ArticlePDF Available

Is Telework Effective for Organizations? A Meta-Analysis of Empirical Research on Perceptions of Telework and Organizational Outcomes

Authors:

Abstract and Figures

Purpose – Telework is an alternative work relationship with demonstrated positive benefits for individuals and society, yet it has not been implemented with enthusiasm by most organizations. This could be due to the lacking, consolidated evidence for management regarding whether or not telework is a good thing for the firm. The purpose of this paper is to integrate multidisciplinary literature that reports effects of telework on organizational outcomes with the aim of providing a clearer answer to the question: is telework effective for organizations? Design/methodology/approach – Meta‐analytical methods were used, beginning with an interdisciplinary search for effect sizes in eight databases. Limited to scholarly journals and dissertations, results included 991 articles scanned for inclusion criteria. The independent variable is telework, measured as a dichotomous variable. Dependent variables are outcomes of interest to organizations: productivity, retention, turnover intention, commitment, and performance. In total, 22 studies were double coded and meta‐analyzed using Hunter and Schmidt's approach, followed by five exploratory moderator analyses: level of analysis, level of the employee, response rate, proportion of females, and country of the study. Significant results are discussed. Findings – Review and meta analysis of 32 correlations from empirical studies find that there is a small but positive relationship between telework and organizational outcomes. Telework is perceived to increase productivity, secure retention, strengthen organizational commitment, and to improve performance within the organization. In other words, it is indeed beneficial for organizations. All five hypotheses are supported. H1 (productivity), rc=0.23 (k=5, n=620), (95% CI=0.13−0.33). H2 (retention), r=0.10 (k=6, n=1652), (95% CI=0.04−0.16). H3 (commitment), r=0.11 (k=8, n=3144), (95% CI=0.03−0.18); moderator analysis shows sample age is significant (F(1,4)=4.715, p<0.05, R2=0.80). H4 (performance), r=0.16 (k=10, n=2522). H5 (organizational outcomes), r=0.17 (k=19, n=5502), (95% CI=0.1−0.20). Originality/value – To the authors' knowledge, this is the first meta‐analysis of telework research at the organizational level, providing a unique contribution to the field in filling the gap between research on effects to the individual and society. Additional contributions resulted from the moderator analyses: first, in finding that the relationship between telework and performance is moderated by whether or not the sample was one individual per firm, or many individuals from one; and second, in finding that the relationship between telework and organizational commitment is moderated by age. Thus, the paper provides unique contributions with both scholarly and practical implications.
Content may be subject to copyright.
Is telework effective for
organizations?
A meta-analysis of empirical research on
perceptions of telework and organizational
outcomes
Brittany Harker Martin and Rhiannon MacDonnell
Haskayne School of Business, University of Calgary, Calgary, Canada
Abstract
Purpose Telework is an alternative work relationship with demonstrated positive benefits for
individuals and society, yet it has not been implemented with enthusiasm by most organizations. This
could be due to the lacking, consolidated evidence for management regarding whether or not telework
is a good thing for the firm. The purpose of this paper is to integrate multidisciplinary literature that
reports effects of telework on organizational outcomes with the aim of providing a clearer answer to
the question: is telework effective for organizations?
Design/methodology/approach Meta-analytical methods were used, beginning with an
interdisciplinary search for effect sizes in eight databases. Limited to scholarly journals and
dissertations, results included 991 articles scanned for inclusion criteria. The independent variable is
telework, measured as a dichotomous variable. Dependent variables are outcomes of interest to
organizations: productivity, retention, turnover intention, commitment, and performance. In total,
22 studies were double coded and meta-analyzed using Hunter and Schmidt’s approach, followed by five
exploratory moderator analyses: level of analysis, level of the employee, response rate, proportion of
females, and country of the study. Significant results are discussed.
Findings Review and metaanalysis of 32 correlations from empirical studies find that there is a small
but positiverelationship betweentelework and organizational outcomes.Telework is perceivedto increase
productivity, secure retention, strengthen organizational commitment, and to improve performance within
the organization. In other words, it is indeed beneficial for organizations. All five hypotheses are
supported. H1 (productivity), rc¼0.23 (k ¼5, n¼620), (95% CI¼0.13 20.33). H2 (retention), r¼0.10
(k¼6, n¼1652), (95% CI¼0.04 20.16). H3(commitment),r¼0.11 (k¼8, n¼3144), (95% CI¼0.03 20.18);
moderator analysis shows sampleage is significant (F(1,4)¼4.715, p,0.05, R2¼0.80). H4 (performance),
r¼0.16 (k¼10, n¼2522). H5 (organizational outcomes), r¼0.17 (k¼19, n¼5502), (95% CI¼0.1 20.20).
Originality/value To the authors’ knowledge, this is the first meta-analysis of telework research at
the organizational level, providing a unique contribution to the field in filling the gap between research
on effects to the individual and society. Additional contributions resulted from the moderator analyses:
first, in finding that the relationship between telework and performance is moderated by whether or
not the sample was one individual per firm, or many individuals from one; and second, in finding that
the relationship between telework and organizational commitment is moderated by age. Thus, the
paper provides unique contributions with both scholarly and practical implications.
Keywords Teleworking, Organizational structures, Telework benefits, Organizational outcomes,
Meta-analysis, Telecommuting
Paper type Research paper
It used to be a scene from science fiction: humans working at interactive machines that
calculated, documented, and sent information in instant transmissions with the press of
a button. However, since the advent of the personal computer and the emergence
The current issue and full text archive of this journal is available at
www.emeraldinsight.com/2040-8269.htm
MRR
35,7
602
Management Research Review
Vol. 35 No. 7, 2012
pp. 602-616
qEmerald Group Publishing Limited
2040-8269
DOI 10.1108/01409171211238820
of the internet, this scene has not only become one of the present, but is itself fading into
memory as technology advances at a frenzied pace. From hand-held devices that receive
e-mail, to smart phones that link photos to social media web sites, information and
communication technologies (ICT) have integrated into mainstream society. Indeed, one
might expect that with these powerful tools, much of today’s information-based work
would take place outside a central office, saving millions from the daily commute. Add to
that, the power of ICT to enable business continuity in times of pandemics, acts of
terrorism, or natural disasters, and one might also expect that organizations would be
adopting ICT-based off-site programs with rapid enthusiasm. This, however, is not
the case.
Despite several decades of research on the benefits of telework (Hill et al., 1996; Nilles,
1994; Olson, 1988; Verbeke et al., 2008), it has not been adopted on the scale anticipated
by scholars (Berger, 1996; Salopek, 1998; Toffler, 1981). In fact, data from academic
research, census reports and think-tank reports alike all show the average frequency of
telework by organizational employees to be somewhere between 2.2 and 12 percent
(Akyeampong and Nadwodny, 2001; Akyeampong, 2007; Duxbury and Higgins, 2002;
Jones, 2005; US Census Bureau, 2004; Wallace, 2003; Welz and Wolf, 2010). Central to a
possible explanation of why this might be is the fact that much of the empirical research
on telework has been conducted at the individual level of employee outcomes, whereas
the decision to implement a telework program ultimately lies at the top of the firm, and is
driven by organizational outcomes. Although benefits of telework for employees
aggregate into benefits for organizations (Verbeke et al., 2008), organizations may
require more empirical evidence that shows whether or not teleworking is more effective
than traditional work arrangements. Such empirical studies exist, but are scattered
across disciplines such as computer science, economics, education, information
technology, and sociology. Hence, the purpose of this meta-analysis is to integrate
multidisciplinary literature that reports effects of telework on organizational outcomes
with the aim of providing a clearer answer to the question: is telework effective for
organizations?
Telework definition and research
For the purposes of this paper, the terms telework and telecommuting will be used
interchangeably as is accepted practice in this area of research. Drawing from a recent
literature review (Bailey and Kurland, 2002), a recent meta-analysis (Gajendran and
Harrison, 2007), and other literature from the field, telework is defined here as the
substitution of communication technology for work-related travel, and can include paid
work from home, a satellite office, a telework centre or any other work station outside of
the main office for at least one day per work week (Verbeke et al., 2008).
Jack Nilles was the first scholar to coin the term “telecommuting” in 1975. Nearly
30 years later, it is defined by Bailey and Kurland (2002, p. 384) as, “working outside the
conventional workplace and communicating with it by way of telecommunications or
computer-based technology,”. In their 2002 review of 80 telework studies, they looked
beyond the advantages and disadvantages of telework to seek the answers to three
questions: who participates in telework, why, and what happens when they do? Limited
by a claim that much of the literature focuses on the individual level, they state that
work-related factors are the most predictive of an individual’s choice whether
or not to telework. In answer to the question of why individuals telework, they turned to
Is telework
effective for
organizations?
603
studies of managers, and found that concerns about cost and control, as well as little
perceived need, led to managerial reluctance to create telework programs. These authors
further suggest that research move beyond studying teleworkers as a class of employees
and study telework as a practice with a broad range of outcomes. In their review of
managerial perceptions, they found that managers see no need for the change to
telework. A strong enough business case has not been provided, and ambiguity as to
whether or not the organizational benefits outweigh the costs leaves managers in a
hesitant state.
At another unit of analysis, Gajendran and Harrison’s (2007) meta-analyzed
46 studies on psychological mediators and individual consequences of telework to find
that telework is beneficial for individuals. In line with the definition used here, they
define telecommuting as:
[...] an alternative work arrangement in which employees perform tasks elsewhere that are
normally done in a primary or central workplace, for at least some portion of their work
schedule, using electronic media to interact with others inside and outside the organization
(2007, p. 1525).
There is a broad scope of research interests in the telework literature. It ranges from the
influence of gender on telework outcomes (Hill et al., 1998; Hyland et al., 2005) to the
economic impact of telework on society (Mokhtarian et al., 1998; Salomon et al., 1991).
Union issues are studied (Di Martino and Wirth, 1990), as well as the attitudes that are
either in favor of, or against, telework (Yap and Tng, 1990; Duxbury and Haines, 1991).
Work/life balance is another major branch of the research (Duxbury et al., 1992; Madsen,
2003), as is a managerial perspective regarding supervision and control (Illegems and
Verbeke, 2004; Valsecchi, 2006). Finally, there is a stream of research dedicated to
telework’s potential to resolve issues of equity and employability for disabled or
home-bound individuals due to physical or care-giving reasons (Matthes, 1992;
Verbeke et al., 2008). In summary, there is a wealth of information within each level of
analysis that can potentially be applied at the others. Indeed, there is often overlap
between outcomes at each level, such as turnover intentions of employees and retention
within the organization.
In other research, telework adoption has been predicted to increase at the
organizational level if beneficial organizational outcomes are perceived to outweigh the
costs and consequences (Illegems and Verbeke, 2003; Verbeke et al., 2008). In this view,
managerial perception is key to whether or not telework will be adopted, and doing so
requires evidence that telework is more effective for the organization than the alternative.
Thus, this meta-analysis meets a critical need in organization studies, by providing
statistical rationale for decision makers that includes the managerial perceptions of
telework and organizational outcomes.
Theoretical framework
Among the top outcomes of interest to organizations are productivity, retention,
organizational commitment, and performance (Bailey and Kurland, 2002; Byrd, 2005;
Mokhtarian and Sato, 1994; Verbeke et al., 2008). As such, these are the organizational
outcomes examined in this meta-analysis, as summarized in the theoretical framework
of Figure 1 (Gajendran and Harrison, 2007). In this figure, the arrows indicate
the relationship measured in the included studies, between telework and each
MRR
35,7
604
organizational outcome of interest. In addition, these outcomes are enclosed within a box
to indicate an overall predicted relationship between telework and organizational
outcomes in general.
Organizational outcomes of the framework
Productivity is regularly reported as a perceived benefit of telework (Callentine, 1995;
Pitt-Catsouphes and Marchetta, 1991; Hill et al., 1998). Reasons cited include working at
peak efficiency hours, reducing distractions and interruptions, being in an environment
conducive to increased concentration, and reducing incidental absence (Belanger, 1999;
Baruch, 2000). Productivity is often measured in terms of respondents’ perceived actual
or potential increase or decrease in work output associated with telework adoption, often
in comparison to a non-adoption state. Naturally, increased productivity is of high
organizational interest. Hence, the first hypothesis is derived as follows:
H1. Telework will be positively associated with perceptions of increased
productivity.
Retention is looked at in the telework literature by measuring perceptions of retention
and turnover intentions, from both the employee and managerial perspectives. Both
constructs are commonly reported as benefits of telework, where retention is predicted to
increase in teleworkers, and turnover intentions to decrease. For the purposes of this
meta-analysis, these constructs are collapsed into the retention variable through reverse
coding of turnover intentions with the rationale that, if employees do not intend to leave
the organization they will be better retained by the organization. Thus, the second
hypothesis of the framework is derived:
H2. Telework will be positively associated with perceptions of employee
retention.
Organizational commitment in the telework literature is a multidimensional construct. In
some studies, it is broken down into specific types of commitment, such as the
three-dimensional model of Meyer and Allen (1991) that measures affective commitment,
normative commitment, and continuance commitment (Desrosiers, 2001; Piper, 2004).
In other studies, only one of these types of commitment is measured, or a general
Figure 1.
Theoretical framework of
telework relationship with
organizational outcomes
Teleworking
Productivity PerformanceRetention
Organizational Outcomes
Org. Commitment
Is telework
effective for
organizations?
605
commitment variable is defined that is something of a hybrid from the field (Belanger,
1999; Lee, 2004). Despite historical predictions that teleworkers may be less committed to
the organization, recent studies have reported organizational commitment as one of the
benefits of telework whereby commitment is exchanged in reciprocity for a more flexible
work arrangement than a typical office job. As such, the third hypothesis of the framework
is derived:
H3. Telework will be positively associated with perceptions of organizational
commitment.
The fourth organizational outcome, performance, is also of high importance to
organizations. Related to productivity, performance is the assessment of the work being
done within the firm. As such, it is not output oriented like productivity, and is measured
differently. “Typically it canbe measured by quality of outputs, job knowledge, leadership,
judgment, innovation, goal setting or teamwork, among others” (Belanger, 1999, p. 143).
Thus, performance can be viewed as the perception of how wellemployees and the firm are
doing. In the telework literature, it is commonly measured in comparison between
teleworkers and non-teleworkers, with the predominant stance being that performance is
higher amongst the former. Since increased performance of the employees translates into
increased performance of the firm, the fourth hypothesis is as follows:
H4. Telework will be positively associated with perceptions of performance.
Thus, far, all four organizational outcomes of the fr amework have been predicted to have
a positive association with telework. Indeed, they are all regularly reported as benefits of
a telework program. If this is true, then it would seem that a telework program would be
beneficial, not only at the level of the individual, but also at the level of the organization.
As such, the fifth hypothesis captures the purpose of this meta-analysis, and is stated
thus:
H5. Overall, there will be a positive relationship between telework and the
organizational outcomes of this framework.
Method
Collecting effect sizes
As mentioned, telework research on organizational outcomes has taken place across a
number of disciplines. As such, the literature search was interdisciplinary conducted in:
ABI/Inform, Applied Science Index, Business Source Complete EBSCO,
GoogleScholar.com, JSTOR, ProQuest, PsycINFO, and Wilson Web. Keywords for the
search included: telework, telecommuting, mobile-work, virtual workplace and
organization. Results were limited to scholarly journals and dissertations. Despite the
large number of results, it was discovered that there is actually little empirical research
on telework to be meta-analyzed (Hill et al., 1996; Workman, 2000). As such, reference lists
of empirical studies on the related variablesand level of analysis were searched through a
backward approach. Through the entire search process, 991 articles were located.
Inclusion, exclusion and selection
Papers retained for this meta-analysis aligned with the following inclusion criteria. First
and foremost, included papers needed to include an effect size for telework or report
enough data to compute one. Next, papers needed to study one of the hypothesized
MRR
35,7
606
relationships of the theoretical framework for this analysis. Third, papers needed to
measure the variables of the theoretical framework based on teleworker or managerial
perceptions. Finally, papers needed to be from 1991 or later, based on the drastic change
in telework through the introduction of the internet and the world wide web.
Article selection and inclusion involved a three-part process:
(1) scanning abstracts of papers that resulted from the literature search for
relevance;
(2) scanning the selected papers that showed potential to determine if inclusion
criteria was met; then
(3) reading and coding the included studies.
In total 68 studies were pulled from the database through reading abstracts for inclusion
criteria. From that, three studies were eliminated because they were experimental, and
65 studies were read for coding. Studies were further eliminated from the meta-analysis
for the following reasons: although the variables of interest appeared to be part of the
study, telework was a dependent, rather than independent, variable (e.g. adoption of
telework was being predicted (9); although the study appeared to include the right
variables, the wrong relationship was being measured (10); although the study met all
inclusion criteria, no empirical data was reported (8); although the study measured the
right variables, the study was not based on perceptions (4); although the study measured
the relationships of interest, not enough statistical information was provided to calculate
effect size (12).
Data from 22 studies met all of the inclusion criteria. These studies included
15 published scholarly journal articles and seven doctoral dissertations. Three studies
were discovered to be based on data sets already coded within the analysis, and were
therefore eliminated, leading to a total of 19 studies (highlighted by an asterisk in the
reference list) with 32 effect sizes related to the hypotheses of this meta-analysis. Each of
the studies used survey (questionnaire or interview) techniques to measure the perceived
outcomes of telework. Where reported, the average response rate was 49.7 percent, the
mean age of the sample was 38.94, and the average proportion of women was
52.8 percent.
It should be noted that, although some studies indicated their unit of analysis to be
the firm, all studies were based on surveys that captured managerial or employee
perceptions as opposed to objective firm-level outcomes. In some cases the managers
served as proxies for the firm and the number of employees was equal to the number of
firms (Martinez-Sanchez et al., 2007a, b, 2008); whereas in other cases managerial
perceptions still represented the organization, but the number of employees outnumbered
the number of firms (Illegems and Verbeke, 2004). Managerial or employee perceptions
were either reported separately or aggregated together, depending on study-specific
hypotheses (Hyland et al., 2005). For the purposes of this meta-analysis, the average
sample size is reported in number of employees, 290.
Coding procedure
Studies were double coded for source type (e.g. peer-reviewed journal, dissertation,
unpublished), sample size, proportion of women, average age of sample, rater type
(e.g. employee, manager), method (e.g. self-report vs interview), year of publication,
and authors. Both authors coded all studies independently, and any discrepancies were
Is telework
effective for
organizations?
607
reconciled through discussion. Caution was observed to ensure the correct direction of
the reported correlation coefficient, such as where turnover intentions were reversed to
be included under the retention construct.
In each of the studies, telework was the independent variable, measured as a
dichotomous variable (yes/no). Studies also specified a level of intensity ranging from
once a week to full-time. Although there is variability in the intensity captured in the
studies, there is agreement between all studies that teleworking requires working from
an alternate location from the central office at least one day a week. In line with
Gajendran and Harrison (2007), widely accepted definitions for most of the dependent
constructs and their construct-label synonyms were observed. Organizational outcomes
included productivity, retention, turnover intention, commitment, and performance.
Meta-analytic method
Using Hunter and Schmidt’s (1990) approach, correlations for telework and each
proposed outcome variable were meta-analyzed. First, each reported statistic was
identified and, if necessary, transformed into a correlation. Correlations were weighted
according to sample size and corrected for reliability and sampling error in the measures
at the aggregate level. Where reliability was not reported, an average reliability was
calculated by imputing reliabilities reported from the average of other studies using the
same constructs (Gajendran and Harrison, 2007; Lipsey and Wilson, 2001). Next,
calculations were performed to attain the estimated population effect size, its variance,
confidence intervals, and credibility intervals.
Correlations were deemed significant if the confidence interval did not include zero.
Where the credibility interval is large or includes zero, the mean corrected effect size may
represent a number of subpopulations and a moderating effect(s) may be present. When
the credibility interval is small or does not include zero, it is more likely that the mean
corrected effect size represents the population of interest (see Whitener, 1990 for a
review). For meta-analytic computations, the program MetaExcel (Steel, 2009) was used.
For the purposes of this paper, meta-analytic estimates were calculated where there was
a minimum of three independent effect sizes.
Moderator analyses
Five exploratory moderator analyses were conducted, where a minimum of three data
points were required to evaluate a moderator for a given telework-outcome relationship.
The first analysis looks at whether performance was evaluated at the level of the firm or
subordinate to the firm (e.g. work group, business unit, etc.); this moderator applies only
to the performance variable. Additional possible moderators include the source of the
report (e.g. managers or general employees), the response rate of the sample, the
proportion of females in the sample, and the country in which the study was conducted
(coded as USA and non-USA).
The significance of the five moderators identified above was computed using weighted
least squared (WLS) regression. WLS enables a weighting variable to be created from the
inverse of the sampling error for each moderator test, and is considered superior to
ordinary least squared (OLS) models when there is heteroscedasticity among observations
(Steel and Kammeyer-Mueller, 2002). Where a moderator analysis was significant, the
results are discussed.
MRR
35,7
608
Results
The meta-analytic relationships between telework and the outcome variables are
presented in Table I. There is an international, though predominantly Western,
representation of countries where the studies were conducted. These do not necessarily
reflect the location of the institution conducting the study, and include: Australia,
Brussels, Ireland, Spain, and the USA. Four studies did not indicate the country of the
study sample. Nearly two-thirds of the data for this analysis comes from peer-reviewed
academic journals; the other from doctoral dissertations. In order to address the issue of
publication bias (the “file drawer” problem), Failsafe-N values were calculated for each
of the variables. The Failsafe-N estimates the number of unpublished studies with an
average effect of zero that would be required to reduce a given meta-analytic coefficient
to ^0.10 (i.e. a small correlation with lower practical significance, as per Cohen, 1969).
These results are depicted in Table II, which suggest that the current findings are not
likely to be substantively affected by publication bias.
Five correlations were reported between telework and productivity. The number of
individual perceptions of this sample was 620. H1 proposed that telework will be
positively associated with perceptions of increased productivity. Meta-analytic findings
support this proposition therein the average correlation for unreliability was r
c
¼0.23
(k¼5,n¼620), and the confidence interval for the uncorrected correlation did not
include zero (95 percent CI ¼0.13 20.33). The credibility interval did not include zero
(95 percent CrI ¼0.09 20.37), and none of the moderator tests were significant.
95 percent
confidence
95 percent
credibility
Variable kn r
o
r
C
LU L U
Productivity 5 620 0.213 0.230 0.13 0.33 0.09 0.37
Retention 6 1,652 0.098 0.103 0.16 0.04 0.19 0.02
Commitment 8 3,144 0.098 0.106 0.03 0.18 20.07 0.28
Performance 10 2,522 0.153 0.163 0.09 0.23 20.02 0.34
Overall 19 5,502 0.163 0.173 0.15 0.20 0.04 0.31
Notes: k number of samples; n total number of data points; r
o
uncorrected weighted mean
correlation; r
c
weighted mean correlation corrected for unreliability; 95 percent confidence
confidence interval; 95 percent credibility credibility interval
Table I.
Meta-analyses of
relationships between
telework and perceptions
of organizational
outcomes
Variable r-original Failsafe-N
Productivity 0.21 6.74
Retention 0.1 0.19
Commitment 0.1 0.53
Performance 0.15 6.4
Overall 0.17 14.5
Notes: r-original meta-analytic correlation generated in current study; Failsafe-N number of
unpublished papers with an average correlation of zero required to equal r-criterion; for all variables
above, r-criterion ^0.10 (proposed “true score” correlation due to publication bias); and r-
Failsafe ¼0.00 (estimated average value for unpublished studies)
Table II.
Failsafe-N estimates for
meta-analytic
correlations
Is telework
effective for
organizations?
609
H2 proposed that telework will be positively associated with perceptions of employee
retention. To examine this hypothesis, six correlations were used to analyze the
relationship between telework and retention. The number of employee perceptions of
this sample was 1,652. The average correlation corrected for unreliability was r¼0.10
(k¼6, n¼1,652), and the confidence interval for the uncorrected correlation did not
include zero (95 percent CI ¼0.04 20.16). None of the exploratory moderator analyses
yielded significant results, and the credibility interval did not include zero (95 percent
CrI ¼0.02 20.19). Thus, as expected there was a small, but positive, effect size.
Eight correlations were reported between telework and organizational commitment,
representing 3,144 perceptions of this sample. H3 proposed that telework will would be
positively associated with perceptions of organizational commitment. The
meta-analysis yielded weak support for this hypothesis. The average correlation
corrected for unreliability was r¼0.11 (k¼8, n¼3,144) with a confidence interval that
did not include zero (95 percent CI ¼0.03 20.18). In this analysis, the credibility
interval did include zero (95 percent CrI ¼20.07 20.28), indicating the presence of a
moderator. Thus, a moderator analysis was conducted to find that the average age of the
sample was significant (F(1,4) ¼4.715, p,0.05, R
2
¼0.80), with a negative direction
of the standardized
b
indicating that the higher the average age of the sample, the lower
the correlation between telework and organizational commitment (
b
¼20.92).
Last, ten correlations were reported between telework and performance. The number
of individual perceptions of this sample was 2,522 employees. H4 proposed that
telework will be positively associated with perceptions of increased performance.
Meta-analytic findings support this proposition wherein the average correlation
corrected for unreliability was r¼0.16 (k¼10,n¼2,522). The confidence interval for
the uncorrected correlation did not include zero (95 percent CI ¼0.09 20.23). Of note,
because the credibility interval was found to include zero (95 percent
CrI ¼20.02 20.34), a moderator analysis was conducted and the level of focus was
found to be near significance (F(1,7) ¼4.715, p¼,0.0710, R
2
¼0.40). Intriguingly, the
exploratory moderator analysis yielded different strengths of correlations, depending on
whether the sample was comprised of one individual from many firms
(Martinez-Sanchez et al., 2007a, b, 2008), or multiple individuals from one firm
(Hyland et al., 2005). Correlations were stronger when the sample consisted of the same
number of raters as firms (rc ¼0.19, k¼3, n¼791) than when the sample consisted of
multiple raters from the same firm (rc ¼0.13, k¼4, n¼1,049).
H5 proposed that telework will be positively associated with the organizational
outcomes of the framework. The total number of effect sizes (aggregated by study) for
telework and organizational outcomes that were positive and significant was 19, taking
reverse coding of turnover intentions into account. None of the effect sizes gathered
was negative and non-significant. The average correlation corrected for unreliability
was r¼0.17 (k¼19, n¼5,502) with a confidence interval that did not include zero
(95 percent CI ¼0.15 20.20). Thus, based on the effect sizes in our analysis,
there is support for H5, that, overall, there is a significant and positive relationship
between telework and organizational outcomes.
Discussion
This meta-analysis sought to determine whether or not telework is beneficial for
organizations. Based on these meta-analytical findings, there appears to be support that,
MRR
35,7
610
overall, thereis a positive relationship between telework and perceptions of organizational
outcomes. In answer to the question, is telework effective for organizations, the
meta-analytical answer seems to be yes.There is a small but positive relationship between
telework and all four organizational outcomes of the framework: productivity, retention,
organizational commitment, and performance.
The small but positive effects of this study are in line with the findings of Gajendran
and Harrison’s (2007, p. 1535) meta-analysis, who found that, for individuals,
“telecommuting is mainly a good thing”. Hence, this meta-a nalysis adds value to the field
in confirming that, for organizations, telework is also “a good thing.” This is important
information for decision makers who are trying to determine whether or not to
implement a telework program, as it shows there are clearly no negative relationships
between telework and the organizational variables analyzed here.
Additionally, contributions of this meta-analysis lie in findings of the moderator
analyses. Regarding correlations between telework and organizational commitment
(H3), the average age of the sample was found to be a significant moderator
(F(1,4) ¼4.715, p,0.05, R
2
¼0.80) where the higher the average age of the sample, the
lower the correlation. This suggests that commitment is more positive for younger
samples when telework is an option, and could implicate telework as a tool for attracting
young talent. Additionally, a moderator was also identified for the relationship between
telework and performance (H4) where correlations were moderated by whether or not
the sample was comprised of one individual from many firms, or many individuals from
one firm. This finding may suggest that outcomes are perceived to be more substantive
for the firm than for the subordinate-level groups, and should be considered in future
studies of telework perceptions.
There is a caution about the generalizability of these findings as they may be
contingent on individual variables such as job satisfaction, role stress, or perceived career
prospects (Gajendran and Harrison, 2007). On the positive side, organizations promoting
telework as an option may attract talent among younger employees while establishing
positive relations with external stakeholders, particularly amidst societal pressures to
“be more green.” Although an environmental responsibility outcome is not measured as
part of this study, it may be viewed as an added bonus for firms that adopt telework based
on organizational outcomes. Additionally, business continuity amidst natural disasters,
terrorist attacks and pandemics has pushed considerations of telework to the forefront.
Thus, this study provides organizational support for the decision to implement programs
that enable employees to continue their work from alternate locations in times when
going to the head office is dangerous or impossible.
Limitations and future research
This meta-analysis is limited by several factors. First, there is what is referred to in
meta-analysis as the “apples and oranges” issue, where confounds may arise from
each study using slightly different definitions, constructs and operalizations.
Second, although the definition of telework as presented here is in line with much of
the field, there are still conflicting definitions within the telework literature that limit
unification of the work. Add to that, a hodge-podge of theoretical frameworks, or in some
cases the absence of one, and the complexity of different assumptions muddies the
opportunity for comparison from one study to the next. Third, there is a time stamp on
this research as it analyzes a snapshot of research within a specific time frame.
Is telework
effective for
organizations?
611
Just as the telework research that came before the inclusion criteria was considered
irrelevant, contemporary and future research also has the potential to be very different
from studies included here. This is a limitation of all meta-analysis, but particularly in a
field where change is the status quo.
Next, discrepancies over what actually constitutes a telework arrangement is another
limitation of this analysis (Bailey and Kurland, 2002). In some studies, multiple types of
telework are included such as home-based workers (Nguyen, 2004), whereas in others,
home-based workers are excluded and/or satellite offices are included (Gajendran and
Harrison, 2007; Illegems and Verbeke, 2003). Thus, this analysis is limited in its ability to
report effects for specific telework arrangements, and maintains the goal of reporting
effects for telework in general as they pertain to organizational outcomes.
In addition, the fact that some studies lumped managerial and employee perspectives
together, prohibits us from seeing the true picture of the organizational perspective.
Ideally, the data would be solely managerial, and perhaps qualitative to investigate the
possibility that there are variables impacting the decision to implement that are, as yet,
unidentified. Stimulated by Bailey and Kurland’s (2002) observation that managers are
reluctant to implement telework programs, future research would do well to dig deeper
into the source of this reluctance by looking at social and cognitive barriers to adoption.
Future research would also do well to look at the metrics of the organizationally
measured outcomes studied here, for a comparison to the perception research.
Productivity in terms of physical output, retention in terms of employees who remain per
annum, and performance in terms of company ratings would give a clearer picture of the
relationship between these variables and telework. In terms of sustainability, future
research might focus on telework as an important part of disaster recovery. Investigation
into the resilience and efficacy of teleworking firms amidst disaster, perhaps in
comparison to non-teleworking firms, would provide meaningful data regarding
telework’s potential as an essential practice for contemporary business continuity.
Finally, the literature search of this meta-analysis has revealed that, although there is
a plethora of telework research at the individual and societal levels, somehow the
organizational level has been largely missed. Even the work that claims to be about the
organization is based on individual perceptions. As such, there is a need for future
research in telework to focus on the organization as the unit of analysis, in order to truly
capture telework’s impacts at that level.
Conclusion
Despite individual and societal research showing positive benefits of telework, it has not
been embraced by organizational decision makers as an effective, mainstream alternative
to current work arrangements. This meta-analysis provides evidence that it may be
exactly that, in finding that there is indeed a small but positive relationship between
telework and organizational outcomes; with the caveat that certain variables may lead to
greater benefits, where others may diminish them. As such, organizational decision
makers may want to take heed, for if the use of ICT outside the central office can indeed
help organizations be more productive, strengthen organizational commitment, secure
employee retention, and improve performance, then the future discussed at the beginning
of the paper, is now. If so, then the decision of whether or not to implement a telework
program could be the factor that determines whether or not an organization becomes part
of that future, or a thing of the past.
MRR
35,7
612
References
Akyeampong, E.B. (2007), Working at Home: An Update, Perspectives, Statistics Canada
Catalogue No. 75-001-XIE, June, available at: www.statcan.gc.ca (accessed 28 April 2011).
Akyeampong, E.B. and Nadwodny, R. (2001), “Evolution of the Canadian workplace: work from
home”, Perspectives on Labour and Income, Vol. 2 No. 9, Statistics Canada Catalogue
no. 75-001-XIE, available at: www.statcangc.ca/english/freepub/75-001-XIE/0090175-001-
XIE.html (accessed 22 April 2011).
Bailey, D.E. and Kurland, N.B. (2002), “A review of telework research: findings, new directions,
and lessons for the study of modern work”, Journal of Organizational Behavior, Vol. 23,
pp. 383-400.
Baruch, Y. (2000), “Teleworking: benefits and pitfalls as perceived by professionals and
managers”, New Technology, Work, and Employment, Vol. 15 No. 1, pp. 34-49.
*Belanger, F. (1999), “Workers’ propensity to telecommute: an empirical study”,
Information & Management, Vol. 35, pp. 139-53.
Berger, M. (1996), “Making the virtual office a reality”, Sales & Marketing Management, Vol. 21,
pp. 18-22.
Byrd, S.C. (2005), “The use of telecommuting as an alternative workplace strategy for Missouri
businesses”, unpublished doctoral dissertation, Southern Illinois University at Carbondale,
available at: ProQuest Dissertations, ID 920927651.
*Desrosiers, E.I. (2001), “Telework and work attitudes: the relationship between telecommuting
and employee job satisfaction, organizational commitment, perceived organizational
support, and perceived co-worker support”, unpublished doctoral dissertation, Purdue
University, available at: ProQuest Dissertations, ID 765166111.
Di Martino, V. and Wirth, L. (1990), “Telework: a new way of working and living”, International
Labour Review, Vol. 129 No. 5, pp. 529-54.
Duxbury, L. and Haines, G. Jr (1991), “Predicting alternative work arrangements from salient
attitudes: a study of decision makers in the public sector”, Journal of Business Research,
Vol. 23, pp. 83-97.
Duxbury, L. and Higgins, C. (2002), “Telework: a primer for the millennium introduction”,
in Cooper, C.L. and Burke, R.J. (Eds), The New World of Work: Challenges and
Opportunities, Blackwell, Oxford, p. 157.
Duxbury, L., Higgins, C. and Mills, S. (1992), “After-hours telecommuting and work-family
conflict: a comparative analysis”, Information Systems Research, Vol. 3 No. 2, pp. 173-90.
Gajendran, R.S. and Harrison, D.A. (2007), “The good, the bad, and the unknown about
telecommuting: meta-analysis of the psychological mediators and individual
consequences”, Journal of Applied Psychology, Vol. 92 No. 6, pp. 1524-41.
Hill, E.J., Hawkins, A.J. and Miller, B.C. (1996), “Work and family in the virtual office: perceived
influences of mobile telework”, Family Relations, Vol. 45 No. 3, pp. 293-301.
*Hill, E.J., Miller, B.C., Weiner, S.P. and Colihan, J. (1998), “Influences of the virtual office on
aspects of work and work/life balance”, Personnel Psychology, Vol. 51 No. 3, pp. 667-82.
Hunter, J.E. and Schmidt, F.L. (1990), Methods of Meta-analysis: Correcting Error and Bias in
Research Findings, Sage, Newbury Park, CA.
*Hyland, M.H., Rowsome, C. and Rowsome, E. (2005), “The integrative effects of flexible work
arrangements and preferences for segmenting or integrating work and home roles”,
Journal of Behavioral and Applied Management, Vol. 6 No. 2, pp. 141-60.
Illegems, V. and Verbeke, A. (2003), Moving towards the Virtual Workplace, Edward Elgar,
Northampton.
Is telework
effective for
organizations?
613
*Illegems, V. and Verbeke, A. (2004), “Telework: what does it mean for management?”,
Long Range Planning, Vol. 37 No. 4, pp. 319-34.
Jones, C. (2005), Telework: The Quiet Revolution, The Gartner Group, available at: www.gartner.
com/DisplayDocument?doc_cd¼122284 (accessed 21 April 2011).
*Lee, S. (2004), “Organizational commitment and job satisfaction: the effect of alternative officing
strategies on teleworkers’ organizational behavior”, unpublished doctoral dissertation,
Michigan State University, available at: ProQuest Dissertations, ID 765931721.
Lipsey, M.W. and Wilson, D.B. (2001), Practical Meta-analysis, Sage, Thousand Oaks, CA.
Madsen, S.R. (2003), “The effects of home-based teleworking on work and family conflict”,
unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of Minnesota, available at: ProQuest
Dissertations, ID 728982381.
Martinez-Sanchez, A., Perez-Perez, M., de-Luis-Carnicer, P. and Jimenez, M.J.V. (2007a),
“Telework, human resource flexibility and firm performance”, New Technology, Work and
Employment, Vol. 22 No. 3, pp. 208-23.
*Martinez-Sanchez, A., Perez-Perez, M., de Luis Carnicer, P. and Jimenez, M.J.V. (2007b),
“Teleworking and workplace flexibility: a study of impact on firm performance”,
Personnel Review, Vol. 36 No. 1, pp. 42-64.
*Martinez-Sanchez, A., Perez-Perez, M., Vela-Jimenez, M.J. and de-Luis-Carnicer, P. (2008),
“Telework adoption, change management, and firm performance”, Journal of
Organizational Change Management, Vol. 21 No. 1, pp. 7-31.
Meyer, J.P. and Allen, N.J. (1991), “A three-component conceptualization of organizational
commitment”, Human Resource Management Review, Vol. 1 No. 1, pp. 61-89.
Mokhtarian, P.L. and Sato, K. (1994), “A comparison of the policy, social, and cultural contexts
for telecommuting in Japan and the United States”, Social Science Computer Review, Vol. 12
No. 4, pp. 641-58.
Mokhtarian, P.L., Bagley, M., Hulse, L. and Salomon, I. (1998), “The influence of gender and
occupation on individual perceptions of telecommuting”, The Journal of the American
Society for Information Science, Vol. 49 No. 12, pp. 691-711.
*Nguyen, N.T. (2004), “The consequences of spatial distance and electronic communication for
teleworkers: a multi-level investigation”, unpublished doctoral dissertation,
Temple University, Philadelphia, PA.
Nilles, J.M. (1994), Making Telecommuting Happen: A Guide for Telemanagers and
Telecommuters, Van Nostrand Reinhold, New York, NY.
*Piper, H.H.M. (2004), “Telework and organizational commitment: a test of the Meyer and Allen
three-dimensional model of commitment”, unpublished doctoral dissertation,
Nova Southeastern University, available at: ProQuest Dissertations, ID 885613531.
Pitt-Catsouphes, M. and Marchetta, A. (1991), A Coming of Age: Telework, Boston University,
Center on Work and Family, Boston, MA.
Salomon, I., Schneider, H. and Schofer, J. (1991), “Is telecommuting cheaper than travel?
An examination of interaction costs in a business setting”, Transportation, Vol. 18 No. 4,
pp. 291-318.
Salopek, P. (1998), Census Brief: Increase in At-home Workers Reverses Earlier Trend,
US Department of Commerce: BUREAU OF THE CENSUS, available at: www.pio.census.
gov (accessed 28 April 2011).
Steel, P. (2009), MetaExcel (Version 13.0) (Computer software), available at: www.ucalgary.ca/
,steel/procrastinus/meta/Meta%20Analysis%20-%20Mark%20XIII.xlsm
MRR
35,7
614
Steel, P. and Kammeyer-Mueller, J. (2002), “Comparing meta-analytic moderator search techniques
under realistic conditions”, Journal of Applied Psychology, Vol. 87 No. 1, pp. 96-111.
Toffler, A. (1981), The Third Wave, Bantam Books, London.
US Census Bureau (2004), Survey of Income and Program Participation, available at: www.
census.gov/newsroom/releases/archives/employment_occupations/cb/ 10-10.html
(accessed 1 August 2011).
Valsecchi, R. (2006), “Visible moves and invisible bodies: the case of teleworking in an Italian call
center”, New Technology, Work and Employment, Vol. 21 No. 2, pp. 123-38.
Verbeke, A., Schultz, R., Greidanus, N. and Hambley, L. (2008), Growing the Virtual Workplace,
Edward Elgar, Northampton.
Wallace, D. (2003), Part-time Work and Family-friendly Practices in Canadian Workplaces,
The Evolving Workplace Series, Statistics Canada, Human Resources Development Canada,
Catalogue No. 71-584-MIE, available at: www.statcan.cg.ca (accessed 22 April 2011).
Welz, C. and Wolf, F. (2010), Telework in the European Union, available at: www.eurofound.
europa.eu (accessed 28 June 2011).
Whitener, E.M. (1990), “Confusion of confidence intervals and credibility intervals in
meta-analysis”, Journal of Applied Psychology, Vol. 75 No. 3, pp. 315-21.
Workman, M. (2000), “The effects of cognitive style and communications media on commitment
to telework and virtual team innovations among information systems teleworkers”,
unpublished doctoral dissertation, Georgia State University, Atlanta, GA.
Yap, C.S. and Tng, H. (1990), “Factors associated with attitudes towards telecommuting”,
Information & Management, Vol. 19 No. 4, pp. 227-35.
Further reading
*Baker, E., Avery, G.C. and Crawford, J. (2006), “Home alone: the role of technology in
telecommuting”, Information Resource Management Journal, Vol. 19 No. 4, pp. 1-22.
*Brenner, E.S. (2006), “Retaining teleworkers: telework as a moderator of typical relationships
between turnover antecedents and turnover intentions”, unpublished doctoral
dissertation, George Washington University, available at: ProQuest Dissertations,
ID 1216750481.
*Golden, T.D. (2006), “Avoiding depletion in virtual work: telework and the intervening impact
of work exhaustion on commitment and turnover intentions”, Journal of Vocational
Behavior, Vol. 69 No. 1, pp. 176-87.
*Golden, T.D., Viega, J.F. and Dino, R.N. (2008), “The impact of professional isolation on
teleworker job performance and turnover intentions: does time spent teleworking,
interacting face-to-face, or having access to communication-enhancing technology
matter?”, Journal of Applied Psychology, Vol. 93 No. 6, pp. 1412-21.
Hartman, R.I., Stoner, C.R. and Arora, R. (1991), “An investigation of selected variables affecting
telecommuting productivity and satisfaction”, Journal of Business and Psychology, Vol. 6
No. 2, pp. 207-25.
*Hill, E.J., Ferris, M. and Martinson, V. (2003), “Does it matter where you work? A comparison of
how three work venues (traditional office, virtual office, and home office) influence
aspects of work and personal/family life”, Journal of Vocational Behavior, Vol. 63 No. 2,
pp. 220-41.
Hunton, J. (2005), “Behavioral self-regulation of telework locations: interrupting interruptions!”,
Journal of Information Systems, Vol. 19 No. 2, pp. 111-40.
Is telework
effective for
organizations?
615
*Kemerling, K.R. (2002), “The effects of telecommuting on employee productivity: a perspective
from managers, office co-workers and telecommuters”, unpublished doctoral dissertation,
Colorado Technical University, available at: ProQuest Dissertations, ID 764850061.
*Kossek, E.E., Lautsch, B. and Eaton, S.C. (2006), “Telecommuting, control, and boundary
management: correlates of policy use and practice, job control, and work-family
effectiveness”, Journal of Vocational Behavior, Vol. 68 No. 2, pp. 347-67.
*O’Neill, T.A., Hambley, L.A., Greidanus, N.S., MacDonnell, R. and Kline, T.J.B. (2009),
“Predicting teleworker success: an exploration of personality, motivational, situational,
and job characteristics”, New Technology, Work and Employment, Vol. 24 No. 2, pp. 144-62.
*Poissonnet, S.P. (2002), “Profiles of fit for successful telework outcomes”, unpublished doctoral
dissertation, University of California, Los Angeles, CA, available at: ProQuest
Dissertations, ID 764926411.
Yehuda, B. and Yuen, Y. (2000), “Inclination to opt for teleworking: a comparative analysis of
United Kingdom versus Hong Kong employees”, International Journal of Manpower,
Vol. 21 No. 7, pp. 521-39.
Corresponding author
Brittany Harker Martin can be contacted at: bhmartin@ucalgary.ca
MRR
35,7
616
To purchase reprints of this article please e-mail: reprints@emeraldinsight.com
Or visit our web site for further details: www.emeraldinsight.com/reprints
Reproducedwith permission of thecopyright owner. Further reproductionprohibited without permission.
... A number of studies have proposed that remote working is detrimental to employees' social, behavioural, and physical wellbeing (Eddleston & Mulki, 2017;Oakman et al., 2020). However, two meta-analysis studies (Gajendran & Harrison, 2007;Harker Martin & MacDonnell, 2012) about remote working under conventional or business-asusual conditions show otherwise. Gajendran and Harrison (2007) examined 46 studies and found that remote working reduces work-family conflict, and it is associated with higher perceptions of autonomy and quality of employee-supervisor relationship. ...
... The benefits of remote working increase for those who work from home on a regular basis (Gajendran & Harrison, 2007). Another meta-analysis of 32 studies (Harker Martin & MacDonnell, 2012) found a small but positive relationship between remote working and organisational outcomes, and perceived benefits, such as increased productivity, more secure retention, strengthened organisational commitment, and improved performance (Harker Martin & MacDonnell, 2012). ...
... The benefits of remote working increase for those who work from home on a regular basis (Gajendran & Harrison, 2007). Another meta-analysis of 32 studies (Harker Martin & MacDonnell, 2012) found a small but positive relationship between remote working and organisational outcomes, and perceived benefits, such as increased productivity, more secure retention, strengthened organisational commitment, and improved performance (Harker Martin & MacDonnell, 2012). ...
Preprint
Full-text available
Due to the Covid-19 pandemic, employees from around the world were compelled to work remotely from home and, in many cases, without much preparation. A substantial body of international research has been conducted on the experiences and attitudes of remote workers as well as the implications of this phenomenon for organisations. While New Zealand research evidence is growing, most existing inquiry is qualitative. This paper provides a quantitative snapshot of remote working using survey data from participants whose jobs can be done from home (n=415). Data collection took place when the country was facing Covid-related measures. Based on descriptive and inferential statistics, it was found that, not only was remote working common, but that hybrid working arrangements were also more prevalent. While half of the participants wanted to work from home more frequently, age, but not gender, was significantly associated with this preference. Another relevant finding is that perceived change in the workplace culture due to flexible work arrangements was significantly associated with preference for working remotely more often. Finally, the most common perceived barriers to working from home were slow internet speed, the need to attend face-to-face meetings, and limited space at home to work. The implications of the results are discussed and some directions for future research are proposed.
... A number of studies have proposed that remote working is detrimental to employees' social, behavioural, and physical wellbeing (Eddleston & Mulki, 2017;Oakman et al., 2020). However, two meta-analysis studies (Gajendran & Harrison, 2007;Harker Martin & MacDonnell, 2012) about remote working under conventional or business-asusual conditions show otherwise. Gajendran and Harrison (2007) examined 46 studies and found that remote working reduces work-family conflict, and it is associated with higher perceptions of autonomy and quality of employee-supervisor relationship. ...
... The benefits of remote working increase for those who work from home on a regular basis (Gajendran & Harrison, 2007). Another meta-analysis of 32 studies (Harker Martin & MacDonnell, 2012) found a small but positive relationship between remote working and organisational outcomes, and perceived benefits, such as increased productivity, more secure retention, strengthened organisational commitment, and improved performance (Harker Martin & MacDonnell, 2012). ...
... The benefits of remote working increase for those who work from home on a regular basis (Gajendran & Harrison, 2007). Another meta-analysis of 32 studies (Harker Martin & MacDonnell, 2012) found a small but positive relationship between remote working and organisational outcomes, and perceived benefits, such as increased productivity, more secure retention, strengthened organisational commitment, and improved performance (Harker Martin & MacDonnell, 2012). ...
Article
Full-text available
Due to the Covid-19 pandemic, employees from around the world were compelled to work remotely from home and, in many cases, without much preparation. A substantial body of international research has been conducted on the experiences and attitudes of remote workers as well as the implications of this phenomenon for organisations. While New Zealand research evidence is growing, most existing inquiry is qualitative. This paper provides a quantitative snapshot of remote working using survey data from participants whose jobs can be done from home (n=415). Data collection took place when the country was facing Covid-related measures. Based on descriptive and inferential statistics, it was found that, not only was remote working common, but that hybrid working arrangements were also more prevalent. While half of the participants wanted to work from home more frequently, age, but not gender, was significantly associated with this preference. Another relevant finding is that perceived change in the workplace culture due to flexible work arrangements was significantly associated with preference for working remotely more often. Finally, the most common perceived barriers to working from home were slow internet speed, the need to attend face-to-face meetings, and limited space at home to work. The implications of the results are discussed and some directions for future research are proposed.
... Cette flexibilité permet aux employés de choisir comment organiser leur travail pour suivre leur rythme de productivité personnel (Pyöriä Pasi, 2011). Par ailleurs, le télétravail contribue également à réduire le taux d'absentéisme et la propension des employés à envisager de quitter leur poste (Harker Martin et MacDonnell, 2012), avec des impacts positifs sur le plan organisationnel. ...
Article
Full-text available
Alors que la pandémie de COVID-19 a permis une accélération vers la transition numérique au sein des organisations, elle a également posé certains défis. Dans le cadre de la gestion de leurs projets, plusieurs organisations ont adopté le télétravail pour maintenir leurs activités, remodelant ainsi leurs pratiques actuelles pour mieux s’adapter à un environnement virtuel. Ces transformations méritent d’être étudiées. Cet article vise alors à comprendre les défis vécus par les individus et les équipes de projet lors de la pandémie de COVID-19. En nous basant sur une étude qualitative, nous illustrons quatre catégories de défis : environnement physique, environnement virtuel, environnement social et pratiques organisationnelles et individuelles. Ainsi, nous mettons en lumière que l’interdépendance des défis met en évidence les interactions systémiques des transformations de l’environnement de travail. La prise en compte de ces défis, ainsi que de leurs relations, est essentielle pour comprendre les transformations organisationnelles.
Article
The COVID-19 pandemic has significantly transformed organizational operations, with remote work emerging abruptly as a prevalent practice during lockdowns and maintaining a pivotal role in contemporary business organizations. This paper investigates the working attitudes shaped by the forced shift to remote work in Italy during the two major waves of COVID-19 lockdowns, exploring a two-wave survey involving 30 Italian companies and 1,861 workers. This research examines the challenges faced by remote workers, their perceptions, and the implications for management control systems. Results indicate that Italian workers' attitudes toward the sudden shift to remote work varied widely, depending on both demographic and organizational factors. Specifically, trust in direct supervisors, number of children, and age emerged as major determinants of workers' attitudes and opinions. Furthermore, these opinions were associated with perceived stress levels.
Article
Full-text available
This study investigates whether the traditional office has become obsolete due to the remote work revolution. Objectives included analyzing factors behind remote work's rise, assessing the productivity and satisfaction of remote vs. in-office work, and determining the traditional office's relevance post-pandemic. Using a mixed-methods approach, survey data from employees and interviews with organizational leaders were examined. Key findings reveal that remote work boosts productivity by 12%, enhances job satisfaction by 15%, and lowers company costs by 25% compared to office-based settings. Statistically, a t-test confirmed significant differences (p < 0.01) in productivity and work-life balance favoring remote work. The study concludes that while remote work offers substantial advantages, challenges in culture and employee mental health remain, suggesting hybrid models as a balanced solution. Recommendations include enhancing digital infrastructure, promoting mental health initiatives, and reimagining office spaces for collaborative tasks. Keywords: remote work, traditional office, productivity, work-life balance, hybrid models
Article
Full-text available
This study investigates whether the traditional office has become obsolete due to the remote work revolution. Objectives included analyzing factors behind remote work's rise, assessing the productivity and satisfaction of remote vs. in-office work, and determining the traditional office's relevance post-pandemic. Using a mixed-methods approach, survey data from employees and interviews with organizational leaders were examined. Key findings reveal that remote work boosts productivity by 12%, enhances job satisfaction by 15%, and lowers company costs by 25% compared to office-based settings. Statistically, a t-test confirmed significant differences (p < 0.01) in productivity and work-life balance favoring remote work. The study concludes that while remote work offers substantial advantages, challenges in culture and employee mental health remain, suggesting hybrid models as a balanced solution. Recommendations include enhancing digital infrastructure, promoting mental health initiatives, and reimagining office spaces for collaborative tasks. Keywords: remote work, traditional office, productivity, work-life balance, hybrid models
Article
Full-text available
This study investigates whether the traditional office has become obsolete due to the remote work revolution. Objectives included analyzing factors behind remote work's rise, assessing the productivity and satisfaction of remote vs. in-office work, and determining the traditional office's relevance post-pandemic. Using a mixed-methods approach, survey data from employees and interviews with organizational leaders were examined. Key findings reveal that remote work boosts productivity by 12%, enhances job satisfaction by 15%, and lowers company costs by 25% compared to office-based settings. Statistically, a t-test confirmed significant differences (p < 0.01) in productivity and work-life balance favoring remote work. The study concludes that while remote work offers substantial advantages, challenges in culture and employee mental health remain, suggesting hybrid models as a balanced solution. Recommendations include enhancing digital infrastructure, promoting mental health initiatives, and reimagining office spaces for collaborative tasks.
Article
Full-text available
This study investigates whether the traditional office has become obsolete due to the remote work revolution. Objectives included analyzing factors behind remote work's rise, assessing the productivity and satisfaction of remote vs. in-office work, and determining the traditional office's relevance post-pandemic. Using a mixed-methods approach, survey data from employees and interviews with organizational leaders were examined. Key findings reveal that remote work boosts productivity by 12%, enhances job satisfaction by 15%, and lowers company costs by 25% compared to office-based settings. Statistically, a t-test confirmed significant differences (p < 0.01) in productivity and work-life balance favoring remote work. The study concludes that while remote work offers substantial advantages, challenges in culture and employee mental health remain, suggesting hybrid models as a balanced solution. Recommendations include enhancing digital infrastructure, promoting mental health initiatives, and reimagining office spaces for collaborative tasks. Keywords: remote work, traditional office, productivity, work-life balance, hybrid models
Article
Full-text available
This study investigates whether the traditional office has become obsolete due to the remote work revolution. Objectives included analyzing factors behind remote work's rise, assessing the productivity and satisfaction of remote vs. in-office work, and determining the traditional office's relevance post-pandemic. Using a mixed-methods approach, survey data from employees and interviews with organizational leaders were examined. Key findings reveal that remote work boosts productivity by 12%, enhances job satisfaction by 15%, and lowers company costs by 25% compared to office-based settings. Statistically, a t-test confirmed significant differences (p < 0.01) in productivity and work-life balance favoring remote work. The study concludes that while remote work offers substantial advantages, challenges in culture and employee mental health remain, suggesting hybrid models as a balanced solution. Recommendations include enhancing digital infrastructure, promoting mental health initiatives, and reimagining office spaces for collaborative tasks. Keywords: remote work, traditional office, productivity, work-life balance, hybrid models
Article
This study examines the effects of teleworking as a human resources policy measure on gender‐specific time poverty. The focus is on the experiences of women with care tasks in Austria. Differences in the design of teleworking models before, during, and after the COVID‐19 pandemic with the introduction of a company policy as well as the resulting group dynamic effects and their connection to time pressure are analyzed. The questions are examined as to what significance the specific context has on the implementation of the teleworking policy and what effects arise from universal HR policy thinking on inclusion in the company. The study shows that women's time poverty worsens in all forms of teleworking due to the context, although positive effects are also visible. The importance of human resource management derives from this in designing telework policies and practices that not only support business objectives but also address the specific challenges faced by employees, particularly women with caregiving responsibilities.
Article
Full-text available
Active experimentation with telecommuting in both the United States and Japan is among the most extensive in the world. However, policy, social, and cultural distinctions result in some important differences in the way telecommuting is adopted by each country. This paper presents a comparison of the policy, social, and cultural contexts for telecommuting in Japan and the United States. An overview of various types of telecommuting and remote office arrangements is provided, illustrating the diversity of Japanese experimentation with the remote-work concept. Reasons for interest in telecommuting are compared, including commute stress, urban growth management, air quality and energy concerns, employee recruitment and retention, savings on office-space costs, and disaster response. Cultural barriers to the adoption of telecommuting in Japan are discussed, including the lack of formal job definition, the preference for face-to-face communication, the importance of the group, limitations of home-based telecommuting, and others. Operational issues potentially supporting or inhibiting the adoption of telecommuting are also described, including technology, marketing, and training. Keywords: telecommuting, teleworking, comparative studies (U.S. / Japan).
Article
Flexible work arrangements are being offered by an increasing number of organizations for recruitment and retention purposes. However, Person-Environment Fit theory (Edwards, 1996) suggests that flexible work arrangements may not be beneficial for all employees. This study examined the relationship of flexible work arrangement use with employee performance, affective commitment, and turnover intentions, while taking into consideration the moderating effects of employees’ preferences for segmenting or integrating their work and home lives. The sample consisted of 172 employees from eight organizations in Ireland. Marginally significant effects for compressed workweeks were found. Implications for future practitioners and future research are discussed.
Article
Managing salespeople you rarely see is no easy task. Here's how to turn a far-flung sales force into a cohesive-and disciplined-team.
Article
Working from home offers potential advantages as well as disadvantages to employers, employees and the self-employed alike. Although no consistent time series exist, data from various sources suggest that the number of Canadians doing some or, in a few cases, all of their regular work at home has been increasing over the past three decades. That growth, however, has been matched by similar proportionate increases in the employment of non-home-based workers, leaving the share of home-based work relatively unchanged. For operational reasons, the practice is most common among social science and educational workers, and least common among manufacturing, construction, accommodation and food service, and health workers. Innovations in information technology in the past decade or two appear to have affected home-based workers more strongly. Use of the computer, e-mail, Internet and telephone for work purposes is much higher among home-based workers than among those who work only outside the home. Also, a larger percentage of home-based workers (employees and self-employed alike) felt their work had become more interesting as a result of computers. The future of home-based work, especially for employees, rests on many factors. From the employr's side, these include issues related to co-ordination and communication with employees, concerns about the security of confidential information, and problems and costs of providing computer technical support at home. From the employee's side, the appeal of a home-based work arrangement is that it is not static and can change according to personal and family demands. For the self-employed, zoning laws will continue to play an important role.
Article
Teleworking is a developing, practice in an increasing trend towards more flexible forms of work. This study investigates the attitudes of employees who have no experience of teleworking and their willingness to opt for it. The 74 participants, from four United Kingdom and three Hong Kong matched small companies in the high technology industry, represent a 54 per cent response rate. The results were surprisingly similar (in means, but not in standard deviations) and showed that both groups, even though coming from different cultures, tend to have similar diversified distribution of tendency to opt for teleworking, with the Hong Kong people more coherent in their answers. Both populations were willing, to a certain extent, to opt for teleworking given a chance, and preferred to practise it on part-time schemes. However, the reasons for the inclinations comprise different sets of antecedents for both populations.
Article
This study examines the impact of alternative telework strategies on professional and personal outcomes. The research design is a longitudinal between‐participants field experiment with two manipulated factors: satellite office space available (no, yes) and downtown office space available (no, yes). In all four conditions, participants could telework from home. The design incorporated a fifth (control) condition with no telework, reflecting current company policy. One hundred sixty medical coders from a large health care company participated in the experiment. Archival data recorded work locations, task interruptions, quality adjusted task performance, and employee retention, while the experience sampling method (ESM) captured cognitive and affective responses. The findings help to explain the social dynamics of work location autonomy in the rich ecological settings of employees' organizational and personal environments.
Article
Purpose The purpose of this paper is to analyse the contribution of human resource (HR) commitment practices to firm performance through the adoption of workplace practices that require the organisational climate created by HR commitment practices. Design/methodology/approach The approach is a survey of 156 Spanish firms and statistical test of research hypotheses through structural equation modelling. Findings The results indicate that the extent that employees have access to HR commitment practices and HR social benefits is positively related to the intensity of telework adoption. Firm performance is positively associated to the intensity of telework adoption, functional flexibility and internal numerical flexibility, and negatively related to external numerical flexibility. HR commitment practices impact directly and indirectly on different measures of firm performance. Research limitations/implications Cross‐sectional, survey‐based data that cannot infer causality. Longitudinal and qualitative designs are needed to get a better understanding of the relationships. A follow‐up study of employees perception of several variables analysed in this study (e.g. access to HR commitment practices and employee benefits) could reveal possible contradictions between what policies managers claim there exist, and what policies employees perceive to exist. Practical implications The adoption of HR commitment practices can facilitate the organisational change required by the adoption of telework. Originality/value The findings provide evidence that HR commitment practices are indirectly related to firm performance through their effects on the use of flexibility practices like telework that require organisational climates containing high levels of trust.