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MOLECULAR TARGETS AND THERAPEUTIC USES OF SPICES - Modern Uses for Ancient Medicine
© World Scientific Publishing Co. Pte. Ltd.
http://www.worldscibooks.com/lifesci/7150.html
1
Traditional Uses of Spices:
An Overview
Ajaikumar B. Kunnumakkara, Cemile Koca, Sanjit Dey, Prashasnika Gehlot,
Supachi Yodkeeree, Divya Danda, Bokyung Sung and Bharat B. Aggarwal*
From ancient times, spices have played a major role in the lifestyle of
people from certain parts of the world. They have served numerous roles
through history, including as coloring agents, flavoring agents, preserv-
atives, food additives and medicine. The active phytochemicals derived
from these spices have provided the molecular basis for these actions.
This chapter reviews the traditional uses of selected spices.
INTRODUCTION
A spice is a dried seed, fruit, root, bark or flower of a plant or a herb used
in small quantities for flavor, color or as a preservative. Many of these
substances are also used in traditional medicines. Globalization has made
these spices easily available, and increasing their popularity. This chapter
reviews the traditional uses of selected spices.
BLACK PEPPER
Black pepper (Piper nigrum Linn.) is the world’s most common spice and
known as the “King of Spices.” The word “pepper” is derived from the
1
*Corresponding author.
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Sanskrit pippali, the word for long pepper, via the Latin piper, which was
used by the Romans to refer both to pepper and long pepper (as the
Romans erroneously believed that both of these spices were derived from
the same plant). The English word for pepper is derived from the Old
English “pipor.” The Latin word is also the source of German pfeffer,
French poivre, Dutch peper, and other similar forms. “Pepper” was used
in a figurative sense to mean “spirit” or “energy” at least as far back as
the 1840s; in the early 20th century, this was shortened to pep. Pepper is
a perennial vine and a native of South India. In its dried form, the fruit is
often referred to as peppercorns. Peppercorns, and the powdered pepper
derived from grinding them, may be described as black pepper, white
pepper, red/pink pepper, and green pepper. The sole use of black pepper
is in the seasoning of food owing to its aroma and pungency. In tradi-
tional medicines, this spice is also reported to have digestive power, to
improve appetite, and to cure cold, cough, dyspnea, diseases of the throat,
intermittent fever, colic, dysentery, worms and piles (Fig. 1).1The uses of
2A. B. Kunnumakkara
et al
.
Constipation
Diarrhea
Earache
Gangrene
Heart disease
Hernia
Indigestion
Insect bites
Insomnia
Joint pain
Liver disorders
Lung diseases
Oral abscesses
Sunburn
Toothdecay
Abdominal
tumors
Epilepsy
Pyretic
Fig. 1. Traditional uses of black pepper.
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black pepper in traditional medicine as an antipyretic and anti-inflammatory
are supported by modern science.2,3 In folk medicine, black pepper is also
used against epilepsy and snake bite.4The 5th century Syriac Book of
Medicines prescribes pepper (or perhaps long pepper) for such illnesses as
constipation, diarrhea, earache, gangrene, heart disease, hernia, hoarseness,
indigestion, insect bites, insomnia, joint pain, liver problems, lung disease,
oral abscesses, sunburn, tooth decay, and toothaches. Pepper root, in the
form of ghees, powders, enemas and balms, is a folk remedy for abdominal
tumors. Chinese use the spice for urinary calculus. An electuary prepared
from the seed is said to help hard tumors, while a salve prepared from the
seed is said to help eye indurations and internal tumors.5
CARDAMOM
Cardamom consists of two genera of the ginger family Zingiberaceae,
namely Elettaria and Amomum. In South Asia green cardamom is called
elaichi in Marathi, Hindi and Urdu. It is called elakkaay in Telugu and
elam in Tamil. All these cardamom species are used as cooking spices.
Medically, cardamom is used for flatulent indigestion and to stimulate the
appetite in people with anorexia (Fig. 2). Moreover, in Ayurvedic medi-
cine it is used as a carminative, diuretic, stomachic and digestive, and for
cough, colds and cardiac stimulation. Cardamom has been used in tradi-
tional medicine against kidney and urinary disorders,6and as a
gastrointestinal protective.7Cardamom oil has reported anti-inflamma-
tory8and antibacterial uses.9In India, green cardamom (A. subulatum) is
broadly used to treat infections of the teeth and gums, to prevent and treat
throat trouble, congestion of the lungs and pulmonary tuberculosis,
asthma, heart disease, inflammation of the eyelids and digestive disorders.
When mixed with neem and camphor, cardamom is used as a nasal prepa-
ration to treat colds. An infusion of cardamom can be used as a gargle to
relieve sore throats, which has led to its use in cough sweets. Cardamom
is also reportedly used as an antidote for both snake and scorpion venom
and for food poisoning. In traditional Chinese medicine it is used to treat
stomachache, constipation, dysentery, and other digestion problems.
Cardamom pods, fried and mixed with mastic and milk, are used for blad-
der problems. The seeds are popularly believed to be an aphrodisiac.10
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CINNAMON
Cinnamon (Cinnamomum verum or C. zeylanicum) is native to India,
Sri Lanka, Bangladesh, and Nepal. The name “cinnamon” comes from
Greek kinnám
ō
mon, itself ultimately from Phoenician. The botanical
name for the spice, Cinnamomum zeylanicum, is derived from Sri Lanka’s
former (colonial) name, Ceylon. In sinhala (Sri Lanka), it is known as
kurundu, Sanskrit as tvak or da
-rusita
-, Hindi as dalchini, and in Gujarati as
taj. In Malayalam cinnamon is called karuva or elavarngam. The dried skin
(karuvappatta/elavarngappatta) of karuva is an important part of spicy cur-
ries. This spice is regarded as antipyretic, antiseptic, astringent, balsamic,
carminative, diaphoretic, fungicidal, stimulant, and stomachic (Fig. 3).
The powdered bark of this spice in water is applied to alleviate headaches
and neuralgia. Cinnamon is often combined with ginger to stimulate cir-
culation and digestion. In addition, among people of Kashmiri origin,
cinnamon is used to treat infectious diseases. It has been regarded as a folk
4A. B. Kunnumakkara
et al
.
Teeth
infection
Urinary
diseases
Kidney
diseases
Heart disease
Constipation
Scorpion
bite
Colds
Eyelid
inflammation
Bladder
diseases
Asthma
Pulmonary
tuberculosis
Food
poisoning
Bacterial
infection
Sore throats
Digestive
disorders
Snake bite
Fig. 2. Traditional uses of cardamom.
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remedy for indurations (of spleen, breast, uterus, liver and stomach) and
tumors (especially of the abdomen, liver and sinews).11–14
CLOVES
Cloves (Syzygium aromaticum, or Eugenia aromaticum or Eugenia caryo-
phyllata) are the aromatic dried flower buds of a tree in the Myrtaceae
family. Cloves are native to Indonesia and are used as a spice in cuisine all
over the world. The name derives from the French “clou,” (meaning “nail”)
as the buds vaguely resemble small irregular nails in shape. The spice is
used in Ayurveda, Chinese medicine and Western herbalism and dentistry,
where the essential oil is used as an anodyne (painkiller) for dental emer-
gencies (Fig. 4). It has been reported as analgesic, anesthetic, antibacterial,
antiparasitic, antidotal, antioxidant, antiperspirant, antiseptic, carminative,
deodorant, digestive, rubefacient, stimulant, stomachic, tonic and ver-
mifugal.15 Cloves are used as a carminative to increase hydrochloric acid
Traditional Uses of Spices: An Overview 5
Headache
Tumors
Organ
indurations
Diaphoresis
Stomachic
Bacterial
infection
Neuralgia
Astringent
Fungal
infection
Sore throats
Spasms
Fig. 3. Traditional uses of cinnamon.
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in the stomach and to improve peristalsis. Cloves are also said to be a
natural antihelmintic.16 The essential oil is used in aromatherapy, espe-
cially for digestive problems. Topical application of this spice over the
stomach or abdomen will warm the digestive tract. In Chinese medicine
cloves are considered acrid, warm and aromatic, entering the kidney,
spleen and stomach meridians, and are notable in their ability to warm
the middle, direct stomach qi (energy flow) downward, treat hiccough
and fortify the kidney.17 Because the herb is so warming, it is con-
traindicated in any persons with fire symptoms. As such it is used in
formulas for impotence or clear vaginal discharge, for morning sickness
together with ginseng and patchouli, and for vomiting and diarrhea due
to spleen and stomach coldness.18 Clove oil is used in various skin dis-
orders like acne and pimples, to treat severe burns and skin irritations,
and to reduce the sensitiveness of the skin. Cloves are used for the treat-
ment of dog and cat ear problems in British Columbia, Canada. The
essential oil extracted from cloves is used as an ointment to relieve pain
6A. B. Kunnumakkara
et al
.
Parasite
infection
Sepsis
Acne, pimples
Skin irritations
Morning
sickness
Pain killer
Stimulant
Antiperspirant
Stomachic
Analgesic
Poisoning
Anesthetic
Bacterial
infection
Rubefacient
Carminative
Vermifuge
Fig. 4. Traditional uses of cloves.
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and promote healing in herbal medicine. Cloves are also employed as a
fragrance in flavoring industries.
CORIANDER
Coriandrum sativum L. Apiaceae (Umbelliferae) (coriander, also
known as cilantro, cilantrillo, Arab parsley, Chinese parsley, Mexican
parsley, Dhania and Yuen sai), is native to southwestern Asia and
regions west to north Africa. The name “coriander” derives from the
French coriandre through Latin coriandrum and in turn from Greek
κορíαννον.19 John Chadwick notes the Mycenaean Greek form of the
word, koriadnon, “has a pattern curiously similar to the name of Minos’
(Minos became a judge of the dead in Hades in Greek mythology)
daughter Ariadne,” and this explains how the word might have been
corrupted later to koriannon or koriandron.20 It is an annual herb com-
monly used in Middle Eastern, Mediterranean, Indian, Latin American,
African and Southeast Asian cuisine. Coriander leaves are referred to as
cilantro (United States and Canada, from the Spanish name for the
plant), dhania (Indian subcontinent, and increasingly in Britain),
kindza (in Georgia), Chinese parsley or Mexican parsley. All parts of
the plant are edible, but the fresh leaves and the dried seeds are the
most common parts used in cooking.21 As heat diminishes their flavor
quickly, coriander leaves are often used raw or added to the dish right
before serving.
In Indian traditional medicine, coriander is used in the disorders of
digestive, respiratory and urinary systems as it has diaphoretic, diuretic,
carminative and stimulant activities (Fig. 5). The plant is recommended for
relief of anxiety and insomnia in Iranian folk medicine,22 and it is a common
plant included in the Mexican diet, usually consumed uncooked, the oil
being used as an antimicrobial agent and as a natural fragrance.23 It is also
recommended for urethritis, cystitis, urinary tract infection, urticaria, rash,
burns, sore throat, vomiting, indigestion, nosebleed, cough, allergies, hay
fever, dizziness and amebic dysentery.24 Locally known as “Maadnouss” in
Morocco, coriander has been documented as a traditional treatment for dia-
betes, indigestion, flatulence, insomnia, renal disorders and loss of appetite,
and as a diuretic.25
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FENUGREEK
Fenugreek (Trigonella foenum-graecum) is commonly known as maithray
(Bangla, Gujarati), methi or mithi (Hindi, Nepali, Marathi, Urdu and
Sanskrit), menthyada soppu (Kannada), ventayam (Tamil), menthulu
(Telugu), hilbeh (Arabic), ulluva (Malayalam) and shambalîleh (Persian).
The name “fenugreek” or foenum-graecum is from Latin for “Greek hay.”
In traditional medicines it is used as an aphrodisiac, astringent, demulcent,
carminative, stomachic, diuretic, emmenagogue, emollient, expectorant,
lactogogue, restorative, and tonic (Fig. 6).26 Fenugreek is used for a variety
of health conditions, including digestive problems, bronchitis, tuberculosis,
fevers, sore throats, wounds, arthritis, abscesses, swollen glands, skin irrita-
tions, diabetes, loss of appetite, ulcers and menopausal symptoms, as well
as in the treatment of cancer. An infusion of the leaves is used as a gargle
for recurrent mouth ulcers. As an emollient it is used in poultices for boils,
cysts and other complaints. It is used to reduce blood sugar level and to
8A. B. Kunnumakkara
et al
.
Cystitis
Respiratory
disorders
Digestive
disorders
Renal
disorders
Loss of
appetite
Insomnia
Allergies
Vomiting
Hay fever
Rashes
Burns
Sore throat
Urinary
disorders
Cough
Nosebleed
Dizziness
Fig. 5. Traditional uses of corriander.
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lower blood pressure. Fenugreek has been demonstrated to relieve conges-
tion, reduce inflammation and fight infection. Fenugreek is used for treating
sinus and lung congestion, and loosens and removes excess mucus and
phlegm. The Chinese use the seed for abdominal pain, chilblains, cholecy-
tosis, fever, hernia, impotence, hypogastrosis, nephrosis, and rheumatism.26
GARLIC
Garlic (Allium sativum L.) is a species in the onion family, Alliaceae. One of
the oldest dietary vegetables, it has been used as early as 3000 BC for the
treatment of intestinal disorders and is now known for its fibrinolytic activ-
ity and its possible role in lowering blood cholesterol.27 Dietary patterns in
the Mediterranean characterized by high consumption of fruits and vegeta-
bles, especially garlic, are believed to be beneficial to the regional patterns
of atherosclerotic disease (Fig. 7).28 The spice has also been used in folk
medicine for the treatment of diabetes29 and inflammation.30 A well-known
Traditional Uses of Spices: An Overview 9
Sore throats
Tuberculosis
Bronchitis
Menopausal
symptoms
Loss of
appetite
Impotence
Sinus
problems
Diabetes
Hernia
Arthritis
Nephrosis
Skin irritations
Fever
Cholecytosis
Cancer
Hypogastrosis
Fig. 6. Traditional uses of fenugreek.
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remedy for local pain is to crush garlic bulbs, apply the crushed garlic to the
site of pain and then put a bandage over it. This practice is done by “naturo-
pathic physicians” worldwide and as part of traditional “Arabic Medicine” in
the Middle East.27 In Nepal, East Asia and the Middle East it has been used
to treat all manner of illnesses including fevers, diabetes, rheumatism, intes-
tinal worms, colic, flatulence, dysentery, liver disorders, tuberculosis, facial
paralysis, high blood pressure and bronchitis. In Ayurvedic and Siddha med-
icine garlic juice has been used to alleviate sinus problems. In Unani
medicine, an extract prepared from the dried bulb is inhaled to promote abor-
tion or taken to regulate menstruation. Unani physicians also use garlic to
treat paralysis, forgetfulness, tremor, colic pains, internal ulcers and fevers.
GINGER
Ginger (Zingiber officinale) is commonly used as a cooking spice
throughout the world. It is also known as zanjabil (Arabic), aadu
10 A. B. Kunnumakkara
et al
.
Rheumatism
Diabetes
Atherosclerosis
Colic pains
Fever
Ulcer
Sinusitis
Paralysis
Dysentery
Intestinal
worms
Liver
disorders
Inflammation
Bronchitis
Tuberculosis
Loss of
memory
Fig. 7. Traditional uses of garlic.
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(gujarati), shunti (Kannada), allam (Telugu), inji (Tamil and Malayalam),
alay (Marathi), aduwa (Nepali), and adrak (Hindi and Urdu). The rhi-
zome of ginger has long been used in Ayurvedic and traditional Chinese
medicine to treat a wide range of ailments including gastrointestinal dis-
orders, mainly nausea and vomiting associated with motion sickness and
pregnancy, abdominal spasm, as well as respiratory and rheumatic disorders
(Fig. 8). As a home remedy, ginger is widely used for dyspepsia, flatulence,
abdominal discomfort and nausea. It has been recommended by herbalists
for use as a carminative (an agent that reduces flatulence and expels gas
from the intestines), diaphoretic (an agent that produces or increases per-
spiration), antispasmodic, expectorant, peripheral circulatory stimulant,
and astringent (an agent that causes shrinkage of mucous membranes
or exposed tissues and that is often used internally to check discharge
of blood serum or mucous secretions). Ginger has a reputation for its
Traditional Uses of Spices: An Overview 11
Respiratory
disorders
Sore throats
Inflammation
Diabetes
Fever
Infectious
diseases
Hypertension
Stroke
Dementia
Gingivitis
Helminthiasis
Arthritis
Stomach
disorders
Dermatitis
Sprains
Constipation
Fig. 8. Traditional uses of ginger.
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anti-inflammatory properties. In traditional medicine, ginger has been
used to treat a wide array of ailments including sore throats, stom-
achaches, diarrhea, toothache, gingivitis, arthritis (inflammation of the
joints), bronchitis (an acute inflammation of the air passages within the
lungs), muscle pains, sprains, constipation dermatitis, hypertension,
dementia, fever, infectious diseases, helminthiasis, stroke, constipation,
diabetes and asthmatic respiratory disorders.31–38
KALONJI
Kalonji (Nigella sativa) is an annual flowering plant, native to southwest
Asia. The scientific name is a derivative of Latin niger meaning “black.”
In English, Nigella sativa seed is variously called black cumin, fennel
flower, nutmeg flower, Roman coriander, blackseed, black caraway, or
black onion seed. In English-speaking countries with large immigrant
populations, it is also known as kalonji (Hindi), kezah (Hebrew), chernushka
(Russian), çörek otu (Turkish), habbat albarakah (Arabic “seed of blessing”)
or siyah daneh (Persian). It is regarded as an aromatic, carminative,
diaphoretic, digestive, diuretic, emmenagogue, excitant, lactagogue, laxative,
expectorant, antipyretic, antihelminthic, resolvent, stimulant, sudorific,
parasiticide, stomachic, tonic, and vermifuge (Fig. 9). The herb may be
more important to Muslims than to Christians and Jews. Prophet Muhammad
(SAW) once stated that the black seed can heal every disease — except
death.39 In Ayurvedic medicine, it is used as purgative adjunct. In Unani,
it is considered an abortifacient and a diuretic and is used for ascites,
coughs, eye-sores, hydrophobia, jaundice, paralysis, piles and tertian
fever. The Lebanese take the seed extract for liver ailments. In Indonesia,
the seeds are added to astringent medicines for abdominal disorders. In
Malaya, the seeds are poulticed to treat abscesses, headaches, nasal ulcers,
orchitis, and rheumatism. Arabian women use the seeds as a galactagogue.39
Kalonji seeds and oil, alone or in combination with other drugs, are highly
effective in alopecia, vitiligo and other skin ailments. Continuous use of
kalonji is effective in mad dog bites. It is useful in paralysis, facial palsy,
migraine, amnesia and palpitation. Its powder if taken with water is effec-
tive in treating hemorrhoids. If Kalonji seeds are boiled in vinegar and this
solution is applied to the gums and teeth, it can reduce inflammation of
12 A. B. Kunnumakkara
et al
.
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the gums and also relieve pain. It has been reported that in a fine powder
form it is effective if applied in early stages of cataract. Black seed oil has
been a women’s beauty secret since ancient times. Black cumin and its oil
have been used to purge parasites and worms, detoxify, ameliorate ame-
bic dysentery, shigellosis, abscesses, old tumors, ulcers of the mouth, and
rhinitis. For external use, the seed is ground into a powder and mixed with
sesame oil, and can be used to treat abscesses, hemorrhoids and orchitis.
Finally, the powdered seed has been used to remove lice from the hair.40,41
KOKUM
The genus Garcinia of the Clusiaceae family includes around 200 species,
of which Garcinia indica is the most common. Garcinia indica is also
known as Brindonia indica, Stalagmitis purpurea, Garcinia purpurea,
Garcinia microstigma, Stalagmitis indica, Garcinia celebica, and
Oxycarpus indica. Garcinia indica, primarily of Indian origin, is known
Traditional Uses of Spices: An Overview 13
Jaundice
Coughs
Rhinitis
Tumor
Cataracts
Migraine
Rheumatism
Headache
Alopecia
Tertian fever
Paralysis
Abdominal
disorders
Hydrophobia
Orchitis
Ulcers
Vitiligo
Fig. 9. Traditional uses of kalonji.
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by many names: bindin, biran, bhirand, bhinda, kokum, katambi,
panarpuli, ratamba, and amsol. In the English language, it is commonly
known as mangosteen, wild mangosteen, or red mango. The extract
and rind of Garcinia cambogia is used as a curry condiment in India.
In traditional medicine, such as Ayurveda, kokum is prescribed for
edema, rheumatism, delayed menstruation, constipation and other bowel
complaints, and intestinal parasites (Fig. 10). The extract of Garcinia cam-
bogia is used as an herbal appetite suppressant and weight-loss
supplement.
MINT
Mentha (mint) is a genus of about 25 species (and many hundreds of
varieties) of flowering plants in the family Lamiaceae (mint family).42
The word “mint” descends from the Latin word menthe, which is rooted
in the Greek word minthe, mentioned in Greek mythology as Minthe,
a nymph who was transformed into a mint plant.43 There are different
14 A. B. Kunnumakkara
et al
.
Fig. 10. Traditional uses of kokum.
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types of mint including Mentha aquatica — water mint or marsh mint;
Mentha arvensis — corn mint, wild mint, Japanese peppermint, field
mint or pudina; Mentha asiatica — asian mint; Mentha australis —
Australian mint; Mentha citrata — bergamot mint; Mentha crispata —
wrinkled-leaf mint; Mentha diemenica — slender mint; Mentha laxi-
flora — forest mint; Mentha longifolia or Mentha sylvestris — horse
mint; Mentha piperita — peppermint; Mentha requienii — Corsican
mint; Mentha sachalinensis — Garden mint; Mentha spicata —
M. cordifolia, spearmint, curly mint; Mentha suaveolens — apple mint,
pineapple mint, and Mentha vagans — gray mint. Mint leaves are used
in teas, beverages, jellies, syrups, candies, and ice creams. In Middle
Eastern cuisine mint is used in lamb dishes. In British cuisine, mint
sauce is popular with lamb. Mint is a necessary ingredient in Touareg
tea, a popular tea in northern African and Arab countries. The plant
is commonly used as a herbal agent in the treatment of loss of
appetite, common cold, bronchitis, sinusitis, fever, nausea and vomit-
ing, and indigestion (Fig. 11).44 Peppermint plants have been used as a
Traditional Uses of Spices: An Overview 15
Bronchitis
Loss of appetite
Indigestion
Nausea
Sinusitis
Vomiting
Common cold
Fig. 11. Traditional uses of mint.
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herbal medicine for the same conditions, and others.45 Mentha arvensis
is known to possess abortifacient properties in folk medicine (Casey
and Satyavati) and is commonly used as a folk remedy for pregnancy
termination.46
RED CHILI
Red chili, belonging to the plant genus Capsicum, is among the most
heavily consumed spices throughout the world. The name, which is
spelled chili, chile, or chilli, comes from Nahuatl ch
ī
lli via the Spanish
word chile. Red chili has been used as an alternative medicine for the
treatment of inflammation, diabetes, low back pain and also in homeopa-
thy medicine to treat acute tonsillitis.47–50 Moreover, capsicum plaster,
which contains powdered capsicum and capsicum tincture, has been used
in Korean hand acupuncture to reduce postoperative nausea, vomiting and
sore throat (Fig. 12).51,52
16 A. B. Kunnumakkara
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Diabetes
Sore throat
Vomiting
Tonsillitis
Back pain
Nausea
Inflammation
Fig. 12. Traditional uses of red chili.
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ROSEMARY
Rosemary (Rosmarinus officinalis) is native to the Mediterranean region.
The name “rosemary” derives from the Latin name rosmarinus, which lit-
erally means “dew of the sea.” In traditional European medicine, rosemary
was used as a tonic, a stimulant, and a carminative to treat flatulence, as
well as a diuretic, cholagogue (an agent which promotes the discharge of
bile from the system), hepatoprotective, antirheumatic, expectorant, and
mild analgesic (Fig. 13). Rosemary has a number of therapeutic applica-
tions in folk medicines to treat a wide range of diseases such as headaches,
epilepsy, poor circulation, diabetes mellitus, respiratory disorders,
eczema, stomach problems and inflammatory diseases, and to stimulate
growth of hair. It has been recommended for its positive effects on human
fertility. It works as a digestion aid for the treatment of dyspepsia and mild
gastrointestinal upsets, and it has been used in renal colic and dysmenor-
rhea because of its antispasmodic effects. Its aroma is used against coughs
Traditional Uses of Spices: An Overview 17
Stomach
disorders
Diabetes
Epilepsy
Headache
Energy
boosting
Improves
memory
Brain damage
Psychogenic
tension
Hepatotoxicity
Dyspepsia
Inflammation
Dysmenorrhea
Eczema
Respiratory
disorders
Rheumatoid
arthritis
Growth of
hair
Fig. 13. Traditional uses of rosemary.
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and colds. In traditional European medicine, it was believed that the eat-
ing of the rosemary flower comforts the brain, the heart and the stomach.
It is used to improve memory and concentration, and to boost energy. The
leaves of the plant are commonly used as a spice and as a source of antiox-
idant compounds employed in food conservation; the essential oil is used
as a food additive.
The ancient Greeks and Romans used it for improving memory and
rejuvenating the spirit. Greek scholars wore garlands of rosemary during
examinations in order to improve their memory and concentration.53 In
India, rosemary leaf is used as a component in Ayurvedic and Unani med-
icines for flatulent dyspepsia associated with psychogenic tension and
migraine headaches.54,55 In Germany, rosemary leaf is licensed as a stan-
dard medicinal tea for internal and external use. Rosemary is taken
internally as a carminative or stomachic component of gastrointestinal
medicines in aqueous infusions, alcoholic fluid extracts, tinctures, and
medicinal wine. The aqueous infusion and essential oil are also used in
external preparations (e.g. a bath additive, embrocation, liniment or oint-
ment), for rheumatic diseases and circulatory problems.56,57 In the United
States, rosemary is a component of dietary supplement products, in aque-
ous infusion, alcoholic fluid extract and tincture dosage forms. In both the
United States and Germany, the leaf is used in balneotherapy and the
essential oil is used in aromatherapy.
TURMERIC
Turmeric is a yellow colored spice derived from the rhizome of the plant
Curcuma longa and has been used as traditional medicine from ancient
times in China and India.58 It is also known as kunyit (Indonesian and
Malay), besar (Nepali) and haldi or pasupu in some Asian countries. In
Assamese it is called halodhi. In medieval Europe, turmeric became
known as Indian saffron, since it is widely used as an alternative to the far
more expensive saffron spice. The yellow powder from the rhizome of
turmeric has been used in Asian cookery, medicine, cosmetics, and fabric
coloring for the last 2000 years.58 As a traditional remedy, turmeric has
also been quite extensively used for centuries to treat various disorders
such as rheumatism, body ache, skin problems (e.g. wounds, burns and
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acne), intestinal worms, diarrhea, intermittent fevers, hepatic diseases,
urinary discharges, dyspepsia, inflammations, constipation, leukoderma,
amenorrhea, dental diseases, digestive disorders such as dyspepsia and
acidity, indigestion, flatulence, ulcers, and colic inflammatory disorders
such as arthritis, colitis and hepatitis (Fig. 14).59,60 Moreover, turmeric is a
major constituent of Xiaoyao-san, a traditional Chinese medicine that has
been used to effectively manage stress and depression-related disorders in
China.61 In Nepal, the rhizome of turmeric is a household remedy. The
powder of dried rhizome is considered to be stimulating, carminative,
purifying, anti-inflammatory, and anthelmintic.62
CONCLUSION
Spices have been shown to be indispensable for daily human health.
Besides adding flavor and taste to dishes, they help prevent and allevi-
ate various health problems. Over the last few years several bioactive
Traditional Uses of Spices: An Overview 19
Stomach
disorders
Body ache
Rheumatism
Stress &
tension
Colic
inflammation
Ulcers
Leukoderma
Urinary
diseases
Amenorrhoea
Fevers
Intestinal worms
Hepatic
diseases
Skin diseases
Inflammation
Dyspepsia
Dental
diseases
Fig. 14. Traditional uses of turmeric.
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compounds have been isolated from spices, providing a scientific basis for
the use of spices in our diet.
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