2 2 2 4 50
94 4 2 2 3 4 3 4 1 3 2 0 3 4 2 4 4 4 2 3 2 4 4 2 66
95 4 2 4 2 2 3 4 2 2 0 3 3 1 4 2 4 3 3 3 4 3 4 3 65
96 4 0 2 2 2 0 2 1 2 2 3 2 3 4 3 0 3 1 4 0 3 2 3 48
97 3 2 3 2 0 2 2 2 3 3 4 2 4 2 2 3 3 3 2 3 2 4 4 60
98 2 3 0 2 1 2 2 4 0 2 0 3 3 2 2 2 2 4 2 1 4 4 3 50
99 4 4 2 3 2 4 3 3 3 3 4 2 3 4 4 2 2 3 4 2 4 3 4 72
100 4 4 4 3 3 2 1 3 2 4 3 2 3 4 2 3 2 4 4 3 4 4 3 71
101 2 4 4 4 4 4 4 2 3 2 2 4 4 4 4 2 0 4 0 4 2 1 4 68
102 2 2 2 1 4 3 1 0 1 2 3 3 4 2 2 1 1 4 2 1 2 1 1 45
103 4 2 4 2 4 2 2 1 2 2 4 0 1 2 2 3 1 0 1 4 0 2 1 46
104 3 2 2 2 1 4 1 4 2 1 1 0 2 2 2 0 4 2 0 3 4 2 2 46
105 4 2 2 2 1 3 2 0 4 2 2 4 3 2 2 3 2 2 2 4 0 1 3 52
106 2 2 4 3 1 2 0 1 3 0 0 3 3 2 1 2 4 1 4 1 2 3 2 46
107 4 3 1 4 4 4 4 2 2 3 2 2 3 3 2 2 4 4 3 4 3 4 2 69
108 2 2 3 4 1 2 3 0 2 0 4 2 1 2 4 1 1 1 3 2 2 0 2 44
109 1 2 3 2 2 2 2 1 2 4 4 3 2 4 3 1 3 2 3 4 1 2 1 54
110 2 2 2 1 0 1 2 3 1 4 0 3 1 0 4 2 1 2 4 0 3 3 1 42
111 1 0 4 2 0 3 4 2 2 1 3 2 4 2 2 0 4 1 2 3 0 3 3 48
112 2 3 1 2 1 3 0 4 2 3 1 3 2 1 2 1 1 2 1 2 2 3 3 45
113 4 4 4 0 1 2 4 4 0 4 1 4 4 0 3 2 1 4 0 2 2 2 2 54
114 2 3 1 3 0 1 1 2 4 1 1 1 2 2 1 2 2 2 2 3 2 0 1 39
115 4 0 4 0 1 2 0 2 3 1 3 0 3 1 0 4 1 2 2 3 2 3 2 43
116 1 2 0 0 4 3 0 4 2 0 3 1 0 4 2 4 2 1 3 1 3 2 2 44
117 4 2 2 4 4 4 1 4 0 2 4 2 2 2 2 2 2 3 3 4 4 1 3 61
118 4 4 4 2 3 3 2 2 2 2 1 4 4 0 2 2 3 2 2 0 3 3 2 56
119 2 1 1 1 2 0 2 3 1 2 1 0 4 0 2 1 1 0 2 0 3 1 2 32
120 1 0 0 2 2 2 3 0 2 1 0 4 2 2 0 0 1 0 1 3 0 3 1 30
121 2 1 2 1 0 1 3 4 0 3 2 1 3 0 1 3 0 2 0 1 1 3 2 36
122 3 0 3 0 1 2 2 2 0 0 1 2 1 0 0 1 3 1 0 2 0 1 2 27
123 3 1 3 3 0 0 1 1 1 2 2 1 2 1 2 2 2 2 0 3 0 0 1 33
124 2 2 2 1 2 3 2 1 3 2 3 3 1 2 0 0 1 1 1 2 2 1 2 39
125 2 0 0 1 0 1 2 4 2 2 1 2 0 2 3 2 2 1 1 1 3 2 2 36
126 1 2 2 1 1 2 0 0 3 2 0 2 2 1 1 2 2 1 1 4 2 1 2 35
127 2 1 2 2 1 1 1 0 3 2 2 2 4 0 2 2 2 2 2 2 3 3 2 43
128 2 3 2 1 1 1 2 0 2 0 2 0 1 4 0 2 3 0 4 2 1 3 0 36
129 3 2 1 2 0 0 3 0 2 1 0 3 0 3 0 1 0 2 1 4 1 0 1 30
130 3 3 1 2 4 2 2 2 1 4 1 2 1 2 3 2 1 2 1 1 2 2 3 47
131 2 0 1 3 1 4 3 3 4 2 2 0 1 1 2 3 3 3 2 1 4 4 4 53
132 3 3 0 0 3 4 3 2 3 2 2 1 2 3 3 2 2 3 2 1 0 1 2 47
133 2 0 1 0 3 4 2 1 2 2 1 1 1 0 2 1 4 0 0 2 1 0 0 30
134 4 4 2 2 0 4 2 1 2 4 0 0 4 4 2 4 3 3 3 2 3 3 4 60
135 4 2 4 2 0 3 3 2 2 2 2 1 4 3 3 4 0 2 1 1 3 1 0 49
136 1 2 2 2 3 3 1 2 2 2 1 0 1 1 0 1 0 0 0 1 1 2 0 28
137 4 4 3 0 3 2 3 3 2 2 1 4 2 1 4 3 1 4 1 1 4 2 2 56
