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At the end of the road? On differences between women and men in leadership behaviour
Abstract
Purpose
– This study aims to explore behavioural differences between women and men in managerial positions and suggest explanations for differences and similarities.
Design/methodology/approach
– In order to eliminate any effects of organizational differences on leadership behaviour, this study had public managers responding to questionnaires that measured their leadership style, decision‐making style, and motivation profile.
Findings
– Statistical analyses of data from three groups of Swedish public managers (n=385) revealed virtually no significant differences in behaviour between female and male managers. Regardless of whether there is a female or male majority of employees or a female or male majority of managers, no effect on leadership behaviour occurs.
Originality/value
– A number of studies indicate that managers' behaviour is different in different types of organizations. This study suggests, therefore, that, independent of gender, organizational and demographic characteristics modify leadership behaviours, thus explaining similarities in leadership behaviour.
... Even though the gender gap has been narrowing as far as leadership roles are concerned; there is still ongoing and countless studies on it. According to Andersen and Hansson, the topic of dissimilarities in regards to leadership behaviors is identified as male for male leaders and female leaders (Andersen, & Hansson, 2011). Exploring leadership looking through the eyes glass of gender bias is also important. ...
... According to Murray and Chua (2014), Although efforts have been made to use sexual role congruity model to clarify gender dissimilarities between executives, such as in management style, the findings have been unclear. Andersen and Hansson (2011) gave us something to think about when they say there is a disagreement as to whether gender is the determining factor for leadership behavior. Their research reveals that women managers tend to exhibit intimacy, nurturing, communication, and cooperation. ...
... According to Murray and Chua (2014), other research establishes gender dissimilarities constant with gender role congruity, at the same time as others have found no apparent contrasts in parts of management based on gender. According to Andersen and Hansson (2011), corporations are capitalizing on the differences in the association between transformational leadership and occupational self-efficacy; which can aid businesses to pursue ways to build up their occupational self-efficacy. ...
The purpose of the quantitative correlational study was to examine the relationship between gender and leadership styles in the retail industry. The problem addressed in the study was whether there is a relationship between gender and leadership style in the retail industry (Young, 2011). Previous research conducted by previous authors, found that a relationship did exist between leadership styles and gender. Even though there is a large body of research that has been done from 1986 to 2006 on the impact of leadership styles on employee and organizational performance, the existence of such studies in the retail industry is very limited. For this study, a quantitative research method was used by employing a non-experimental design to look at the association between the two variables; gender and leadership style (authoritative, servant and democratic) in reference to the retail industry. The data analysis method that was used was the Pearson Chi-Square Test with a post-hoc analysis of association via the Cramer's V coefficient to test the null hypothesis, which stated there was no relationship between gender and leadership styles. The findings were not significant (p=0.202); therefore, the null hypothesis was accepted. The association strength was moderate, as depicted by the Cramer's V coefficient (V=0.270). Since there has been limited research conducted on the topic of gender and leadership style in the retail industry, this document will have the potential to make contributions to professional practice and the academia. Dedication To my future wife, whomever you may be, I thank God for bringing you into my life and making me a better version of myself. To my deceased father, thank you for allowing me to see how dedicated you were as a father to us and the sacrifices took to achieve your highest education during your time. Looking at you when I was a young boy made me see how driven you were to success. I want to thank you for imparting in me your love of learning and your high regard for education. It is what also drives me today to be successful and gave me the motivation to pursue this doctoral journey. To my mother thank you for your love, support,
... This research field includes studies of similarities and differences in managers' behaviors which are independent of gender. Andersen and Hansson (2011) found no significant differences between male and female public managers in leadership behaviors (leadership styles, decision-making styles, and motivation profiles) based on responses from 385 managers (148 female and 237 male managers) in three public organizations. Martin (2015) found no differences between male and female public managers, but women were more likely to use idealized attributes and inspirational motivation. ...
... With respect to the effects of differences in gender distribution of all employees and gender distribution of managers in the organization, significant differences in leadership behaviors did not arise in the comparison of organizations in which "women lead women-intensive organizations"-e.g., schools-and few differences were found when "men lead more women than men"-e.g., social-insurance offices and the state church (Andersen & Hansson, 2011). These findings contradict what some researchers have suggested (e.g., Kantar, 1977;Trinidad & Normore, 2005). ...
... As a consequence of the findings of differences in managers' leadership styles due to the privatepublic distinction, Andersen and Hansson (2011) focused exclusively on women and men-as indicated by the respondents' references to their gender-in managerial positions in public organizations. Data from 385 managers (223 males and 162 females) were analyzed. ...
... On the other hand,as a consequence of the global scope of the organizations, leaders' traditional responsibilities such as risk-taking, foresight, conceptualization, and critical thought (Spears and Lawrence, 2002), mostly embedded in a rational and male role, arise no longer as the only key to lead as they used to be, while moral and emotional qualities, both considered much more close to a female style,acquire a significant role (Barbuto et al., 2014; Hayes, 1999). In fact, the most recent literature indicates a tendency to lead with a much more female style (Arar, 2012; Brandt and Laiho, 2013),which have renewed the interest among scholars for studying gender principles and how they may influence the approaches of leadership (Andersen and Hasson, 2011;Mavin and Grandy, 2012; Mensi-Klarbach, 2014: Trinidad and Normore, 2006)This, put in a neutral language, is explained in terms of adopting approaches more concerned with the person of the leader –self-leadership or authentic leadership (D'Intino et al., 2007; Yagil and Medler-Liraz, 2014)–, and the emotional processes that she or hedrives to the creation of lastrelations within and outside the organizations –transformational or servantleadership (Barbuto et al., 2014; Greenleaf, 1970; Lord and Brown, 2004; Schneider and George, 2011; Smith et al., 2004). Nonetheless, inspite of the recommendations about the current importance of female qualities to lead teams and organizations, there is still a considerable gap in organizations led by women as in leadership literature addressing issues of gender (Kezar and Lester, 2009; O'Connor, 2010; Sandberg, 2013; Werhane and Painter- Morland, 2011). ...
... Then, during their journeys, transforming leaders,for instance, mayactmore as leading themselves, or as leading teamsand organizations. Additionally, it is important to note that the conception of transforming leaders, with an accent in the emotional and spiritual consciousness of the self –as authentic leader-,is often associated with issues of gender in leadership and how women develop their role as leaders (Andersen and Hasson, 2011). This explains, in part, the growing interest among scholars for linking the studies of gender with leadership literature (Brandt and Laiho, 2013; Mensi- Klarbach, 2014: Trinidad and Normore, 2006). ...
... They came out of larger discussions of power, and of alternative, non-patriarchal, non-hierarchical structures and organizations (Pace, 2010). Indeed, the first approaches to and definitions of women leadership became, in part, products of their struggles to advance gender equality in positions of power, to create structures that would not reproduce the patriarchal models Toledano and Karanda 975 (Batliwala, 2011), and to denounce the social injustice and discrimination suffered by women throughout the whole history (Andersen and Hasson, 2011). Nonetheless , the sociological approach, with the basic ideas of " socialization " and " expectations " ,has influenced further the arguments held in women leadership literature. ...
This paper seeks to capture the characteristics that prevail in the leadership styles of women leaders paying special attention to their individual leaders' journeys. The study reviews the theoretical models of leadership and feminist theory that are particularly pertinent from the discussion of women leadership. A narrative approach is adopted for analyzing two women leaders' journeys –Mary Kay and Mother Teresa– who succeeded in very different contexts. The stories exemplify some of the most important attributes that have been highlighted to play a focal role in current leadership research. The findings suggest that women lead teams and organizations through an authentic leadership and a genuine position of service, once they have become masters in self-leadership.
... The authors argue that the small gender differences observed among executives support the gender-invariant role demands perspective, which claims that managerial positions have a homogenizing effect. These results are similar to those reported by Andersen and Hansson (2011), who, using questionnaires that measured leadership style, decision-making style, and motivation profile, found only small differences between male and female public sector managers. In our literature review, we have found no similar studies reporting results for OCBs or adaptive performance. ...
... Consequently, the first aim of the present study was to confirm whether gender differences are less pronounced among managers than among non-managers, as suggested by the implicit leadership theory and indeed found by some studies measuring certain specific characteristics (Andersen & Hansson, 2011;Wille et al., 2018). The second aim was to examine whether similar traits and behaviors (personality, adaptability and OCBs) distinguish managers from lowerlevel employees among both genders. ...
A prevailing idea in the organizational context is that men and women differ in personality traits and leadership styles. Few studies, however, have examined gender differences in managerial behavior. The aim of the present study was to explore the presence of such differences in a sample of public sector employees (N = 678), focusing on personality and two key human resources constructs, namely organizational citizenship behaviors (OCBs) and adaptive performance. We also compared gender differences among managers with those observed among employees without managerial responsibilities. Finally, we examined whether the attributes that distinguish managers from non-managers are the same for men and women. Mean comparison strategies and the Cohen’s d effect size index were used. The results suggest that male and female public managers have similar leadership profiles in terms of personality, OCBs and adaptive performance. In addition, and despite small gender differences in this respect, it appears that communal traits, such as Creativity or interpersonal OCBs, are becoming increasingly relevant to managerial positions in the public sector, which implies complementarity in the gender roles linked with the behaviors associated with leadership and access to management positions. Our results support both the gender-invariant role demands and the changing leadership roles perspectives and may have implications for selection and promotion policies in public sector organizations.
... People are more inclined to view males as natural or "ideal" leaders; however, it is an exception whenever a woman is in a leadership position (Bierema, 2016). Women also have to appear not too masculine or too feminine when characterizing the ideal leader (Aarum Andersen & Hansson, 2011;Bierema, 2016;Catalyst, 2017;Kanter, 1977). This type of gender stereotype impedes growth, opportunity, and equity in the workplace (Longman & Anderson, 2011;Wang et al., 2013). ...
... Although some participants felt being female was a barrier with comments such as "perception a man can do it better than me" or "that is just how it is", more often than not, gender was not vocalized as a barrier. In other literature, women felt their gender made it difficult to advance in their careers (Aarum Andersen & Hansson, 2011;Bierema, 2016;Catalyst, 2017;Oguntoyinbo, 2014). The participants shared men are viewed as the default leaders and women as the default caretaker. ...
... This is reflective of the fact that on the one hand a woman's entry is relatively large but their career growth path is very slow (Gupta, Koshal, & Koshal, 1998). Challenges which arise out of the organization structure, its culture or within the operating environment may be the reason behind this slow progress (Mwangi, 2012) since there are not any significant behavioral differences between male and female managers (Andersen & Hansoon, 2011). Women face discrimination at work place in terms of pay and promotion. ...
... This is because of the leadership style followed by them, which is more democratic and participative. Challenges which arise out of the organization structure, its culture or within the operating environment may be the reason behind this slow progress (Mwangi, 2012) since there is not any significant behavioural difference between male and female managers (Andersen & Hansoon, 2011). Women face inequality in the form of pay and promotions (Elmuti & Heather, 2009). ...
India was ranked 120th by World Bank from a list of 131 countries as far as female workforce participation in
2017 is concerned (Venkatesh, 2017). Looking at it from a demographic level, there are only a few states
which have a women workforce larger than the men workforce. The low percentage of working women is both
a social and economic loss. According to a survey, it was seen that working women form an integral part of the
junior management level comprising 16%, while women comprise only 4% each at the middle and senior
levels and as far as organizational leadership positions (CEOs) are concerned they represent only 1%. This
suggests that that women’s entry is proportionately large but their progression is very slow (Center for Social
Research, 2009). Interestingly, there has been little research done in India around the impact of the challenges
that women employees in the managerial cadre face which subsequently has a negative influence on their
productivity and efficiency. During the course of this research, external factors such as the glass ceiling,
discrimination at the work place, unfriendly organizational policies or internal factors like work-life balance,
personal capability and perception and family and also societal factors were identified which present a
challenge for women employees. The study aims to investigate the impact of these factors on women
employees in terms of their efficiency and productivity ( Jamali D. , 2006). The research would be conducted
for women employees in the managerial cadre in the IT, Civil and Electronics sectors across the country.
... Thus, other researchers have shown that there are no significant differences between female and male public managers. Regardless of whether there is a female or male majority of employees or a female or male majority of managers, no effect on leadership behavior occurs (Aarum Andersen & Hansson, 2011). To further illustrate, using Bem's (1974) Sex Role Inventory, Donnelly and Twenge (2017) showed that women's self-reports of masculinity rose significantly from 1974 to 2012, with no significant change in self-reported femininity. ...
... The findings in these two kinds of work environments could also be interpreted as indicating that women leaders do not lack confidence in their leadership role, which contradicts the stereotype image that women tend to underestimate themselves. The results in the male-dominated work settings on the other hand, are in agreement with the finding that there is no gender difference in leadership behaviors (Aarum Andersen & Hansson, 2011). ...
The aim of the study was to compare the self-rated leadership behaviors of men and women in female-dominated, male-dominated and mixed-gender work environments and make within-gender comparisons across these three contexts. Data was collected using the Developmental Leadership Questionnaire from a sample of Swedish leadership course participants (N = 1897). Female leaders rated themselves more favorably than male leaders in female- dominated and mixed-gender work environments. Only small gender differences were found in male-dominated settings. Women in female dominated and gender-mixed work environments reported more favorable self-ratings than women in male dominated contexts. Among male leaders, fewer differences were observed between different work environments. The results are discussed in terms of organizational culture, individual selection preferences and a rapidly growing proportion of women leaders in the Swedish labor market.
... According to Dr. Eagly's research, female managers tended to greater stress on communication, affiliation, and cooperation than men. Moreover, women had a more collective approach (Andersen and Hansson, 2011). Women intuitively notice which employees need more support and show more understanding (Kupczyk, 2009). ...
... Results and conclusions remained unchanged (Eagly and Johannesen-Schmidt, 2001). A contradictive study indicates that the only difference between male and female leadership lies in the decision-making process, while differences in other areas such as task orientation, motivation, and leadership styles are not significant enough to warrant any statement that leadership varies between genders (Andersen and Hansson, 2011). Moreover, research by Kent and Schuele has proven no distinction when it comes to transformational and transactional leadership between male and female leaders (Kent and Schuele, 2010). ...
The following study presents preliminary research into leadership differences between men and women. This research study is preliminary in character and is intended to initiate a discussion on the impact of gender as a factor in leadership style. Data analysis from a pilot study suggests that differences do exist, but does not provide information as to their source. Further research is needed to answer that question.
... Further research has concluded that the leader's demographic profile can modify leadership behaviors [26], and demographics and personality can influence the perceptions of leader effectiveness [27]. More specifically, gender seems to affect the decision making process in organizations, with women residing to more democratic and inclusive ways to reach consensus, opting for more collaboration and open communication when compared to men [28]. ...
... Furthermore, previous researchers found a critical link between leadership style and organizational and individual success (Junquera, 2011;Channar, Abbassi, & Ujan, 2011;Toor & Ofori, 2009). Andersen and Hansson (2011) noted that gender might be a factor regarding specific leadership styles, yet Getz (2009) commented that leadership style relates more often to leader behaviors than gender. Regardless of gender, career success remains a significant motivating factor for organizational leaders (Elgamal, 2010;Jones & Lentz, 2013;Junquera, 2011;Lansford et al., 2010). ...
The purpose of this study was to examine the correlation between the leadership styles and the career success of women in nonprofit organizations. The Multifactor Leadership Questionnaire served as the instrument to identify transformation, transactional, and passive leadership styles. The development of a career success index through summing the coded values of data regarding job satisfaction, work-life balance, tenure in the nonprofit industry, tenure in current position, and compensation level facilitated correlational analysis with leadership style. The Gulf Coast region of the United States was the geographic region for the study. The results indicated a significant and positive correlation between the transformational and transactional leadership styles and the career success index, p = 0.024 for Pearson's Product Moment; p = 0.038 for Spearman's rho, and p = 0.012 for Pearson's Product Moment; p = 0.022 for Spearman's rho, respectively. No significant relationship existed between passive leadership style and the career success index, with p = 0.81 for Pearson's Product Moment and p = 0.983 for Spearman's rho. Keywords: Women in leadership, leadership style, career success of women, nonprofit leadership
... When analyzing the articles, it was found that there is divergence regarding the difference in leadership between men and women, some authors even question whether this difference exists, and, according to these authors, if there is a difference, it is not significant ( ANDERSEN; HANSSON, 2011;DENIZCI GUILLET et al., 2019;GIPSON et al., 2017;MARTINEZ-LEON et al., 2020;PLACE;VARDEMAN-WINTER, 2018;RUILOBA NÚÑEZ, 2013;SIMS;CARTER;MOORE DE PERALTA , 2020). Although the literature shows that women exercise more the transformational leadership style, and men more the transactional one, the result of the research by Garcia-Solarte et al (2017) showed that the transformational style predominates in both men and women. ...
Women are gradually assuming important leadership roles in the social, business and political spheres. For this reason, the difference in leadership style and characteristics of men and women leaders has been the subject of controversial discussions both in society and in academia. Even though it is a current subject, there are few studies in the literature about it. This research aims to identify the characteristics and style of leaders to understand whether gender influences leadership style. For that, an integrative systematic review was developed in the Scopus, Web of Science and Scielo databases, between 2010 and 2020, chosen and analyzed 22 publications. Characteristics and leadership styles of men and women were found and related. It was found that gender may not have a direct influence on the style and characteristics of leaders, as they are influenced by the gender stereotype they assume. A woman can have more masculine style and leadership characteristics if she adopts the male stereotype, and vice versa. The results point to the need for more research on leadership style and gender, especially the development of more comprehensive quantitative studies and also qualitative research that focus on the experience of women and men leaders in organizations.
... It is worth mentioning that mainstream approaches also analyze the relations between gender and leadership. However, most of these studies focus on gender behavioural aspects and their relationship with the leadership styles of women and men, seeking mainly to understand the possible differences and similarities in leadership styles between men and women, and how these styles influence organizational performance (Aarum & Hansson, 2011;Ayman, Korabik & Morris, 2009;Eagly & Johannesen-Schmidt, 2001;Gipson, Pfaff, Mendelsohn, Catenacci & Burke, 2017). Ford (2006Ford ( , 2010 highlights that, concerning these mainstream studies, poststructuralism allows a more subjectivist interpretation of leadership, analyzing in the speeches given the complex relations between gender, psyche and self. ...
Resumo Liderança é considerada um tema relevante para os estudos organizacionais, fato que pode ser verificado pela existência de diversos periódicos acadêmicos dedicados exclusivamente ao tema. Contudo, apesar da proliferação de periódicos e várias publicações sobre o tema, a definição de liderança ainda é vaga, sendo geralmente considerada pelo mainstream um atributo masculino de líderes individuais heroicos. Assim, este artigo busca realizar uma análise crítica do mainstream sobre liderança, tendo-se como lente de análise a ontologia pós-estruturalista sobre o tema. Portanto, este artigo objetiva contribuir com o debate ontológico sobre liderança ao abordar o que é liderança para o pós-estruturalismo, enfatizando suas diferenças ontológicas em relação ao mainstream. O pós-estruturalismo promove uma ontologia de liderança alternativa ao mainstream que rompe com a concepção universal de liderança ao evidenciar sua característica microssocial e discursiva, concebendo liderança como um processo discursivo micropolítico, sendo fundamental para a entendimento da ontologia pós-estruturalista de liderança compreender (1) a produção das identidades de líderes e seguidores e (2) a materialidade da liderança.
... Women do not recognize this as subordination but believe that men are born to dominate (Sultana, 2012). Men are predominantly stereotyped as more effective leaders than women (Aarum & Hansson, 2011). The liberal feminist perspective argues that "society has a false belief that women are by nature less intellectually and physically capable than men" (Tong, 2009, p. 2). ...
The number of Saudi female leaders in elite leadership positions in higher education is minimal when compared to their male counterparts. Despite the academic support and integration of Saudi women into male dominated spaces, Saudi women leaders are still under-represented in their involvement in Saudi's higher educational leadership. The primary purpose of this study is to better understand Saudi women's lived experiences in leadership in higher education. This qualitative study was designed to explore challenges that Saudi women leaders face in higher education, and to understand the factors contributing to the significant under-representation of women leaders in higher education. A sample of 15 female faculty members and administrators at a selected Saudi public university were interviewed about participants' career path and their journey to leadership in higher education. This research was motivated by two major research questions: 1) What are the challenges that Saudi women experience as faculty and administrators in higher education in Saudi Arabia? 2) What factors have contributed to the successes that Saudi women leaders experience as faculty and administrators in higher education? Findings of this study indicated that Saudi female leaders face large number of professional challenges: women's lack of authority, their marginalization, and their lack of experience and training, while societal and personal challenges ranked last. Findings also demonstrated that a majority of the participants argue that factors impeding Saudi women ascension to leadership include oppressive gender stereotyping, gender discrimination, glass ceiling, and history of Saudi women's education. This study confirms that effective family support and mentoring experiences were instrumental in enabling participants to achieve their current positions and succeed in their professions. Based on the findings of the study, Saudi higher education should bring more Saudi female leaders into top leadership roles in higher education because this is a determining factor for empowering women in the higher educational realm of leadership.
... The leader is more goal and task-oriented. In contrast, a communal leader has more nurturing role with communication, cooperation and affiliation as the main attributes(Andersen and Hansson, 2011) 6 Yahya Khan, former president ofPakistan (1969-71) is believed to have said that Pakistan would have responded less violently against India in the Indo-Pakistan war of 1971 if India had a male leader. ...
This dissertation contributes to the empirical literature on trade protection through three independent chapters that have a common strand between them: use of contingent protection by trading economies of the world. In addition to tackling the conventional question on strategic determinants of contingent protection with a special focus on the role of mechanisms like retaliation (Chapter 1), this dissertation contributes two novel studies to the intertwinings of political economy with contingent protection: gendered role of national leadership (Chapter 2) and official development assistance (Chapter 3).
... Women in various sectors within developing and developed countries have become a significant field of study since the 1980s. Over time, researchers have addressed issues of external and internal barriers for women's' progress in school career structure (Sanchez and Thorton, 2010;Dohetry and Manfredi, 2009;Boyatiz, 2008;Oplatka, 2006;Spendlove, 2007;Young, 2002 andJamali et al., 2005), Corporate sector (Altintas, 2010;Hansson, 2011 andKirkwood, 2009), banking (Hunjra et al., 2010 andRiaz, 2012) and health (Viitanen and Konu, 2009;Cubilo andBrown, 2003 andHopkins andBilimoria, 2006). Women differs in their behaviours and styles but the presence of women at senior position is quite few (Callahan et al., 2005;Chow, 2005 andJogulu andWood, 2006). ...
The prime condition for a successful business enterprise is survival. This requires strength or capacity to resist
strain. Finance is that powerful instrument which mobilises the industrial activity, develop the product and makes the
man and machine to work efficiently. Non availability of sufficient fund at the time of its requirement is symbolised
as solvency of the enterprise. Long-term solvency is the proportion of long-term debts in comparison of total
assets and shareholder’s funds. The purpose of long-term solvency is to identify the claims of long-term debt
on the total assets of the firm and also determines the ratio between shareholders’ funds and long term loans.
The present study analyse five different solvency ratios to present a clear picture of overall financial strength
of the concerns. The sample in this study has been taken of public and private airline companies. For the
purpose of testing hypothesis t- test was applied. It was concluded that the long term solvency of the private
airline companies is better than that of public airline company, Air India Ltd. It is suggested to public airline
company to improve the debt-equity ratio by reducing the borrowed capital and issuing further equity capital in
public to reduce cost of capital.
Keywords: Long Term Solvency, Financial Strength
... It is sometimes difficult to determine which line of study has more validity. While some contend that men and women display no leadership differences (Andersen & Hansson, 2011;Cliff, 2005;Gilbert, Burnett, Phau, I., & Haar, 2010;Hyde, 2014;Vecchio, 2002), others argue that male and female leaders have different types of social interactions and consequently differ in terms of the leadership behaviour (Ayman & Korabik, 2010;Eagly & Johnson, 1990;Grant, 1988;Tourigny, Han, & Baba, 2017). Still, there are some others, based on contingency leadership (Fiedler, 1967), who assert that gender differences in leadership style are due to status, power, and other contextual factors associated with gender, and males and females lead in similar ways when put in leadership positions in similar situations (Klenke, 1993;Powell, 1999). ...
The purposes of this mixed sequential-explanatory study were: (a) to investigate the leadership behaviour difference between male and female graduate students in terms of task and relationship orientations and (b) to explore the reasons why they demonstrate these differences. There were quantitative and qualitative phases. In the quantitative phase, we collected data from 37 graduate students who enrolled in a leadership course. Due to small sample size, a non-parametric test was utilized to analyse the quantitative data. We surprisingly found that: (a) there is no difference between male and female students in terms of leadership behaviours and (b) graduate students tend to be more likely to adopt relationship orientation in their leadership positions. In the qualitative phase, we extracted three main themes: (a) similar leadership orientations between male and female students; (b) situation-dependent leadership; and (d) shift toward balanced behaviour. These themes supported and complemented the findings in the quantitative stage.
... Taking one step further, liberal feminists (e.g., Aarum Andersen & Hansson, 2011;Eagly & Karau, 2002;Sultana, 2012;Tong, 2009) argued for the empowerment of women in order that women could liberate themselves from patriarchal social systems wherein they are stereotyped as 'less capable than men physically and intellectually' (Tong, 2009, p. 2). Scholars working within a liberal feminist framework posited that fairness, equality and liberty should be given to women in order that they could gain more voice and influence that they could find allies (Sensoy & Diangelo, 2009) and fight against women's oppression as well as the prejudice that men are born to dominate in leadership. ...
Gender disparity in higher education (HE) leadership is a global issue that has attracted numerous studies. However, not much is known about the perceptions and expectations of the subordinates who have experience working with female leaders. This study, conceptualized within the social justice and liberal feminist theories, explores gender distribution in HE leadership in Vietnam, subordinates’ perceptions of women’s leadership, their expectations from female leaders and the extent to which female leaders are in demand. The research highlights an increasingly positive view about women’s leadership but also indicates acceptance of women leaders does not necessarily mean women leaders have equal opportunities to be selected compared with men. There exist an unconscious preference toward male leaders and possibly a problem with women leaders’ legitimacy, which may lead to a future picture of gender distribution in HE leadership with the shape being less and less skewed but never reaching balance. This gender disparity in leadership positions raises the need for appropriate actions to be taken or else the concepts of gender equality and social justice in the domain of HE leadership remain controversial.
... In contradiction to the Appelbaum, Audet, and Joanne's findings, multiple studies have claimed no significant differences in leadership styles among leaders based on gender. Andersen and Hansson (2011) [2] conducted a study to determine if there were significant differences in leadership behaviors based on gender among public office managers. They specifically examined the impact of decision-making styles and motivation profiles of these public office managers. ...
The purpose of the study was to examine differences in leadership styles among hospital supervisors based on their demographic characteristics of age, gender, educational level, and years of experience. A total of (N = 240) randomly selected supervisors, ages 20-70 years, from four randomly selected hospitals in the southern region of the United States voluntarily participated in the study. Hersey's perspective of Situational Leadership® was used as a conceptual framework for this study. The Leadership Effectiveness Adaptability Descriptor (LEAD) was used to collect data on leadership styles, while demographic data was collected using demographic survey designed by the researcher. The results of the one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) failed to reveal any significant differences in leadership styles among supervisors based on demographic characteristics of age, gender, educational level, and experience in years.
... A study by Andersen and Hansson (2011) explored behavioral differences between women and men in managerial positions. To eliminate any effects of organizational differences on motivation-based behavior, the study included only public managers responding to the instrument. ...
To promote leadership research on managers’ motivation, a measurement (Andersen Motivation Profile Indicator [AMPI]) has been developed and tested that (a) measures achievement, affiliation, and power motivation; (b) measures the relative strengths of these factors; (c) rests explicitly on the definitions of McClelland; and (d) measures managers’ work motivation. The questionnaire has been tested for reliability and validity with responses from 580 managers. The application of the instrument in four studies with responses from 565 managers in other organizations supported McClelland’s theoretical claims: (a) managers have motivation profiles, (b) there are differences in motivation profiles between managers across organizational types, (c) there are no significant differences in motivation profiles between female and male managers, and (d) managers who are predominantly power motivated enhance organizational effectiveness. Arguably, the application of the instrument may be an indicator of its quality. The instrument facilitates leadership research on the relationship between managers’ motivation profiles and organizational specifics, gender, sociocultural factors, and organizational outcomes.
... Two substantial approaches to manifestation of gender differences in leadership have been prevailed in the recent years' studies. The first approach alleges the absence of gender differences in leadership, i.e. male and female leaders should be viewed equally (Brinia, 2011;Andersen, Hansson, 2010). The second approach declares the existence of differences of male and female leadership, and the necessity to approach each gender's leadership differently (Powell, 2012;Arnold, Loughlin, 2013). ...
The constructs perceived by many people in a traditional way underwent a transformation at the end of the 20th century and the beginning of the 21st century. This gave rise to new aspects of the matters that were being researched for a long time. The necessity to adapt to the constant changes in the modern day world reflect a significant turning point and fundamental shifts of the social role of females as well as the concept of woman as a leader. The underlying transformation processes also progress in terms of the concept of the phenomenon of leadership by accentuating the ever broader access to leadership expression. The focus on the need of leadership competency on the level of individual experience in relation to female leadership allows formulating the scientific problem: to determine the changes of which constituents of leadership competency are crucial for the transformation of female leadership in terms of long-term individual career. The theoretical analysis allowed identifying the fundamental trends of female leadership research. The empirical basis of this article is constituted of the results of the longitudinal study carried out in the years 2010 and 2012. DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5755/j01.em.19.1.5732
... Though the issue is controversial, it is possible that women who gain power are more like men or become more like them (e.g., Oshagbemi and Gill, 2003;Andersen and Hansson, 2011), which would mean having more autistic traits than other women (cf. Baron-Cohen, 2003). ...
Autistic traits can help people gain and sustain power, and has probably done so throughout history, says the present paper. A number of testable claims follow from this assumption. First, the powerful should have more autistic traits than others – which they do appear to have. Among other things, powerful people, and those with many autistic traits, tend to prefer solitary activities and are often aloof. Moreover, they are often rigid and socially insensitive, low on empathy and with low scores on the trait of agreeableness – and as a rule they do not have many friends. Both groups are also more self-centered than others, more honest, less submissive, more sensitive to slights, and with a stronger tendency to engage in abstract thinking. They tend to behave in bossy or dominant ways, and their moral judgment is more based on rules than on feelings. In addition to experimental evidence, I cite biographies showing that a surprising number of presidents, prime ministers and other powerful people seem to have had traits like those in question – and interestingly, in animals, leaders are often rigid and insensitive to group members’ needs and feelings, mostly acting the way they are themselves inclined to, not responding much to others. Problem solving is important in leadership, and people with many autistic traits appear often to be better thinkers than typical subjects with similar IQs. However, these and other congruities could be coincidences. Hence the question of whether traits the two groups have in common also have a common cause constitutes a strong test of the paper’s thesis – and a common cause does appear to exist, in the form of testosterone’s effects on the central nervous system. Finally, there is evidence that, other things equal, powerful men have more reproductive success than others. If men wielding power do indeed have more autistic traits than those less powerful, this will lead to, other things equal, such traits becoming more common – which can help explain the prevalence of autistic traits.
... Two important approaches for demonstration of gender diversity have prevailed in leadership literature in recent years. The first approach views the leadership style of male and female leaders as similar (Andersen and Hansson, 2010;Brinia, 2011). The second is the acceptance of the differences of leadership styles in male and female, and the necessity to model the differences independently (Powell, 2012;Arnold and Loughlin, 2013). ...
Women leadership has gathered momentum and is gaining acceptance. Women
are equally competent in performing their roles and responsibilities as men. However, in
the field of Supply Chain Management (SCM), the incidence of women leadership is relatively
low. This conceptual paper attempts to address this inconsistency. The paper outlines the
evolution of SCM and the challenges of Supply Chain (SC) leaders; particularly, how women
as SC leaders can tackle challenges and enhance the overall performance of the Supply
Chain. A conceptual model for women leadership in SCM has been proposed and the direction
for future research has been laid out.
... Thus, because of preliminary ideas about gender, behaviors of men and women in management positions must be interpreted differently. Gender influence usually considered in the context of leadership (Trinidad & Normore, 2005;Andersen & Hansson, 2010;Brinia, 2011;Powell, 2012;Arnold, Loughlin, 2013) and gender-related behavior to person-organizational fit and career decisions (Young & Hurlic, 2007). Thus, even though scientific discussions have presumed different approaches to the expression of gender in leadership over the recent years, studies most frequently focus on the search for common and different characteristics of male and female leaders, while more profound research in the expression of spiritual intelligence in the context of gender is missing. ...
The paper is built on the analysis and synthesis of scientific literature with the aim to reveal the peculiarities of gendered leadership and spiritual intelligence in a context of the service quality of organization. The theoretical interaction model of leader‘s spiritual intelligence and the service quality of organization (Šilingienė, Škėrienė, 2014) was used as a framework for empirical research. A quantitative research by using a questionnaire-based survey was carried out with the aim to determine empirically the impact of gender for leaders’ spiritual intelligence in a context of the service quality of organization. The main results identified some statistically significant difference. Men were found to score more highly than women did. Demographics other than gender (age, education, management experience) emerge as more significant influences (both women's and men's correlation coefficients were above 0.8) on the leaders’ spiritual intelligence based attitudes, values and behaviors, and present detailed explanation of the identified links.
Kohlberg’s moral development theory focuses on the thinking process that occurs when one makes a moral decision. Kohlberg had identified three stages of moral development: Pre-conventional, Conventional, and post-conventional. Moral reasoning, as perceived to be a factor in the decision-making, is a rational act guided by moral principles. It is a subjective evaluation related to practical reasoning, where one justifies the idea based on how a person views various thing. Moreover, decisions rely on reasoning; moral reasoning is related to making a congruent decision when a person creates preference takes more courage in deciding whom to elect during elections. Voting preferences can be affected by certain factors such as peer influence, media influence, family influence, and church/religious community. Political leader preference is described as a judgment based on evaluations and observations through interaction with political content. It may also refer to a political or philosophical opinion on an individual pertained to be a candidate for leadership. Like the Senior High School (SHS) students, some new voters are easily swayed by some politicians. The purpose of this study is to determine the level of moral reasoning and the degree of preference for a political leader of SHS students when grouped according to sex, family monthly income, age, and church ministry involvement. Specifically, it also compares the degree of preference for political leaders when grouped according to variables and correlates moral reasoning and preference for political leaders. Likewise, it explores other factors that influence the political leaders’ preference.
The purpose of the study was to compare the leadership performance and leadership style of male and female principals in Addis Ababa governmental primary schools. A QUAN-qual research approach with a causal-comparative design was employed. 29 schools led by male principals and 29 schools led by female principals were randomly selected. From these schools, 919 teachers and 113 vice-principals were randomly selected to rate-their principals’ leadership performance and leadership style. Besides, 5 Woreda Education Office Heads were purposely selected as key informants. Both descriptive and inferential statistics were employed for data analysis. The study revealed that female principals significantly show superior performance than their male counterparts in four of the five major tasks of principals. No statistically significant difference was observed between the leadership styles that male and female principals dominantly used. However, the democratic leadership style was the most commonly used leadership style by principals.
This chapter addresses the issues of gender and its relationship to leadership for health professionals and how different generational groups may or may not influence leadership. It considers the potential causes of gender differences and the barriers women may face in reaching their leadership potential, offering recommendations to help women overcome the challenges. The chapter focuses on the issue of generational differences and considers whether such differences affect how health service leaders lead or manage. Gender inequality remains evident in leadership roles worldwide. There is considerable agreement that women face more barriers to becoming leaders and more pressure from their roles than men do, especially for leadership roles in male‐dominated professions or industries. Women are becoming more prominent in senior leadership and middle management positions in a range of organisations. COVID‐19 will also impact upon their formative years through home education and disruptions to face‐to‐face personal connections.
In most organisations, women are underrepresented in top positions. Many aspects of Women’s Leadership are studied in the literature for underrepresentation of women leaders. This study aims to analyse and consolidate the insights about those aspects of Women’s Leadership, which gives them a stable and secure position in the organisation, beyond the unseen walls of gender discrimination. These aspects are barriers, enablers, strengths and weaknesses of Women’s Leadership. The research method used for the study is a systematic literature review method. Peer-reviewed, scholarly journal articles and book references between 1990 and 2021 identified from the Scopus and Web of Sciences databases are considered for the study. The result showed much uniformity in the ‘Women’s Leadership’ phenomenon, globally. This research found that Women’s Leadership studies are mostly conducted in areas such as social sciences, business and management, medicine, education, etc. It also found that most women-leadership-related studies are conducted in developed countries where the percentage of women leaders is comparatively higher than in other industries. Still, women leaders in both developed and developing countries face similar barriers during their careers. The gender gap and the glass ceiling they have to break are some of the issues experienced by women in any organisation. Organisational bias, lack of assertiveness and poor networking also pose barriers to Women’s Leadership. Yet, there are some enablers for Women’s Leadership, such as mentoring, good training programmes and workplace culture. However, maintaining a work–life balance, working under pressure and excluding informal communication are considered as limitations for Women’s Leadership. Strengths, such as high emotional intelligence, empathy, democratic leadership style, sincerity and ability to make decisions under critical circumstances benefit the organisation. This study will help to get an integrated and consolidated theoretical review of different aspects of Women’s Leadership in the organisation. Moreover, the study can help to implement various organisational policies to increase the percentage of women in leadership roles.
This study explored first-line managers’ leadership behavior profiles regarding their goals for utilizing the garden at residential care facilities for older people. Semi-structured interviews were conducted with a convenience sample of first-line managers (n = 12) in Sweden. Data were analyzed using deductive content analysis theoretically guided by the Three-dimensional Leadership Model. The results showed that the main leadership behavior profiles were related to the dimensions structure, relation and change. The managers emphasized workplace regulations and goals. They allowed staff to make decisions and encouraged them to see problems and opportunities.
Purpose
This paper aims to introduce an identity fit perspective adding to the understanding of the Nordic gender equality paradox of top managing positions using a Danish sample as case.
Design/methodology/approach
In total, five hypotheses concerning identity perception of top managing positions and the relationship with own identity and type of industry were tested through a correlational research design utilizing a cross-sectional survey methodology. A total of 1,054 women aged 18–60 participated in the survey.
Findings
The analysis revealed a strong masculine perception of a top managing position whereas women's own identity perception was much more diverse. The more masculine a woman perceives herself to be, the more motivated she is to climb the career ladder. Type of industry moderates the relationship between identity fit and motivation for top positions, but only for the masculine traits. The relationship between identity fit and motivation is stronger for women in high masculine industries.
Originality/value
Apart from being the first study of identity fit in a Nordic setting, this study contributes to the identity fit theory by employing a semi-objective fit approach exploring identity fit on an industry level, including female-dominated industries, as well as examining identity fit in relation to motivation to pursue a top managing position.
http://deepblue.lib.umich.edu/bitstream/2027.42/112156/1/shiraymo.pdf
The study is on Gender and effective leadership differences. This qualitative study initiated discussions on gender and effective leadership differences, causes and reasons based on the available data which shows that women are underrepresented in both managerial and political positions. The study found out that the relationship between leadership styles and gender roles could be demonstrated as masculinity with task-oriented and femininity with people-oriented. Though a number of researches have been carried out in this area, the question of whether there is a leadership style that distinguishes female leaders from male leaders is yet to be answered. In this context, this study attempts to review and analyze past literature on gender and leadership differences, causes and reasons of such difference in relation to leadership, and to examine gender imbalance, stereotypes and further examine, under what circumstances do men and women differ.
Some leadership behaviors are more frequently applied by women than men in the management of teams. These attributes have been proven successful in enhancing corporate performance and will be a key factor in meeting tomorrow's business challenges. Talent is unevenly distributed in diversified work environments and promoting women and gender leadership variety is of strategic importance in companies. Results from a recent study show an unprecedented amount of CEO turnover in 2015 and a growing tendency to look for new leadership outside the company. Nearly a quarter of the world companies replaced their CEOs during the same year and it is the highest turnover for the past two decades. Those new top executives were increasingly hired from elsewhere even during planned leadership changes. The data indicates that fewer women are the incoming list of top executives indicating that some of the old habits still linger in 21st century organizations. The organization development of effective capability deduces new viewpoints to advance the best talent for all time.
The study is on Gender and effective leadership differences. This qualitative study initiated discussions on gender and effective leadership differences, causes and reasons based on the available data which shows that women are underrepresented in both managerial and political positions. The study found out that the relationship between leadership styles and gender roles could be demonstrated as masculinity with task-oriented and femininity with people-oriented. Though a number of researches has been carried out in this area, the question of whether there is a leadership style that distinguishes female leaders from male leaders is yet to be answered. In this context, this study attempts to review and analyze past literatures on gender and leadership differences, causes and reasons of such difference in relation to the leadership, and to examine gender imbalance, stereotypes and further examine, under what circumstances do men and women differ.
The study is on Gender and effective leadership differences. This qualitative study initiated discussions on gender and effective leadership differences, causes and reasons based on the available data which shows that women are underrepresented in both managerial and political positions. The study found out that the relationship between leadership styles and gender roles could be demonstrated as masculinity with task-oriented and femininity with people-oriented. Though a number of researches has been carried out in this area, the question of whether there is a leadership style that distinguishes female leaders from male leaders is yet to be answered. In this context, this study attempts to review and analyze past literatures on gender and leadership differences, causes and reasons of such difference in relation to the leadership, and to examine gender imbalance, stereotypes and further examine, under what circumstances do men and women differ.
Purpose
The study's purpose is to present and empirically test a model that identifies academic self-concept as a mediator of the relationship between gender, sexual orientation and self-perceptions of leadership ability.
Design/methodology/approach
Surveys were administered to 964 first-year undergraduate students.
Findings
Academic self-concept mediated the relationship between gender and leadership for all subjects and for self-reported heterosexual subjects but not for self-reported nonheterosexual subjects.
Research limitations/implications
Gender differences in leadership perceptions still exist and appear as early as the college years. The fact that academic self-concept did not mediate the relationship between gender and self-perceptions of leadership for nonheterosexual students might be explained by considering research that has identified different levels of gender conformity between straight and gay individuals.
Practical implications
Student self-perceptions of leadership could be improved if opportunities were provided for students showing that people other than White, male, heterosexuals can also be effective leaders. When women and underrepresented groups attain leadership positions in the workplace, it attracts others because it sends a message that this organization welcomes women and underrepresented groups in positions of leadership.
Originality/value
This study addresses a gap in the field by using the social identity theory of leadership to integrate conflicting research streams in the existing literature and by proposing that academic self-concept underlies the relationship between gender, sexual orientation and self-perceptions of leadership. The study responds to Bark et al. 's (2016) call for future research to consider how highly prototypical individuals have a key advantage in people's perceptions of their leadership.
This book addresses current and aspiring leaders from across the spectrum of organizational types and functional units and encompasses formal as well as informal leadership at all individual, team, unit, and global levels. Chapter one presents an historical overview of leadership and management theory development, outlining the professional and academic framework within which current narratives have evolved. The authors locate leaders as engaged in a complex journey traversing a challenging and rapidly-evolving terrain within a theatre of action that is undergoing a period of global crisis. The reader is introduced to the definitions and debates about leadership and management boundaries, differences, and overlapping responsibilities. Drawing on both theory and practice, current issues and topics are covered in depth.
p>This article focuses on the leadership style, role, and construction of West Papuan women's leadership in politics and education.This research applied case study method.The results show that West Papuan women have several roles in empowering society in different ways.This is indicated by the large number of women in West Papua occupying important positions in the government in West Papua.In addition, education field shows that West Papuan women made many breakthroughs and led several educational institutions in West Papua.In fact, it can be concluded that the role of West Papuan women, both in politics and in education,is not a complement of men, but partners of men in leading and building West Papua.</p
Sowohl in Deutschland als auch weltweit sind weiterhin relativ wenige Frauen in Führungspositionen tätig. Diese wenigen weiblichen Führungskräfte weichen in ihrem Verhalten kaum von ihren männlichen Kollegen ab. Das resultiert aus Prozessen, die eng mit geschlechtsbezogener Voreingenommenheit in Verbindung stehen. Weibliche Führungskräfte werden weniger wahrscheinlich eingestellt, schlechter in ihrer Leistung beurteilt und weniger gemocht als männliche Führungskräfte. Eine Gegenstrategie ist das Verleugnen der eigenen Weiblichkeit und die Anpassung an die männlichen Verhaltensweisen, die noch die Führungskulturen vieler Unternehmen bestimmen. Dies führt jedoch dazu, dass die männlichen Führungskulturen bestehen bleiben. Nur eine Veränderung der Unternehmens- und Führungskulturen kann nachhaltig eine Steigerung des Frauenanteils in Führungspositionen bewirken.
The phenomenon of gender leadership is a controversial object in contemporary leadership studies. These days, the possibilities of traditional leadership have been limited by the ongoing dynamic, global changes, which have influenced the emergence of female leadership as an independent phenomenon and its separation from the male leadership. Presently, possibilities exist to form new insights about gender leadership. Scholars have begun an intense scientific discussion on the advantages and disadvantages of male and female leadership. The goal of this paper is to disclose the social and emotional leadership competencies of different gender employees. The employed research methods are as follows: an analysis and synthesis of scientific literature with the aim of revealing the peculiarities of gender leadership and defining leadership as a set of social and emotional competencies; quantitative research conducted using a questionnaire-based survey with the aim of empirically determining the manifestation of social and emotional leadership competencies in terms of gender leadership. The theoretical analysis allows us to identify the fundamental trends of gender leadership research. The empirical basis of this article comprises the results of empirical research carried out in 2018. The paper includes an abstract of the theoretical research of gender leadership and the social and emotional leadership competencies based on the research methodology and the results received. According to the results of the empirical research, it is possible to find matching assessments of social and emotional leadership competencies in men and women; certain significant differences exist as well. These results revealed which of the advantages possessed by female leaders tend to lie in their soft management skills: interaction, trust, as well as relationships and skills in working with people.
Purpose
The purpose of this paper is to develop a competency framework that incorporates the key leadership competencies required of female leaders working in male-dominated industries by putting particular emphasis on the male leaders’ point of view.
Design/methodology/approach
This qualitative research combines a thorough literature review on important leadership competencies with ten in-depth, semi-structured interviews with male leaders from the Telecommunication and ICT industry, two typically male-dominated industries in Germany. All the interviews were transcribed and analysed through qualitative content analysis based on Mayring.
Findings
Findings revealed that success of female leaders within male dominances is shaped by not only their exceptional professional expertise but also the complex mix of behaviours on a professional and interpersonal level.
Practical implications
This study contributes to the academic debate on why only a few women reach the top of organisations in male-dominated industries by considering the perspective of male leaders. A competency model is proposed that incorporates both professional competencies and expected behaviours on a personal and interpersonal level and therefore enables leadership professionals to better understand the male leaders point of view on the complex mix of competencies expected from female leaders operating in male-dominated industries.
Originality/value
The need for more women in leadership has become a global business imperative, yet little is known about the competencies required to succeed in environments shaped by male leadership styles and the understanding that women are less capable leaders. Assessing the point of view of male leaders, who dominate these working environments, provides new and valuable insights into the complex issue of women in leadership for the academic debate and the practitioners’ point of view.
Given the intrinsic nature of leadership and the challenges thereto, it becomes pertinent to have all stakeholders on board; and that includes women. However, to expect women to partake within the conventional leadership terrain is to make their leadership life rather complex. This is because the conventional leadership system is so manly, aggressive, and rough generally with little consideration of diversities and realities abound. The law of the jungle applies as survival is for the fittest only. It thus becomes imperative to develop a leadership model suited to a woman in order to aid women in leadership. Such a leadership model, however, cannot rise out of the blue. It goes through an organized and effective educational/training process both at the grassroot in communities and lower educational levels. This formed the basis of this paper: indeed, the need to propose an educational or training programme to develop a leadership model premised on women values and etiquettes. The proposed model brings out the key aspects of leadership, presents the conventional setting, and engages an infusion of women’s perspective to each in order to garner an ideal conceptual view of women leadership. This is not only critical but a sacred point of departure in the process of leadership transformation.
In an age of globalization, increased importance is given to the study of public leadership. Present-day leadership cannot afford to limit its actions within the limits of the sovereign territory of one nation. Modern leaders need to think globally in terms of any public policy, which is interconnected with the world at large. The tasks of public leadership have become complicated through the involvement of formal and informal actors, both domestic and international. In a globalized world, leaders find themselves limited by international financial organizations. Even within the country, the leaders find themselves limited by the civil society from different countries but united in a mission. Furthermore, the issues are complex and the solutions require actions which are conditioned by factors beyond their control. Despite the constraints, the leaders are crucial for the overall welfare of countries. Khan analyzes various leadership theories and the challenges of organization culture, crises, ethics, bureaucratic politics and contracting.
Bahrain is a Muslim Arab tribal society, where women play a significant role in the countries’ development, and the number of female business leaders is increasing rapidly. Understanding the circumstances that brought these women to the forefront of business in their country will lead to constructing a better business environment for women in the future. The aim of this study is to explore these women in terms of: the secret behind their successes, their beliefs, and motivation towards leadership. The study tries to identify the “gap” in the scholarly literature on Bahraini women in business, and to provide in-depth data on female leaders in the region.The study employs the inductive approach, using an in-depth qualitative open-ended interview, developed and based on the contingency leadership theory. And the Weber framework of authority.The results indicate that the main factors contributing to the success of women leaders are social status, cultural, gender, struggle, and difficulties from women leaders’ point of view. This is a pilot study for further in-depth quantitative research in Bahrain and the GCC countries. This study is made up of eight samples. It is anticipated that future comparative research will be extended to a further quantitative study to cover a wider sample of Bahrain and GCC countries.The paper is considered as one of the first to discuss the factors affecting the success of businesswomen in Bahrain, rather than the factors that empower them.
Some leadership behaviors are more frequently applied by women than men in the management of teams. These attributes have been proven successful in enhancing corporate performance and will be a key factor in meeting tomorrow's business challenges. Talent is unevenly distributed in diversified work environments and promoting women and gender leadership variety is of strategic importance in companies. Results from a recent study show an unprecedented amount of CEO turnover in 2015 and a growing tendency to look for new leadership outside the company. Nearly a quarter of the world companies replaced their CEOs during the same year and it is the highest turnover for the past two decades. Those new top executives were increasingly hired from elsewhere even during planned leadership changes. The data indicates that fewer women are the incoming list of top executives indicating that some of the old habits still linger in 21st century organizations. The organization development of effective capability deduces new viewpoints to advance the best talent for all time.
This chapter addresses the issues of gender and its relationship to leadership for health professionals, as well as how different generational groups may or may not influence leadership. It begins by asking whether there is a difference between the leadership styles of men and women. The chapter also considers the potential causes of gender differences and the barriers that women may face in reaching their leadership potential, offering a number of recommendations to help women overcome the challenges. All leaders are different and use different styles or approaches at different times depending on the situation, socialisation approach, relationships they have with their followers and their degree of power. Gender is one factor in establishing these differences, although it need not be a barrier to successful leadership in the health service. The chapter concludes by exploring what can be done to address the impact of generational differences.
Unless contemporary leadership adopts a holistic approach, there is not much that it can contribute towards sustainable development because, as known, sustainable development requires knowledge from various disciplines, such as sociology, management, economics, technology development, environment, communication, religion, and health. These interrelationships and inter-dependencies of various disciplines to promote sustainable development are indispensable. Thus sustainable development requires science and research-based education as it hinges on investigation into the current state of development in the world, and human activities related to the same.
The current literature points to the importance of global mindset for success in global roles. In this study, we examine gender differences in global leadership self-efficacies in a random sample of 1187 managers from 74 countries. Using the global mindset inventory, we found that women demonstrated stronger global leadership profiles in regard to passion for diversity, intercultural empathy, and diplomacy. Conversely, men tend to show strong global leadership self-efficacies regarding global business savvy, cosmopolitan outlook, and interpersonal impact. We discuss the implications of our findings for shared leadership in global contexts and offer a series of suggestions regarding future directions for research.
abstract:
This exploratory study examined the rates of transformational, transactional, and laissez-faire leadership among academic library deans, directors, and university librarians to see if any differences in leadership styles existed by gender, age and experience of the leaders, and type of institution in which they worked. The study found no differences between male and female leaders, but women were more likely to use idealized attributes and inspirational motivation, both skills of transformational leaders. The study found no difference in leadership styles by type of institution but did find a strong correlation between the number of years of administrative experience and the use of transactional leadership.
The Swedish schools have been under pressure for change for several decades. How leaders behave can be of vital importance in times of change. The principal is responsible for both the educational program and for the school budget. Two hundred Swedish principals (male and female) responded to questionnaires concerning their leadership style, decisionmaking style and motivation profile. The results show that 49% of the principals have a change centered leadership style, 38% were primarily intuitive when making decisions, and 44% were achievement motivated. No significant gender differences were found. The results indicate that many principals have fair prospects of leading their schools successfully in times of change. Copyright 2007 by the INTERNATIONAL ELECTRONIC JOURNAL FOR LEADERSHIP IN LEARNING.
Leadership philosophy is explored through gender and other demographic characteristics in the Australian Public Service (APS), at the federal government level. Leadership philosophy is conceptualised as the leader’s attitudes, values and behaviour. Gender differences in characteristics of leaders (executives and middle managers) are examined in terms of strategic behaviour, management style, work-related values, adoption of information technology, perceived organisational morale, family/work conflict and personal, work and family satisfaction. The gender differences are investigated using questionnaire responses from a sample of 750 respondents, of which 569 were male and 145 female. The APS findings are compared with a Cranfield study conducted in the UK’s National Health Service (NHS), where gender differences are explored in terms of management and strategic orientation. A sample of 515 chief executives, medical, clinical, HR and financial directors, chairpersons and other non-executive directors, consists of 406 male and 108 female respondents. The APS study reveals that there are no significant gender differences in the majority of measured characteristics. Similarly in the NHS Trusts study, no significant gender differences are found in terms of management and strategic orientation. The conclusion reached is that other demographic characteristics are influential in forming leadership philosophies, namely job and organisational tenure and experience of senior management responsibilities, thus highlighting the importance of organisational demographics and their impact on leadership attitudes and practice.
The growing impact of women in the workforce has kept the leadership style of women on the research agenda. Reviews some of the current thinking on women and leadership, drawing on general and educational management literature. Particular attention is paid to management in education because of: the continued pressure on the higher educational sector generally to be publicly accountable that indicates a specific need for effective leadership; the fact that at the school level, leadership is a central theme in the literature on organizational improvement and educational reform; and education is a field numerically dominated by women, yet despite some evidence of a growing willingness of women to take up leadership positions in the field, educational leadership is still a male preserve. Concludes with a synopsis of some of the factors that may account for differences in leadership style.
Do men and women have a different or a similar approach to the leadership role? Various leadership styles and behaviour of managers have been researched in several countries to identify similarities and differences between men and women leaders. The present study examines the leadership style and behaviour of UK managers, using a questionnaire method in gathering data. The study found that women managers delegate less than their men counterparts, but there are no statistical differences between their directive, consultative and participative leadership styles. The study also found that, in leadership behaviour, men and women leaders differ significantly only in inspirational motivation but not in the other six aspects of leadership behaviour. The article explores the implications of these results.
Purpose
– The purpose of this paper is to review the extant literature on the ways women lead in organizations with a focus on the fields of business and education. A secondary purpose is to identify implications of the literature for leadership and gender issues in the worlds of business and education.
Design/methodology/approach
– A review of the extant literature was conducted to collect data through professional and academic journals of business and education, pertinent web sites, and textbooks. Once these data were collected, they were placed in categories according to common themes and patterns that emerged from the literature on the leadership styles of women in business and education.
Findings
– Research findings show that women adopt democratic and participative leadership styles in the corporate world and in education. Transformational leadership is the preferred leadership style used by women. The characteristics of transformational leadership relate to female values developed through socialization processes that include building relationships, communication, consensus building, power as influence, and working together for a common purpose.
Originality/value
– This paper provides a theoretical perspective on women's leadership behaviours as an approach to equity in organizations by capitalizing on female contributions to organizations and the importance of those contributions in an increasingly diverse workforce world‐wide. Women leadership styles are presented as alternatives to traditional leadership models.
This article reviews the mainstream leadership literature and its perennial debates and compares it to the public-sector (administrative) leadership literature. The mainstream leadership literature fully articulated the transformational models in the 1980s and began the serious work of integrating transactional and transformational types of leadership into comprehensive models in the 1990s. Many have considered this to be a major advance over the field's previous fragmentation and excessively narrow focus. This integration has not been reflected in the public-sector literature, in which the normative debates about what leaders should do has received most of the attention in the last decade. Although many types of leadership in the public sector have been discussed extensively, such as leadership by those in policy positions and working in community settings, administrative leadership within organizations has received scant attention and would benefit from a research agenda linking explicit and well-articulated models with concrete data in public-sector settings.
The existence of a change-centred leadership style as hypothesized by Ekvall and Arvonen has been scrutinized in a sample consisting of four organizations, described to reflect each of the four ideal cultures proposed by Quinn and his colleagues. Exploratory factor analyses yielded substantial support for a distinct change-centred dimension. Significant positive correlations were found in the sample as a whole between a change-centred leadership style and job satisfaction, organizational commitment and evaluations of the leader's competence. However, the notion that such correlations would be strongest in the developmental culture was confirmed only in the case of organizational commitment. Differences in sampling procedures may explain some of the differences between the present study and other studies.
Research comparing the leadership styles of women and men is reviewed, and evidence is found for both the presence and the absence of differences between the sexes. In contrast to the gender-stereotypic expectation that women lead in an interpersonally oriented style and men in a task-oriented style, female and male leaders did not differ in these two styles in organizational studies. However, these aspects of leadership style were somewhat gender stereotypic in the two other classes of leadership studies investigated, namely (a) laboratory experiments and (b) assessment studies, which were defined as research that assessed the leadership styles of people not selected for occupancy of leadership roles. Consistent with stereotypic expectations about a different aspect of leadership style, the tendency to lead democratically or autocratically, women tended to adopt a more democratic or participative style and a less autocratic or directive style than did men. This sex difference appeared in all three classes of leadership studies, including those conducted in organizations. These and other findings are interpreted in terms of a social role theory of sex differences in social behavior.
The Church of Sweden (Lutheran) was disestablished on January 1, 2000. The new situation in the Church clearly calls for organizational change. Using well-known test instruments, 240 Swedish vicars were asked about their leadership style, decision-making style, motivation profile and perceived operational demands. The questionnaires were related to a model of leadership strength for initiating and implementing organizational change. The results indicate that most vicars have a relationship-oriented leadership style. Most are feeling types in their decision-making style. Almost 60% were affiliation motivated. Almost 80% perceived relational operational demands to be most important. It is assumed that managers who have a change-centered leadership style, who are intuitive in decision-making style, power motivated and see urgent demands for change and development, will have an optimal capacity for implementing major changes in their organizations. This means that only 1% of the vicars seem to have a propensity for change at a time when many think that change is crucial for the Church.
The possibilities for Church of Sweden vicars to manage their parishes in change were explored in 2000. The results indicated that vicars had a low capacity for initiating and implementing organizational change. The aim of this investigation is to assess whether vicars have a managerial style that differ from other groups of civil servants. Using tested instruments, 240 Swedish vicars (response rate 64%), 300 school principals (66%) and 64 social insurance officers (95%) were asked about their leadership style, decision-making style, motivation profile and perceived operational demands. The vicars stand out as a special group of managers with a strong relationshiporientation.
Headmasters and social officers are similar to each other in behaviour. The results are explained by that pastoral work is founded on relations, the pastoral training of the vicars and the
«weight of history». A contributory cause may be that many priests are perceived as having a «helping approach» to leadership.
The relationship between race role stereotypes and requisite management characteristics was studied. A group of 232 graduating MBA students completed the Schein Descriptive Index (Schein, 1973). The group of "future managers" saw little difference between whites and Hispanics. They did perceive that Hispanic managers were different from Hispanics in general. While males saw no difference among the four groups studied, females perceived Hispanic managers significantly more similar to managers in general than did males. Implications for both aspiring Hispanic managers and organizations desiring diversity are discussed.
Public administration is a political institution. This article elaborates on this essential fact of politics and government and explores its implications for public management. It shows how this fact leads to the central problem of administration and management. It considers the normative demands this fact places on political leaders. Finally, the article calls for a conception of public management grounded in regime politics and considers the educational requirements and leadership standards that follow from it.
A meta-analytic review of 17 studies examining sex differences in leadership indicates that male and female leaders exhibit equal amounts of initiating structure and consideration and have equally satisfied subordinates. Male leaders are rated as more effective than female leaders, but only in laboratory settings. A moratorium on research comparing male and female leaders on measures of initiating structure, consideration, subordinate satisfaction, and effectiveness is proposed.
Qualities that are culturally associated with females are appearing in descriptions of managerial work in the texts of contemporary writers, and these texts function as carriers of a feminine ethos to practicing managers. The article describes a mechanism-management writings-used to disseminate and legitimate a management idea. It examines the nature of the rhetoric used in management writings and the implication of authors' failure to label the idea by its name: feminization. This "feminization" is discussed from both women's voice and poststructuralist perspectives. Implications for management theorizing and future research are described.
In a field study in department stores it was investigated whether the gender-typing of the organizational context influences leadership behaviour of male and female managers. Shop assistants in masculine- to feminine-typed departments described their manager in terms of task-oriented, people-oriented, and transformational leadership styles. As predicted, no gender differences in leadership styles were found. The gender-typing of departments did not affect perceived leadership styles. Another contextual variable, the site of the department store, unexpectedly influenced leader behaviour.
Leadership scholars have theorized that leaders of an organization must have an appropriate “fit” with those they lead and with their environment. Yet, there is no empirical research to date that has explored this belief. We develop a theoretical model to determine the factors influencing the fit of a city manager, indicated by his or her tenure. We argue that six sets of explanations may help determine the fit of the city manager: the manager's leadership style, his or her personality type, the city manager's perception about fit, the perceptions of city councils, the demographics of the city managers, and the demographics of the cities where they work. Based on a rigorous nationwide study of city managers, the study shows that the fit of city managers is significantly influenced by two of the six sets of explanations. Implications for scholars, city managers, and practitioners are drawn from the study's analysis and findings.
The Church of Sweden (Lutheran) was disestablished on January 1, 2000. The new situation in the Church clearly calls for organizational change. Using well-known test instruments, 240 Swedish vicars were asked about their leadership style, decision-making style, motivation profile and perceived operational demands. The questionnaires were related to a model of leadership strength for initiating and implementing organizational change. The results indicate that most vicars have a relationship-oriented leadership style. Most are feeling types in their decision-making style. Almost 60% were affiliation motivated. Almost 80% perceived relational operational demands to be most important. It is assumed that managers who have a change-centered leadership style, who are intuitive in decision-making style, power motivated and see urgent demands for change and development, will have an optimal capacity for implementing major changes in their organizations. This means that only 1% of the vicars seem to have a propensity for change at a time when many think that change is crucial for the Church.
There has been a dramatic change in the "face" of management over the last two decades. That face is now female more than one-third of the time. What are the implications for the practice of management? Most of us are aware of traditional stereotypes about male-female differences, but how well do these stereotypes apply to the managerial ranks? Do male and female managers differ in their basic responses to work situations and their overall effectiveness (and if so, in what ways), or are they really quite similar? This article reviews the research evidence gathered on these questions since women managers were first noticed by researchers in the mid-1970s. The implications of this review are discussed, and contrasted with recommendations offered in recent articles by Jan Grant in Organizational Dynamics and Felice Schwartz in Harvard Business Review. The title of the article is styled after the title of Frederick Herzberg's classic 1968 Harvard Business Review article, "One More Time: How Do You Motivate Employees?" Herzberg addressed a question that had been addressed many times in the past but had never quite gone away. So does this article.
b>Purpose : The present paper is based on a cross-cultural exploration of middle managers in two diverse cultures and aims to focus on how the leadership styles of managerial women are perceived and evaluated. In particular, female and male peer evaluations of leadership effectiveness in Malaysia and Australia are to be explored.
Design/methodology/approach : Surveys from 324 middle managers from Malaysia and Australia were quantitatively analysed. The sample for the study was drawn from organisations in four industry types in both countries.
Findings : Findings suggest that evaluations of female managers' leadership styles in general, and within the respondent's own organisations, were strongly culture specific, especially in Malaysia. The results reflected the strongly held values, attitudes and beliefs of each country. While this is not unexpected, it does highlight a need to be cautious when interpreting Western research results and attempting to transplant those into other cultures. In Malaysia, female managers were not seen as effective in the leadership styles they adopted in their roles when compared to the Australian female managers' evaluations. Such an evaluation may have had little to do with an objective appraisal of the female managers' capability, but rather with a strongly held cultural belief about the appropriate role of women in society, and in organisations in particular.
Research limitations/implications : It is suggested that national culture manifests itself in the values, attitudes and behaviours of people. Cultural influences are therefore likely to impact on the way women and men behave in the workplace, particularly when roles of authority and power are evident, and the way in which that behaviour will be evaluated by others. Further research using different samples in different cultures are recommended. In addition, the influence of ethnicity, race or religion in plural countries such as Malaysia and Australia is also worthy of investigation.
Practical implications : This research suggests that values and attitudes are strongly culture-specific and therefore have the ability to influence evaluations at an organisational level. Such an awareness of cultural influences should guide appropriate human resource practices, particularly within a globalized environment.
Originality/value : The inclusion of a gender comparison in the data analysis in this paper is a significant attempt to add to the extant knowledge of the cross-cultural research. This is a unique contribution because of the omission of a gender perspective in the previous two seminal studies in culture literature (i.e. Hofstede and House et al.). In addition, the findings suggest that culture-specific influences are important determinants that impose expectations on the role of women differently from men in society and within organisations hence, making the gender comparison of the findings more significant. <br /
Do managers have the creative and innovative ability needed for their organisations to survive in an increasingly competitive environment? A study of 200 managers from eight companies gives an answer to this question. If intuition is an indication of creativity and innovation, we find that almost 25 per cent of all managers were primarily intuitive when solving problems and making decisions. The concept of intuition and other decision functions is based on Jung’s typology. Is intuition in managers an important asset to their organisations? An investigation of problem-solving and decision-making styles of 33 managers related to organisational effectiveness throws some light on this question. What is called the “creative-innovative” decision-making style was found in 23 per cent of the managers. This article suggests that intuition as decision-making style appears to be related to organisational effectiveness. Several managers are intuitive. Whether the intuitive managers are more effective than others remains to be seen.
The article examines the literature on research into leadership
styles and gender: the results are conflicting and do not support the
assumption that there are stereotypical masculine and feminine styles.
What has emerged is that women managers are likely to possess both task-
and relations-oriented leadership behaviours. It is argued that the
“androgynous” leadership style is effective in the
management of change.
Notes that previous researchers have investigated the relationship between gender role (i.e. sex-role identity) and leadership style, and they also have investigated the relationship between decision style and leadership style. However, points out that they have not investigated the relationship between gender role and decision style. Using three validated questionnaires with 90 participants, attempts to test the relationship between gender role, decision style and leadership style. Reveals, from the results, strong support for the proposed relationships: masculinity/directive/analytical/task-oriented styles and femininity/conceptual/behavioural/relations-oriented styles. Provides implications/application questions for practitioners, for example that “linking the people with the strategic needs of the business” (i.e. strategic human resource management emphasizing competence acquisition, development and utilization) requires an in-depth analysis for many organizations. Suggests that instead of relying on a single measure, a combination of different measures may result in higher reliability and predictability. Concludes that the development of effective human resources training and management programmes requires further exploration of the relationship between gender role, decision style and leadership style.
Do managers have the creative and innovative ability needed for their organisations to survive in an increasingly competitive environment? A study of 200 managers from eight companies gives an answer to this question. If intuition is an indication of creativity and innovation, we find that almost 25 per cent of all managers were primarily intuitive when solving problems and making decisions. The concept of intuition and other decision functions is based on Jung's typology. Is intuition in managers an important asset to their organisations? An investigation of problem-solving and decision-making styles of 33 managers related to organisational effectiveness throws some light on this question. What is called the "creative-innovative" decision-making style was found in 23 per cent of the managers. This article suggests that intuition as decision-making style appears to be related to organisational effectiveness. Several managers are intuitive. Whether the intuitive managers are more effective than others remains to be seen.
Discusses whether it is possible for women to enter the power structures of organizations without losing their abilities to speak for and with women, and, if so, what the ramifications for organizations are. The shifting emphasis in feminist theory is reviewed, focusing on male and female sex-role traits and the concept of androgyny. Six psychological qualities (communication and cooperation; affiliation and attachment; power; physicality; emotionality, vulnerability, and lack of self-confidence; and intimacy and nurturance) are discussed in terms of organizational change. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
[Correction Notice: An erratum for this article was reported in Vol 112(3) of
Psychological Bulletin (see record
2008-10512-001). Some of the numbers in the Value columns of Table 1, page 11, were aligned incorrectly. The corrected version of Table 1 is provided in the erratum.] Reviews research on the evaluation of women and men that occupy leadership roles. While holding the characteristics, except for sex, constant and varying the sex of the leader, these experiments investigated whether people are biased against female leaders and managers. Although this research showed only a small overall tendency for Ss to evaluate female leaders less favorably than male ones, this tendency was more pronounced under certain circumstances. Specifically, women in leadership positions were devalued relative to their male counterparts when leadership was carried out in stereotypically masculine styles, especially when this style was autocratic or directive. Also, the devaluation of women was greater when leaders occupied male-dominated roles and when the evaluators were men. Findings are interpreted from a perspective that emphasizes the influence of gender roles within organizational settings. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
This article aims to find out whether there are behavioral differences between public and private sector managers. Two groups of public managers (managers of social insurance agencies and public school principals) and a group of private managers (two samples) are investigated. Behavioral dimensions are investigated including leadership style (task, relationship, and change orientation), decision-making style (the functions of sensing, intuition, thinking, and feeling), and motivation profile (achievement, affiliation, and power motivation). An analysis of data from 459 managers in four organizations in Sweden reveal significant differences in behavior between public and private managers. However, no significant differences in leadership behavior are discovered among public managers. Possible explanations for such differences and similarities are explored.
The paper provides a research report on leadership styles studied in a range of countries, industry types and organization levels. Unequivocal evidence has been found for a three factor model of style, incorporating the well-known, task-oriented/people-oriented factors, and a change-oriented factor. The new factor is presumed to be a consequence of more turbulent environments. Further analysis of the leader reports (supplied by 3,857 respondent ‘followers’) found ten clusters of ‘blends’ of style, of which three - labelled super-leaders, gardeners and MBO leaders - were consistently rated more effective and most liked by subordinates. A significant theoretical implication is that the results showed no evidence of contingency effects, i.e. variations in effectiveness, across broad contexts such as branch, function or hierarchic level, although the clusters differed with regard to representation in the different contexts.
This article examines the nature of sense-making processes in teams and considers the extent to which leadership as a sense-making process is impacted by gender. We conducted an in-depth inquiry into the decision-making behaviour of two single-gender teams and a third, mixed gender team, as they worked together to produce gender-specific leadership schema in an experimental setting. Our research question was, ‘To what extent is leadership as a sense-making process impacted by gender?’ The article reports on the design, conduct and outcomes of this research project. We found that using a meeting as part of the research method created a specific instance of a gendered organizational context exerting a dominant and directive influence on individual and collective behaviour. The current trend toward team-based leadership is likely to involve more meetings with increasing numbers of women in senior positions. This suggests to us that men and women need to be alert to the possibility that the gendered nature of meetings may be acting as a barrier to the expression of feminine forms of leadership.
Leadership and management are best thought of as a matter of competencies. Or are they? The paper challenges the current orthodoxy in Australia on this question, and suggests that leadership and management need to be regarded as reflecting opposing values. The paper also distinguishes between charismatic and collective forms of leadership, and proposes the latter as likely to be of greater value in a public sector context. A challenge for public sector organisations is how to strike and maintain a suitable balance between management for ongoing operations and leadership for deep–reaching change. Strategies for developing collective leadership capability are suggested.
This exploratory study coded and analysed 120 behaviours on videotaped data of 111 male and 30 female managers engaged in disciplinary discussions with one of their unionized employees. Four categories of behaviour were coded: non-verbal communication, speech characteristics, leadership and interactional justice. A factor analysis of the results generated 14 factors, ten of which were correlated with experts’ ratings of disciplinary fairness. Female managers exhibited significantly higher levels of seven of the ten behavioural factors. Female managers also made more supportive interruptions than male managers and took more time for the disciplinary discussion, both of which were positively correlated with disciplinary fairness. The results suggest that leadership and communication styles commonly found in females may lead them to be better equipped than male managers to manage employee discipline situations.
Traditionally, leadership has been equated with masculinity. Managerial jobs, at least in business and on senior levels, have been defined as a matter of instrumentality, autonomy, result-orientation, etc. something which is not particularly much in line with what is broadly assumed to be typical for females. Today, however, there seems to be a broad interest in leadership being more participatory, non-hierarchical, flexible and group-oriented. These new ideas on leadership are often seen by students of gender as indicating a feminine orientation. This article argues that it is necessary to critically discuss the whole idea of gender labelling leadership as masculine or feminine and suggests that we should be very careful and potentially aware of the unfortunate consequences when we use gender labels. Constructing leadership as feminine may be of some value as a contrast to conventional ideas on leadership and management but may also create a misleading impression of women's orientation to leadership as well as reproducing stereotypes and the traditional gender division of labour.
This study investigates some relationships between the leader behavior of industrial supervisors and the behavior of their group members. It represents an extension of earlier studies carried out at the International Harvester Company, while the authors were with the Ohio State University Leadership Studies.
More than 2,000 employees from different types of private and public organizations in Sweden and USA rated their managers with regard to actual and appropriate leadership style and the operation demands in the departments the managers were responsible for. Three aspects of these domains were measured, namely change, employees and production. The manager’s competence was also rated and used as a criteria for effectiveness. The results revealed that the subordinates do not experience much adjustment between actual leadership behavior and situational demands, but correlations between appropriate leadership style and organizational demands show that they observe a need for such adjustments. There are substantial correlations between rated actual leadership style and competence across situations. However, ANOVAs revealed some interaction effects of style and situation on competence for production-oriented leadership behavior. The results are viewed as support of the thesis that effective leadership is mainly universal.
In three samples drawn from people taking courses at staff training centres in Sweden, Finland and the U.S.A., a factor analysis of a leadership behaviour questionnaire revealed the same pattern of leadership styles. All the participants described their own manager in a 36-item questionnaire; the managers were also rated for managerial competence and the respondent's personal attitude to the manager was given. Three strong factors emerged in each sample: the two well-known factors, employee-centeredness (consideration) and production-centeredness (structure), and a third factor which has to do with promoting change. A factor analysis was then run on the total sample of 711 managers. The third factor may have developed in today's companies as a consequence of the accelerating rate of change in many areas, which affects both products and processes.
Claims of “gender advantage” in the area of leadership are critiqued, and the findings from research on sex/gender differences in social behavior and leader effectiveness are reviewed. Meta-analytic studies that have considered sex differences in leadership are examined with respect to both leader behavior and leader effectiveness. It is concluded that claims of comparative gender advantage, based on stereotypic reasoning, are overstated. Recent research on gender similarity is highlighted with recognition that a “fine-grained” analytic approach is critical. Plus, the usefulness of including temporal dimensions and perceived leader tolerance of demographic differences is suggested. Additional attention is given to research indicating that gender stereotypic descriptive tendencies arise when men and women are asked to describe behaviors for imaginary others or to describe their own actions after the passage of time. Literature that pertains to whether females and males differ in effectiveness as followers is also reviewed. Finally, an agenda is outlined for future gender research on aspects of leadership and followership.
This article presents a concept and a measurement of managers' change-oriented behavior related to the initiation and implementation organizational change. It is argued that managers have an optimal potential for achieving organizational changes if they have the change-centered leadership style, are intuitive, recognize demands for change, and have power-motivated behavior. Public and private managers are significantly different in relation to change-oriented behavior based on data from 343 managers in two public organizations and one private. One result was unexpected: public managers are more change-oriented than managers in business organizations. As expected, there is no significant difference in change-oriented behavior among managers in public agencies. Possible explanations for these outcomes are presented. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR] Copyright of International Journal of Public Administration is the property of Routledge and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)
This article presents a synthesis of research on the relative effectiveness of women and men who occupy leadership and managerial roles. Aggregated over the organizational and laboratory experimental studies in the sample, male and female leaders were equally effective. However, consistent with the assumption that the congruence of leadership roles with leaders' gender enhances effectiveness, men were more effective than women in roles that were defined in more masculine terms, and women were more effective than men in roles that were defined in less masculine terms. Also, men were more effective than women to the extent that leader and subordinate roles were male-dominated numerically. These and other findings are discussed from the perspective of social-role theory of sex differences in social behavior as well as from alternative perspectives.
This study investigates the emphasis males and females place on leadership behaviors and styles across four countries characterized as two cultural dyads (Norway - Sweden and Australia - U.S.). Previous gender comparisons and cross-cultural studies of leadership are reviewed. A framework for exploring leadership, consisting of five leadership behaviors and six leadership styles, is then presented and tested with questionnaire data from 209 managers across the four countries. Results demonstrate significant effects for gender and country, but no interaction effects, Post-hoc analyses suggest that across all four countries, male emphasize the goal setting dimension, while females emphasize the interaction facilitation dimension. Australians scored significantly differently than leaders in the other countries on interaction facilitation, benevolent autocratic style, and laissez-faire style. These findings are discussed in light of gender characteristics and cultural values.© 1995 JIBS. Journal of International Business Studies (1995) 26, 255–279
Ledares motivasjon – teori og instrument
- J.A. Andersen