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The International Journal of Cuban Studies Volume 1 Issue 1 June 2008
Universal higher education and sustainable social development
Jorge Núñez Jover Francisco Benítez Cárdenas, Dimas Hernández Gutiérrez and Aurora Fernández
González
1
THE INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF CUBAN STUDIES
www.cubajournal.org
(Print) ISSN 1756-3461 (Online) ISSN 1756-347X
UNIVERSAL HIGHER EDUCATION AND SUSTAINABLE SOCIAL
DEVELOPMENT: THE CUBAN MODEL
Jorge Núñez Jover Francisco Benítez Cárdenas, Dimas Hernández
Gutiérrez and Aurora Fernández González
“Being educated is the only way of being free”
José Martí
Summary
This paper argues that education, particularly higher education, is a key element
in advancing towards a sustainable social development that, in its turn, will
promote social integration. Within contemporary conditions, differences in access
to education and thus knowledge, constitute the principal sources of inequity,
injustice, inequality and social exclusion. A process currently underway in Cuba,
which we have denominated the universalisation of higher education, has made
it possible to attain a gross rate of university matriculation in excess of 60%.
This process of universal higher education constitutes an important educational
and social experiment with very few precedents, at least in the Latin American
and Caribbean countries. Its advance poses formidable practical and theoretical
challenges. For that reason it is important to carefully study its advances and
contradictions. This article is one of the first attempts to systematize this
experience (1). We shall briefly outline the antecedents of the current process of
universalisation, discuss its most outstanding characteristics and, with practical
examples, demonstrate the opportunities offered to local development by the
creation of university campuses in all the municipalities of the country.
Knowledge, education and sustainable social development
It is commonplace to talk of the fact that we live in the ‘information society’.
However, from the perspective of the nations of the South, the issue is not so
simple. Knowledge, placed at the centre of economic competition and the
relations of power, is experiencing a clear tendency to private appropriation and
concentration in companies, regions and countries. Above all in the context of
neo-liberal domination, knowledge has been submerged in a legal, institutional,
economic and military web that cancels the condition of public well-being
traditionally attributed to it.
The International Journal of Cuban Studies Volume 1 Issue 1 June 2008
Universal higher education and sustainable social development
Jorge Núñez Jover Francisco Benítez Cárdenas, Dimas Hernández Gutiérrez and Aurora Fernández
González
2
However, at the present time, knowledge, research and technological advance
are highly significant in any development strategy. From a social perspective the
key questions are: knowledge and higher education to what end? Knowledge and
higher education for whom? In function of what social objectives are higher
education policies, policies of production, diffusion and application of knowledge
directed?
Despite the modest advances that the Economic Commission for Latin America
and the Caribbean (ECLAC, 2006) acknowledges for the four-year period 2003-
06 in relation to the reduction of poverty and unemployment, plus an
improvement in income distribution based on information reported by certain
Latin American and Caribbean countries, statistics reveal that in 2005, 39.8% of
the population were living in conditions of poverty (209 million people) and
15.4% of the population (81 million people) were living in extreme poverty or
destitution. Latin America remains a kingdom of social inequality. That pattern of
polarisation between wealth and poverty is a function of generalised education
shortcomings that include a high degree of illiteracy and the still notably
exclusive nature of higher education. In current conditions, inequalities in access
to knowledge and education are becoming the primordial source of inequality
and social exclusion. Access to higher education in Latin America and the
Caribbean continues to be notably restricted and barely democratic (Souza
Santos, 2006).
We assume that development strategies proposed to overcome such problems
should offer educational opportunities to all citizens as a fundamental road to
social inclusion and the advance towards higher goals of equity and social justice.
People, human beings and the improvement of their quality of life, must
constitute the principal objective of such transformations. But, at the same time,
it is those people who can, in the final analysis, become fundamental agents in
the desired transformations. That dialectic, which integrates the double condition
of agents and beneficiaries, is only possible if people have access to education,
including advanced education and, via that, can extend their possibilities of social
participation and their leading role in the deployment of productive and
innovative capacities based on wide-ranging processes of the social appropriation
of knowledge (Nuñez et al, 2006b) in which accessible higher education for all
plays a primordial role.
One could surmise that universal access to quality higher education constitutes a
desirable and probably necessary goal for advancing development projects of a
wide social reach. In Cuba, the strategy for achieving this is known as the higher
education universalisation process.
The objective of this is linked to what is a prolonged debate about access to
higher education. The World Conference on Higher Education (UNESCO 1998)
emphasised the need to achieve a veritable equality of access, based on merit
and capacity, with no discrimination in terms of ethnic origin, gender, language,
religion or economic, cultural or social circumstances, or physical disability, and
its opening up to anyone who has satisfactorily completed secondary education
without distinction of age.
The International Journal of Cuban Studies Volume 1 Issue 1 June 2008
Universal higher education and sustainable social development
Jorge Núñez Jover Francisco Benítez Cárdenas, Dimas Hernández Gutiérrez and Aurora Fernández
González
3
While acknowledging the value of these formulations, the objective of
universalisation makes it obligatory to take things a lot further. It is evident that
people do not have equal opportunities for developing merit and capacity. The
massification of higher education, as is has been conceived of to date, has not
prevented the persistence of discrimination for these and other reasons. The
formula “as far as possible” suggests access options that could remain very
limited.
The universalisation of higher education essentially requires public policies that
will promote it. States and governments have fundamental roles to play in order
to facilitate access, permanence in and graduation from higher education.
In conjunction with this, universalisation needs to notably extend training
spaces, learning spaces, approximating these as closely as possible to people’s
living and work scenarios. It is difficult to imagine a significant growth of access
without an overflow of traditional university sites and the transformation of
teaching methods. As we shall demonstrate later, universalisation is a process
that requires an ample social participation.
Universalisation thus demands another vision of training, teaching and learning
processes. It probably also demands an alternative vision of the idea of quality.
Quality and massivity are frequently assumed as mutually exclusive concepts.
Since inequality of access to quality education necessarily implies inequality in
other social spheres, it is our view that the question of quality of university
studies must incorporate as one objective the inclusion of all social sectors.
In Cuba, education has occupied an important place on the political agenda. In
the following section we shall outline the antecedents of the current process of
universalisation from that perspective.
The social politics of knowledge
In 1959, a process of profound social transformations was set in motion in Cuba,
the socialist objectives of which were officially announced in 1961. One of the
key characteristics of the social programme instigated and one of its principal
contexts was the implementation of what we shall call a ‘social policy of
knowledge’ (Núñez and Figaredo, 2007).
That policy had its basic starting point in the 1961 Literacy Campaign. That was
followed by measures such as the nationalisation of teaching, free access to
education, and a wide-ranging policy of publishing and distributing books free of
charge. Mass scholarship plans made access to education possible for students
from all parts of the country and any social background. The development of
adult education, training programmes for campesinos – particularly women –
were some of many actions to provide mass access to education.
The University Reform of 1962 (Higher Council of Universities, 1962) was a
significant landmark in that early policy instigated by the Cuban government. It
profoundly modified degree courses and study plans, incorporated scientific
research and created a close link between theory and practice within university
education.
The International Journal of Cuban Studies Volume 1 Issue 1 June 2008
Universal higher education and sustainable social development
Jorge Núñez Jover Francisco Benítez Cárdenas, Dimas Hernández Gutiérrez and Aurora Fernández
González
4
We are talking of a social policy of knowledge because this has been a deliberate
strategy, sustained and promoted by the highest levels of government and
directed towards the extension of the benefits of knowledge to all Cubans. It
consists of building strategies directed at the production, appropriation, diffusion
and application of knowledge; at strengthening its institutional bases; and
defining agendas that project objectives and priorities of wide-ranging and
positive social impact. That policy has continued in place to date, expressed in
the educational and cultural transformations that the country is currently
undertaking.The existence of a social policy of knowledge is what makes possible
the process of the social appropriation of knowledge and affords knowledge a
wide social function. The universalisation of higher education can be understood
as one expression of that policy.
The universalisation of higher education
The universalisation of higher education can be considered as a strategy
developed since the initial years of the triumph of the Revolution. In 1957
President Fidel Castro stated: “One cannot conceive of solving future problems if
knowledge is not universalised.” That idea was based on the conviction that “in
the future every productive process or service in the country will require a
considerable degree of knowledge.” And hence, the need for universal university
education: “It will take us a long time before making the final leap, which will be
university education. And it won’t be a leap; it will be the result of earlier leaps.
Because once we have succeeded in making universal education a reality up to
sixth form level, the step toward universalising university education will naturally
flow from that” (Castro, 1957).
The universalisation of higher education must be understood as a systematic
process of increasing access opportunities to higher education and the
multiplication and extension of knowledge as a vehicle for cultural development,
citizens’ education, technical training, all linked to the objectives of equity and
social justice proposed by our society. In the 1960s that policy was expressed in
the establishment of free university education and the aforementioned creation
of a scholarship system that extended options for study to the poorest sectors of
the population in every province of the country. In the 1970s there was a
significant increase in workers’ access to higher education.
In the 1976-77 academic year there was at least one Institute of Higher
Education (IES) in 10 of the country’s 14 provinces, and branches of these were
functioning in the others. Teaching units were set up in the goods and service
sectors as a way of integrating training and production. In July 1976 the
Ministry of Higher Education was founded, with responsibility for directing
educational policy at this level of teaching. Its creation gave impetus to
university studies throughout the country. At the end of 1979 Distance Education
was implemented, thus further extending sources and means of access to
university studies. The IES network continued to grow in the 1980s, and
university enrolment in the 1986-87 academic year reached a total of 310,000
students.
The International Journal of Cuban Studies Volume 1 Issue 1 June 2008
Universal higher education and sustainable social development
Jorge Núñez Jover Francisco Benítez Cárdenas, Dimas Hernández Gutiérrez and Aurora Fernández
González
5
In the first half of the 90s, faced with a contraction in demand for graduates
related to the acute economic crisis that the country was confronting, there was
a gradual reduction in undergraduate student enrolment. In parallel, the IES
network continued to expand, to reach its current total of 65 institutes, thus
facilitating access to most higher education courses in all the provinces. In that
decade postgraduate education (Fernández and Núñez, 1996) was notably
extended and significant efforts in the area of research and innovation began to
take off (Núñez and Pérez, 2007).
However, the contraction in university entrance led to a significant group of
young people without access to higher education - which was in contradiction
with the universal higher education policy of the former decades and also
generated forms of exclusion and inequality that brought into question the
values defended since the social project was first introduced.
New social and educational programmes
In the early part of 2000, after the worst period of the economic crisis had been
overcome, the need to attend to training needs – accumulated and new – in the
education, health and social work spheres could be addressed. To that end, a
conjunction of social and education programmes were created to train social
workers, assistant teachers, assistant teachers in computation, secondary school
assistant teachers, arts instructors, physical education teachers, assistant nurses
and health technicians. A growing number of young people were incorporated
into these programmes with the idea that they could subsequently move on to
higher education courses. Through the Integral Retraining Course for Young
People (CSIJ), directed at young people without labour or educational
attachments, more than 100,000 young adults aged 17-29 were reincorporated
into education.
In 2002 the country began to implement a radical restructuring process within
the sugar-cane industry. Out of 155 mills, 71 remained active, leaving the
enormous challenge of converting the 84 sugarcane agribusinesses into
agricultural, cattle-raising and forestry farms, and of redeploying some 100,000
people with basic secondary or technical education levels into training schemes,
or university courses, preferably within the technical sciences.
Within a short space of time, those advances began to put great pressure on the
higher education system. It soon became apparent that the new demand could
not be assimilated via traditional formulas. The changes that followed gave rise
to a new stage in universal higher education, with the fundamental participation
of the four principal higher education agencies: the Ministry of Education (MES)
with a leading methodological role; the Ministry of Education (MINED); the
Ministry of Public Health (MINSAP); and the National Institute of Sports and
Recreation.
The International Journal of Cuban Studies Volume 1 Issue 1 June 2008
Universal higher education and sustainable social development
Jorge Núñez Jover Francisco Benítez Cárdenas, Dimas Hernández Gutiérrez and Aurora Fernández
González
6
Bases of universalisation in its present stage
The new stage of universalising higher education required certain strategic
decisions. The first was to break through the traditional university campus model
and extend learning spaces via the creation of municipal university sites (SUM) -
branches located in major municipalities and other venues close to places where
people live and work. The following table shows the growth of the number of
sites.
Year Number of SUMs
2002-3 390
2003-4 774
2004-5 938
2005-6 3150
2006-7 3150
Table 1. Sites per course year
Of an initial figure of 390 in the course year 2002-03, the number increased to
3,150 in the course year 2005-06. The rapid growth of the number of sites is
due to subsequent decisions that have transferred a large sector of medical and
teacher-training courses to municipal facilities (polytechnics and schools).
The second strategic decision consisted of subordinating municipal university
campuses to the Institutes of Higher Education (IES) existing in the provinces.
With that step, each course developed in the SUMs is directed by and under the
care of the faculties located in the corresponding IES, and the full utilisation of
all the experience accumulated in the IES network is assured. This combination
of the central sites and the SUM is now known as the New University. The New
University incorporates the central university sites with their traditional
structures and teaching and research activities: careers, research and study
centres, Master and Doctorate programmes, plus traditions and training capacity
formed over decades or centuries.
The third strategic decision was that of recruiting professionals resident in the
municipalities as part-time teaching staff while completing their training on
educational courses to enable them to teach within the educational model
conceived for the SUM. In 2002, 39,398 teachers were incorporated into the
SUM, and by the 2006-07 course year, their number had risen to 114,060,
94,375 of them part-time. Professors and students at the central university
campuses likewise collaborate in the SUM.
To summarize, the new stage of universal education has been made possible by
a combination of factors, including:
1) The existence of a significant group of students, many of them
incorporated into important social programmes, with the possibility of
moving on to higher education studies.
2) The state decision to provide the basic resources needed to develop this
programme (infrastructure, text-books, video cassettes, VCR’s,
The International Journal of Cuban Studies Volume 1 Issue 1 June 2008
Universal higher education and sustainable social development
Jorge Núñez Jover Francisco Benítez Cárdenas, Dimas Hernández Gutiérrez and Aurora Fernández
González
7
computers, televisions and management and coordination capacity at
municipal level during this period).
3) The 800,000 university graduates in the country and their distribution
throughout the entire national territory.
4) The available educational infrastructure.
5) A computer training system covering 600 community centres for studying
computation with trained teachers, known as the Computer Youth Clubs.
6) An expanding national computer network that has taken optic fibres to
virtually all the country’s municipalities.
7) The social capital available (see Putnam and Goss, 2002; Putnam,
Leonard and Nanneti, 1994); in other words, the great potential of
cooperation, solidarity and integration of the agents involved - the IES,
governments, social organisations, enterprises - on the basis of shared
confidence, values and objectives that facilitate the mobilisation of
existing resources and coordinated implementation.
As a result of the new opportunities of access to higher education, 685,600
people are currently studying on 94 courses (the gross matriculation rate in
higher education for the population aged 18-24). In the SUM, 528,442 students
are enrolled in 47 courses covering Humanities and Social Science, Economy,
Technical Science (including Informatics), Medicine, Teacher Training and those
linked to Physical Education and Sports. The following table shows the changes
that have occurred in SUM enrolments.
Year Total
Courses
Total
Enrolment
2001-02 7 1 142
2002-03 33 72 781
2003-04 44 161 666
2004-05 46 233 555
2005-06 47 365 412
2006-07 47 528 442
Table 2. Enrolment totals and courses per year
One of the greatest challenges of universalisation in its new stage is to ensure
that students, the majority of whom are both working and studying, continue
with and complete their studies. To that end the teaching method adopted for
universities has some unique characteristics, for example:
1) A focus on holistic development through professional preparation and
scientific-technical training; humanities; political and ideological
development; conduct based on values; as well as independence,
creativity, and a high degree of social commitment.
The International Journal of Cuban Studies Volume 1 Issue 1 June 2008
Universal higher education and sustainable social development
Jorge Núñez Jover Francisco Benítez Cárdenas, Dimas Hernández Gutiérrez and Aurora Fernández
González
8
2) Flexibility. Students enrol in subjects that they have the ability to study
and pass, taking into consideration their other commitments, personal
situations and assimilation capacity.
3) Student-centred activities: in other words, encouraging the capacity for
self-education and independent study. The efforts of teachers and tutors
are aimed at stimulating students’ motivation, which is fundamental here.
Universal higher education is also stimulating the retraining of professionals
living in different areas and currently working as part-time teachers. The
consequences of these transformations in the context of local development are
significant. Without any doubt, they are benefiting the social and cultural life of
the municipalities. Their impact can be perceived as much at community level as
at individual and family level. New perspectives are being opened up for the
social and professional development of young people via their access to higher
levels of education and culture, and the potential is being created for the
transformation of the social and material life of each province. The municipalities
are now assuming a more active role in training the professionals that they need
for their development.
The first graduation of SUM students was in July 2007. In the provinces of City
of Havana and Matanzas, where this programme began in the 2001-02 course
year, 479 graduates completed their studies. In the final exercise, which took
the form of a state examination or the presentation of a thesis, professors –
including those from central campuses – confirmed students’ competence in the
professions for which they were trained and their capacity of analysis in terms of
addressing relevant social problems. These graduates were assessed as
demonstrating a level equivalent to those educated by more traditional methods
in the universities and this is reflected in the fact that the degrees of both
groups have the same legal value.
The benefits could prove to be even greater. In the following section we shall
explore another dimension in which universal education is contributing to
sustainable social development based on knowledge.
Knowledge, innovation and local development
A large number of university graduates in the provinces are working in the SUMs.
No other provincial institution brings together that human potential. As opposed
to the earlier IES, local development is the principal objective of the SUM. Given
this factor the possibility arises for them to become catalysing agents for local
development processes, based on their capacity for sharing knowledge and
generating innovations.
On the other hand, the country has an urgent need to mobilize its productive
potential, particularly in areas such as food production, housing projects, energy
savings and the generation of alternative sources of energy. There is also ample
space for improving public administration systems. Universities and higher
education research centres possess most of the knowledge and technology
needed to attend to these needs and a number of networks generated by them
The International Journal of Cuban Studies Volume 1 Issue 1 June 2008
Universal higher education and sustainable social development
Jorge Núñez Jover Francisco Benítez Cárdenas, Dimas Hernández Gutiérrez and Aurora Fernández
González
9
are operating in dozens of the country’s municipalities. Linked into those groups,
the SUM can actively collaborate, for example, in technology transfer projects,
including the learning processes associated with them.
These experiences are very recent and it is early days in terms of evaluating
them. But there are interesting examples that indicate short-term gains. We
have selected some of them to illustrate this point.
In the Camajuaní municipality (2) in conjunction with local agencies and the
collaboration of the Las Villas Central University and international support, the
SUM is undertaking an unusual experiment which has contributed to the
construction and functioning of a local network for the handling of knowledge,
directed toward meeting social needs. An initial participative diagnosis was
undertaken with local agencies to identify the area’s principal needs: the
production of food and construction materials, and housing; the development of
local industry; training and computerization; water and energy. Studies
undertaken demonstrate that economic and social changes in the municipality
have had a negative impact on the environment.
Camajuaní is an agricultural municipality based on the cultivation of sugar cane,
tobacco and mixed crops, with a significant number of medium and small
industries, some of which are known for the quality and tradition of their
products. Experiences in food production have been highly successful via work
with the municipal agricultural production cooperatives. The SUM can contribute
to that effort, among other reasons because it runs three agrarian courses with
an enrolment of 144 students, and has 14 full-time and 195 part-time
professors. Work with the cooperatives has included: conservation and soil
rehabilitation programmes, biodiversity protection, food conservation,
environmental education, community-based retraining and creating local
‘campesino to campesino’ promoters.
The utilisation of agro-ecological technologies in the cooperatives has marked the
beginning of their sustainable, economic and ecological development. Today, the
farms are demonstrating a more intensive and sustainable use of land, apparent
in the number of species handled and the greater content of organic material.
Campesinos are improving production levels, thus improving their own economic
and social conditions. The dominant patterns of production and consumption that
contributed to environmental deterioration have been changed, biological
diversity has been restored, as has quality of the ecosystems, thus creating the
conditions for a balance between local development and protection of the
biosphere. The SUM also undertook social investigations to identify obstacles
limiting the advance toward sustainable development. The project is
characterised by broad-based social participation and is promoting techno-
scientific communities by giving their members active influence in terms of
implementing the innovations.
This example demonstrates that the SUM can work on various kinds of significant
local innovations: hardware (equipment and products), software (information
systems, management technology) and orgware (strategic public management
methods). In other words, the SUM can promote social technologies (3). The
SUM are involved in significant work for the promotion of local development,
including: helping to think out local development strategies and the role played
The International Journal of Cuban Studies Volume 1 Issue 1 June 2008
Universal higher education and sustainable social development
Jorge Núñez Jover Francisco Benítez Cárdenas, Dimas Hernández Gutiérrez and Aurora Fernández
González
10
by knowledge in those strategies; contributing to increasing the capacities to
absorb/construct/ spread knowledge and technologies; facilitating the connection
of institutes in the municipality via information networks, thus allowing a flow of
the knowledge necessary for local development; and identifying local
arrangements and productive systems (Cassiato and Lastres, 2003), as well as
the knowledge and technologies needed for their development, thus promoting a
techno-scientific population.
The road to be travelled by the SUM is a long and complicated one. The majority
of teachers are working part-time in the SUM and have other labour
commitments; the process of training students is just beginning and teaching
quality is a principal concern; the Cuban economic system to date does not
always function to the benefit of local economic dynamics and the emphasis on
local development is still incipient; teachers’ salaries do not always meet their
expectations and the resources available for the SUM are scant. However,
teaching personnel with much practical experience, knowledge of the localities in
which they are working and solid motivation have come together in certain sites.
In many municipalities the SUM enjoys symbolic capital and thus can mobilise
the support of local government and other agencies. The SUM has the support of
the IES and research centres, which facilitates knowledge and technological
transfer and international cooperation is playing a complementary role in some of
the municipalities.
Final comments
The changes taking place in Cuban higher education are an attempt to contribute
to sustainable social development based on knowledge. In this paper we have
outlined the most important characteristics of the process of universalising
Cuban higher education, its origins, conceptual bases and certain experiences.
These indicate that the incorporation of the majority of young people into
university studies offers new opportunities for a kind of social development that
is attentive to social integration, justice and equity, where the training of
members of society allows them, to a large extent, to act as both beneficiaries
and agents of development. However, the educational model implemented is a
highly innovative one and poses formidable challenges.
In conjunction with this process, the creation of university campuses in all of the
country’s municipalities offers greater possibilities of a positive exchange
between knowledge and technologies and the social, economic, environmental
and cultural needs of communities. Within the SUM, social innovations can find
new ways of contributing to sustainable social development, as demonstrated in
the experiences on which we have commented.
Jorge Núñez Jover is a Professor at the University of Havana,
Francisco Benítez Cárdenas is a Technical Specialist at the Ministry of Higher
Education,
Dimas Hernández Gutiérrez is Director at the Ministry of Higher Education
and Aurora Fernández González is Deputy Minister at the Ministry of Higher
Education.
The International Journal of Cuban Studies Volume 1 Issue 1 June 2008
Universal higher education and sustainable social development
Jorge Núñez Jover Francisco Benítez Cárdenas, Dimas Hernández Gutiérrez and Aurora Fernández
González
11
Notes
(1) The Cuban process of the universalisation of higher education has been
discussed in a number of academic forums; for example, the International Higher
Education Congresses UNIVERSIDAD 2006 and 2008, both in Havana. In
Hernández, D. et al (2006) and Núñez, J. et al 2006a, 2006b and 2007 focuses
and experiences were discussed. There are various academic initiatives for
studying the process, including the University Management of Knowledge and
Innovation for Development Research Programme, with 74 projects, with the
participation of the authors.
(2) Camajuaní is a municipality in Villa Clara province with an extensión of 614
sq.km and 64,000 inhabitants. We are grateful for the collaboration of Carlos A.
Hernández Medina, SUM deputy director in Camajuaní.
(3) Social technologies have been defined as: “a conjunction of transformation
techniques and methodologies developed and/or applied in interaction with the
population and appropriated by it, which represent solutions in relation to social
inclusion and improved living conditions” (see http://www.itsbrasil.org.br).
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Universal higher education and sustainable social development
Jorge Núñez Jover Francisco Benítez Cárdenas, Dimas Hernández Gutiérrez and Aurora Fernández
González
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Copyright for this work is held jointly between the co-authors and the International
Journal of Cuban Studies under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-No
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IJCS Volume 1 Issue 1 June 2008
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