The Soapstone Birds from Great Zimbabwe

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The Soapstone Birds from Great Zimbabwe
Author(s): Thomas N. Huffman
Source:
African Arts,
Vol. 18, No. 3 (May, 1985), pp. 68-100
Published by: UCLA James S. Coleman African Studies Center
Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/3336358
Accessed: 28/08/2008 19:43
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The
Soapstone
Birds
from
Great
Zimbabwe
THOMAS
N.
HUFFMAN
ver
since
the
ruins
of
Great
Zim-
babwe
were found at
the end of
the
nineteenth
century,
they
have
been the
focus of
archaeological
attention.1 We
now
know
that
the ancient town
belonged
to
a
cultural
complex
that
evolved
in
the
early
twelfth
century
and
extended
from
the Indian Ocean to
the Kalahari
Desert
and from the Zambezi River to the
Soutpansberg
Mountains.
Though
Great
Zimbabwe was a
political
capital
for
on-
ly
200
years,
till
about
1450,
the cul-
ture
it
was
part
of continued
until well
after
Portuguese
contact. We know
from oral
and written
history
that,
like
other
centers
in the
complex,
Great
Zim-
babwe
was ruled
by
Shona
kings.
Indeed
Shona
oral
tradition,
Shona
custom,
and
sixteenth-
to
eighteenth-century
Por-
tuguese
eyewitness
accounts
help
us re-
construct
the
spatial
organization
of
Great
Zimbabwe and
explain
the mean-
ing
of its most famous
symbols-the
Zimbabwe birds.
Eight
birds
were found
in the
ruins of
Great
Zimbabwe
(Figs.
1-3).
They
are
carved of soft
green-gray
soapstone;
each is about 30 centimeters
long
and
perches
on the end of
a
pillar
a meter or
more
in
height.
The birds fall into
two
stylistic groups.
Three have
their
wings
wrapped
around a
vertical
body
with a
short,
fan-shaped
tail. Five have their
wings
folded
over the
back
of
a
sloping
body,
with
legs
bent and
head
horizon-
tal,
eyes
on
top.
According
to or-
nithologists
(C.
Vernon,
personal
com-
munication),
all
eight
represent
birds
of
1. R. N.
HALL
WITH THE
SOAPSTONE
BIRD FROM
THE
PHIL-
LIPS
RUIN,
1903.
NATIONAL
MUSEUMS
AND MONUMENTS
ADMINISTRATION OF
ZIMBABWE.
2. SOAPSTONE
BIRD ASSOCIATED
WITH THE
PLATFORM,
WESTERN
ENCLOSURE.
NATIONAL MUSEUMS
AND
MONU-
MENTS
ADMINISTRATION OF
ZIMBABWE.
prey.
It
is
not
possible
to
identify
any
specific
species
because
the
carvings
in-
corporate
human
as
well
as
avian
ele-
ments.
One
stone,
for
example,
has
lips
rather
than a
beak;
all
have
human
limbs
and four
or five
toes
(or
fingers)
in
front,
rather
than
three
talons
forward
like
most
raptors.
Clearly
then,
these
stones
were
not
meant
to be
naturalistic
repre-
sentations.
To understand
their
mean-
ing,
it
is
necessary
to know
the
role birds
played
in
Shona
ideology.
Traditionally,
birds
are
messengers
(Kriel
1971).
A
myth
about
the Rozwi
(who
ruled
Zimbabwe
prior
to
the
nineteenth
century)
tells
of a
pretentious
claimant
to
a district
chieftainship
who
went
to a
Rozwi
king
to state
his
case.
The
king
had
the man beheaded
and re-
turned
his
head
to his
people
in
the
beak
of
a bateleur
eagle
(Bullock
1927).
Eagles,
being
the
largest
and
most
powerful
birds,
are
appropriate
messengers
for
the
most
important
people.
Eagles
also
bring
messages
from
an-
cestor
spirits.
The
Shona
believe
that
spirit
people
live at
the bottom
of certain
deep pools
(Burbridge
1924,
Edwards
1928),
and
that
life on
earth
began
when
the
first
man
emerged
from such
a
pool
(Frobenius
1931).
Deep pools
are en-
trances
to
the subterranean
spirit
world;
and
the
bateleur,
which nests
near wa-
ter,
is
the most
important
spiritual
mes-
senger
(Burbridge
1925,
Franklin
1933).
Since
eagles
travel
between
heaven
and
earth,
they
can
also
be
messengers
of
God,
who is
"One
Above"
(Wokum-
soro)
or "Great
One
of
Sky"
(Nyadenga)
(van
der
Merwe
1957).
An
eagle
known
as
"bird
of
heaven"
(shiri
ye denga)
brings
lightning,
which Shona
call
"the needle
that stitches
together
heaven and
earth"
(van
der
Merwe
1957).
Some
Shona
and
Matabele
say
shiri
ye
denga
is
an
invisible,
supernatural
eagle.
Others
think
it
is
the
fish
eagle
(Mbizo
1924).
Whatever
the
case,
eagles
are believed
to
mediate
be-
tween God
and
man.
The
Shona
have
parallel
beliefs about
the
role of ancestor
spirits.
The duties
and
importance
of an
ancestor
spirit
re-
flect
the
political
importance
of the an-
cestor
when he was
alive
(Bullock
1927,
Gelfand
1959).
Thus
the
spirit
of a com-
3.
SOAPSTONE
BIRDS FROM THE
EASTERN ENCLOSURE.
SOUTH AFRICAN MUSEUM.
68

69

mon man's
grandfather only
looks
after
his
personal
needs,
while the
spirit
of
a
former
chief
attends
to
national
prob-
lems such as locust
swarms,
epidemics,
and
rain,
as
well as to
his successor's
personal
needs.
Unencumbered
by
human
bodies,
ancestor
spirits
are free
to
soar
like
birds,
and
the
spirits
of former
leaders are
thought
to
travel between
earth and heaven
like
eagles,
interceding
with
God
on behalf
of the nation. Ac-
cording
to
contemporary
belief,
an
eagle
in
the
vicinity
of
Taba Zika
Mambo,
a
former Zimbabwe
center,
carries
the
spirit
of a Rozwi
king
who
once ruled
there
(K.R.
Robinson,
personal
com-
munication).
Eagles
therefore
symbolize
and
may
incarnate
royal
ancestor
spirits.
The
eagle-like
features of the
Great
Zimbabwe birds
are
clearly
a
metaphor
for the
intercessory
role
of
royal
ances-
tors. The
anthropomorphism
in
the
stones
themselves
points
to
an
inten-
tional blend of
parallel
concepts
about
the
mediatory
flight
of
eagles
and of
royal
ancestors.
This
suggests
a
further
conclusion:
royal
ancestors were
petitioned
at the
site
of the
stone
birds
(cf.
Summers
1965).
There
is
ample
evi-
dence
to
link
the
birds
with
spiritual
ac-
tivity.
Their
original
location
suggests
they
were
part
of
a
larger
symbolic
struc-
ture.
2
The center of
Great Zimbabwe
is
dominated
by
a
large
hill
with
a stone-
walled
complex
on
its
summit
(Fig.
4).
,'~~
*: : ;''........
:
.'
.f-'-' .*-
P-
~''m.- . ' :*
' . '
,
.,,,/. :- .: : -~,. "'..
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.- ....:
-'
"
.. .
?
, .
t, : . s., : .
,
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,I '..~
~
_A
., .
t
i.
~~~~~~~...
?r~ ~
t
:i
.
7111
-
,
.
~
.? .?
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I~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~.''i' .....
r'
.,
o\
'?
C4
t
.
0
;
,h*t
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_^.,
o
, *
.
"'X .. .
?
'
2
-,
I
atone
wall
i
/
contour
.
\
..
., *
>,*
*.
i
..
~'4
sS,
's
O hut
r
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/ stone
wall .
,- contour
4.
PLAN
OF THE
CENTRAL
SECTION
OF GREAT
ZIMBABWE: WE=WESTERN
ENCLOSURE,
EE=EASTERN
ENCLOSURE,
CRE=
CLEFT
ROCK
ENCLOSURE,
PR=PHILLIPS
RUIN,
RR=RENDERS
RUIN,
GE= GREAT ENCLOSURE.
BASED
ON PLANS
BY
A.
WHITTY
AND D.
F
MONROE
This hill
complex
is not
unique,
for
throughout
the
culture
area similar
stone
complexes
can be found.
These
elevated
buildings
are
traditionally
called dzim-
bahwe,
which
means
the
grave,
resi-
dence,
or
court of a
chief
(de
Barros
in
Theal
1898-1903,
vol.
6:
264).
To Shona
speakers,
the
height
and
grandeur
of
mountains are
metaphorically
associated
with
the
high
status and
majesty
of
leadership,
and
important
leaders are
often
referred
to
as "mountains"
in
Shona
imagery (Hamutyinei
&
Plangger
1974,
Hodza & Fortune
1979).
This
moun-
tain
imagery
is
a
feature of
stratified
societies with
divine
kingship.
In
such
societies,
the
king
was
ritually
secluded
in
his
palace.
Thus
the
stone walls
of
the
palace
high
on the
hill
at
Great
Zim-
babwe
symbolized
the secular and
sacred status of
the
king.
Two
stairways
lead
up
to
the
palace
complex.
The most
prominent
stairway
leads
directly
to
the Western
Enclosure,
the
largest compartment
(Bent
1896,
Hall
1905)
and the
official
residence
of the
king.
The front
wall at the
main
entrance
was decorated
with several stone cairns
and
monoliths.
Today,
Shona
speakers
call
these
monoliths
the
"horns
of the
king"
because
the
king
stood in
relation
to his
people
as
a
bull
does to its
herd: the
king
protects
his
people
with
his
spear,
that
is,
his
army,
while a
bull
protects
its
herd
with
its
horns.
This entrance
and
the
prominent
stairway
up
the hill
was
for
the
king,
members
of
his
personal
en-
tourage,
and official visitors
seeking pri-
vate audience.
A
secondary
entrance
on
the
opposite
side
of the
Western
Enclo-
sure was
probably
reserved
for
people
of
lesser
status.
This
division
was
like that
of a
Shona hut where men sit
on
a raised
bench
on
one
side,
while women sit
op-
posite
on
the
floor.
The
Western
Enclo-
sure,
then,
was
probably organized
like a
typical
house,
only
on
a much
grander
scale.
Another
organizational
principle
con-
cerned
life forces
rather than
social
status. Shona and
other Southern
Afri-
cans
traditionally
reserve
the
front of a
building
for
public,
secular
activities
and
the
back
for
private,
sacred functions
(Kuper
1980).
A
Shona
man communi-
cates
with
his
ancestors
at the back
of
a
kitchen where
his
wife's
pots
are
stacked
on
a
low
platform
called the
sanctuary
(rukuva
or
chikuva)
(Gelfand
1959).
Dur-
ing
spirit
possession
ceremonies,
a
thumb
piano player
sits here
while
he
"calls" the
spirit
with
his
music,
and the
medium,
once
possessed,
sits
there
too
(A.
Tracey,
personal
communication).
A
comparable
but unusual
platform
dominates
the
back
of the Western
En-
closure
(Fig.
7).
This
platform
area
origi-
nally
included
at least
three
plain
monoliths
and
three
highly
decorated
beams
(Bent 1896).
The surface of
one
70
'""':
,. ' * *
..........
......'
.\"'t.
.
?
..
COURT
'*

5.
GIANT
CONICAL TOWER IN THE
GREAT ENCLOSURE.
beam was
covered with
bands
of
excised
diamond motifs with
small
circles
in
the
center,
a
pattern
representing
crocodiles
in
Shona art
(Nettleton 1984).
Further
crocodile
imagery appears
to
have
been
intended
by
the
large
panel
of
decoration
at the back of the
chikuva,
where
triangu-
lar
edges
of
stone are
set
on
top
of
each
other to form dentate
ridges
suggesting
the
back of a crocodile.
Shona
kings
were
metaphorically
linked
to
crocodiles
through
parallel
associations-crocodile
symbolism
was
another feature of
divine
kingship.
Ac-
cording
to
legend,
the
founding
father
of
the
Shona,
the first man and
rainmaker,
came from
the
spirit
world at the
bottom
of
a
sacred
pool
of
water
(Frobenius
1931:
237-40),
and the
king
as "father" of the
nation
is
directly
linked to
this
person.
Crocodiles,
like
chiefs,
are
associated
with
deep pools
and
the
spirit
world
be-
neath, and,
like
chiefs,
they
can
bring
rain.
This
link
is made
explicit
during
a
chief's
installation.
A
new Rozwi
chief
was
supposed
to eat food
cooked with
the stones taken from the
stomach of a
male crocodile he
personally
had
caught
in
a
deep pool
(Bullock
1927:
289),
sym-
bolically
becoming
a crocodile in the
pro-
cess.
It
is therefore
appropriate
that a
crocodile
pattern
should
be
part
of the
sanctuary
for the
king's
ancestor
spirits.
One stone bird
was
directly
associated
with
this
sanctuary (Fig.
2)
(Hall
1905).
A
bull carved
on
its
pedestal
probably
symbolizes
the
king
as
"bull
of the na-
tion."
Whatever its
meaning,
the
plat-
form
itself is
only large
enough
for
pri-
vate
worship;
so this
was
probably
where
the
king
petitioned
his
ancestor
spirits
for
his
personal
welfare.
The other
six
soapstone
birds on
the
hill
(Fig.
3)
were found
together
in the
Eastern Enclosure
(Fig.
9),
a
place
sac-
red both because
of its
position
at
the
back of
the
king's
residence
and because
in
Shona
religion
the east is associated
with
life-giving
forces.3
A cave-like rock
shelter
in
the midst
of immense boulders
also
testifies
to
its
religious importance.
Hills
and rocks like these
are associated
with
important
ancestor
spirits,
and
caves,
like
deep pools,
are
important
en-
trances
to
the
spirit
world.
Since
this
Eastern
Enclosure was
devoid of
normal
residential
debris,
there is
every
reason
to
assume
it was sacred.
In
the 1880s
the
six birds
were
removed
from
the Eastern
Enclosure
(Bent
1896,
Posselt
1924),
and
their
original positions
are
unknown.
Very likely
they
were
mounted
on low
terraces
toward the
back
of
the enclosure
rather
than
in the
front,
which contains
a
long
bench
and
space
for a sizeable
congregation.
This
ritual area had a more national character
than
the
king's
private sanctuary.
The entrances
to the
Eastern Enclosure
give
us
clues about
who
used
them.
The
outer wall of the eastern entrance incor-
porates
a
strip
of dentate crocodile
deco-
ration like that on the
platform
at the
back
of the
Western Enclosure. On the
opposite
side,
the
western
entrance
is
connected
by
the
central
passage
to the
Cleft
Rock
Enclosure,
where the
king's
senior sister
probably
lived. We know
from
Portuguese
records
(Bocarro
in
Theal
1898-1903,
vol.
3:
357)
and Shona
oral
history
(Hodza
&
Fortune
1979)
that
the
senior sister
was
an
institutionalized
position
representing
the female side of
the
ruling
line. The
reigning
sister acted
as an
advisor
to the
king
on
matters of
national
importance
and
she was re-
sponsible
for the
charms
that
protected
him
and allowed him to
govern.
The
king
and
his sister were
principally
re-
sponsible
for
invoking
the
royal
ances-
tors on behalf
of
the nation. Other
senior
members
of the
ruling
line
probably
at-
tended
the
ceremonies
(van
Warmelo
1932).
A
spirit
medium-unrelated to the
royal family-could
have been
present
as
well.
According
to
Shona custom to-
day,
a
spirit
medium's
entry
into a
ritual
area should
go
unnoticed. An
under-
ground passage
discovered
by
Hall
71

(1905)
in the front or
an
entrance
among
the boulders
at the back could
have
served as secret
passage.
All
the
evi-
dence
suggests
that in the
Eastern
Enclo-
sure,
royal
ancestor
spirits
were
prop-
itiated
for national
purposes
such as
ensuring
rain.
Recalling
that
the stone
birds were a
locus
for
such
propitiations,
we
may
speculate
about
why
there were six
to-
gether
in
the Eastern
Enclosure.
In
present-day
Shona
rituals
and
elsewhere
in
Southern
Africa,
individual
ancestors
are
invoked
by
name as far
back
as
can be
remembered
(Gelfand
1959).
It is
likely
that
the
same
procedure
was
followed
at
Great
Zimbabwe.
The
six birds
may
indicate
that six
kings
had
ruled there.
On
the other
hand,
they
could
represent
individual
mythical
or
important
ancestors
who lived
before
the
establishment
of Great
Zimbabwe.
In contrast
to those
on
the
hill,
the
eighth
and
final
stone
bird
was found
in
a
building
in the lower
valley.
There,
on
the south
side
of
a
large
amphitheater
that
was
the
assembly
area
and
principal
court,
stands
a series
of
enclosures,
sometimes
called
the
Renders,
Posselt,
Phillips,
and Maund
ruins.
These
proba-
bly
housed
the
royal
wives.
According
to
Portuguese
records
(Bocarro
in
Theal
1898-1903,
vol.
3:
356)
as
well
as Shona
oral
tradition
(Fortune
1956),
the wives
of
the
king
lived
together
under
the
general
control
of
the
king's
senior
wife,
his
vah-
ozi.
An unusual
hoard
of items was
found
in
the
Renders
Ruin.
Besides
glass
from
the Near East
and celadon
from
China,
it included ritual
bronze
spearheads
and iron double
gongs
(Hall
1905)
exclusively
associated
with
the
king's
office.
According
to Shona
cus-
tom,
the
only person
with
the
right
to
take care
of
a
man's
possessions
is
his
vahozi.
It follows
that the
Renders
Ruin
must
have been
the official
residence
of
the
king's
senior
wife.
The other
valley
enclosures,
linked
to
the Renders
Ruin
by
various
pathways,
were
presumably
occupied by
royal
wives.
The last bird
was
found
upside
down
against
a
small
stone
tower
(Fig.
8)
in a
small
enclosure
at
the east
end
of the
Phillips
Ruin
(Fig.
6)
(Hall
1905).
There
is
no reason
to doubt that
the stone once
stood
somewhere
in
this
enclosure,
and
was associated
with
the
women's area.
This
bird
is
in an anomalous
position
compared
with the others on
the hill.
a
HUT
S
STONE
WALL
MONOLITH
0
15m
F
MONOLITH
-
6. THE
PHILLIPS
RUIN,
B.
MARKS
THE
SPOT
THE 8TH BIRD WAS
FOUND.
MAP BY
A.
WHITTY AND
D.
F
MONROE.
Though
it
is,
like the
others,
a
raptor,
it
is
unlikely
that it
represented
the
king's
royal
ancestors:
the welfare
of
the
king's
wives-unless
they
were his sisters4-
was
not
their
responsibility.
The stone tower
in the
Phillips
Ruin
provides
a clue
to the
identity
of the
spirits
invoked there and
represented
by
the stone bird. But
we must first
consider
the
meaning
of
the
towers
in the
place
known as the Great
Enclosure,
a
large
building
on
the
edge
of
the wives'
area
that has
recently
been
identified as
the
site of
premarital
initiation
schools simi-
lar to the Domba school
of the Venda
(Huffman
1984).
This
building
contains
two conical
towers
at the
back
that
formed
part
of
a
cluster
of
symbols
con-
cerning
adult statuses.
The dentate
croc-
odile
pattern
at
the
top
of the
largest
tower
(Fig.
5)
shows
that
this structure
signified
"old and
senior
man,"
while
the smaller
undecorated
tower
next to it
represented
"old and senior
woman."
This smaller
tower
may
once
have
had a
herringbone
design
like the
one
mark-
ing
the
stairway
to the residence
of the
king's
sister.
The
tower
at
the
eastern
end
of
the
Phillips
Ruin is similar
to
this
"female"
tower
in
the
Great
Enclosure.
In the context
of a
royal
wives'
area,
the
senior
woman
would be the
king's
senior
wife,
his
vahozi.
A
sanctuary
here for
the
ancestor
spirits
of
this
vahozi
is
in
keep-
ing
with
the
principle
that the
impor-
tance
and duties
of
ancestor
spirits
should
reflect
the
structure
of
the social
world.
Since
the vahozi is
responsible
for
the
other
royal
wives,
it makes sense
that
her
ancestors
would also
be
concerned
with their welfare.
The
symbols
on the bird
itself
(Fig.
1)
suggest
the focus
of
this
spiritual
con-
cern.
Four can
be identified
in
terms
of
the
Shona
divining
system
(Nettleton
1984):
the double
chevron
on
the
right
side
of
the bird is
like
that on
the outer
wall
of the Great
Enclosure
where
it
rep-
resented
"young
and
junior
man";
the
crocodile
image
in
front
undoubtedly
stood
for "old
and senior
man,"
as
it
does
on Shona
divining
tablets;
the
sin-
gle
chevron
on
the
left side
of the bird
sometimes
represents
"young
and
junior
woman"
in Shona
art;
and
the
cir-
cles
above
this
chevron
are
like the
"eyes
of
crocodiles"
on
divining
tables
that
stand
for
"old
and senior
woman."
These
four
categories
form
the basis
of
the
Shona
divination
system,
and
the
prominence
of the
crocodile
on
the
stone
bird
suggests
that
the ancestor
spirits
of
the
vahozi
were
concerned
with witch-
craft.
In the
divination
system
crocodiles
are
linked
to the
discovery
of witches
by
virtue
of
their access
through deep pools
to
the
ancestors,
for
it
is
the
ancestors
who reveal
the
identity
of
witches.
To
Shona,
misfortunes
during preg-
nancy
and
immediately
afterwards
are
72

specifically
linked
to
witchcraft
(Bourdil-
lon
1976).
This
danger
must have
been
heightened
for children
born to the
royal
family,
some
of them
potential
kings.
It
seems
likely,
then,
that
ancestral
atten-
tion
in
the
Phillips
Ruin
was
focused on
reproduction.
Other
symbols
close
by
support
this
thesis.
Numerous
vertical
grooves
were
built into
entrances,
plat-
forms,
and other
walls
throughout
the
wives'
quarters
and
appear
to
be
female
symbols:
most of
them
were
made to be
seen rather than
used
as
doorjambs
or
other
supports;
in
some
buildings
such
as the
Great
Enclosure,
entrances with
these
vertical
grooves
stand
opposite
"male"
entrances marked
by
monoliths,5
and
this
symbolic
"couple,"
suggesting
procreation,
is
only
a few
meters
from
the
enclosure
that
housed
the
eighth
bird.
It
may
be that
expectant
mothers
were confined to
this
area.
By
Shona
custom,
if
there
was
any
rea-
son for the
king
or
other men to
invoke
the ancestor
spirits
of the
vahozi,
they
would have
had to come here.
This
may
be the
reason
why
an
isolated male
sym-
bol,
a
single
monolith,
once stood out-
side the
entrance to
this
enclosure,
and
why
it
can be reached
directly
from the
court without
going through any
other
part
of
the
wives'
quarters.
The
spatial
code of
Great
Zimbabwe
establishes
the
spiritual importance
of
two
original
stone bird
locations.
But
the
spiritual
importance
of the
third
area in
the
Phillips
Ruin
would be
less clear
were
it
not for the
bird. The
sanctuary
at
the back of
the
Western
Enclosure
was
devoted
to the
king's personal
welfare;
in
the
Eastern Enclosure
more
public
is-
sues such
as rain were
attended
to;
and
protection
against
witchcraft
during
childbirth
was
the
focus
of
ancestral at-
tention
in
the
eastern
end
of the
Phillips
Ruin.
Many questions
remain.
Why
have
similar
images
not been
found
in
other
dzimbahwe?
Was the
eagle imagery por-
trayed
elsewhere? What
is
the
relation-
ship
between the
Zimbabwe
birds and
the Mwari
cult? The
direction of
research
should be
guided by
three
major
points
established
here: the
raptor
theme
sym-
bolized
the
intercessory
role of
royal
an-
cestor
spirits;
the
stones were
focal
points
in
sanctuaries where
ancestor
spirits
were
propitiated;
and
the
eagle
imagery
was
another
aspect
of
divine
kingship.
Doubtless
the
full
range
of
meanings
of the
Zimbabwe birds
lies
in
the matrix of
Shona
ideology.
E
Notes,
page
99
TOP
TO
BOTTOM:
7.
DENTATE
DECORATION
ON THE PLAT-
FORM
AT
THE
BACK OF
THE
WESTERN
ENCLOSURE,
CA.
1903.
NATIONAL
MUSEUMS AND
MONUMENTS
ADMINIS-
e.
*
_
4-
I
I,
.-
.t
tJ
;
,
A*(
4
eol
I
.I
-%w
Xs
o '
__ o
-A-
tl~~
-S.4
.
,l
A
"k '1
-1
-
A
r--w
TRATION
OF
ZIMBABWE.
8.
SANCTUARY AT
THE
NORTH-
EAST END
OF THE
PHILLIPS
RUIN,
CA.
1903.
NATIONAL
MUSEUMS AND
MONUMENTS
ADMINISTRATION OF ZIM-
BABWE.
9. THE
EASTERN
ENCLOSURE.
73
i .
.
-ri~
?
...
~ ~ ~ ~ F..I~_ ?P
?16
I

the Temne to
be
drab,
gray,
or
colorless
to the
sight
(Timothy
1952:
64).
7. These
flaps represent literally
the
kind of
hide
flaps
worn
in four
radiating
directions
around
the
neck
by
medical
practitioners among
the
eastern
Mende,
Kissi,
and Loma
(cf.
Fig.
19).
8. A Temne
N6wo
mask in
the
University
Museum,
Uni-
versity
of
Pennsylvania,
was
collected in the
field
in 1924-25
(Fig.
25).
Nowo is
documented
among
the
Vai as
early
as
1854
(Koelle:
203),
although
no
illustration
is
given.
There-
fore
I
must revise
my opinion
given
elsewhere
(Lamp
1979:
37)
on the recent
development
of the
N6wo
masquerade,
although,
still,
the extensive absence of
any
mention of
such
a
spirit
(whom
we
know
today
to
masquerade pub-
licly
and
ubiquitously)
in most
nineteenth-century
litera-
ture
suggests
that we
have,
in
the twentieth
century,
a
phenomenon
that
is
new
in
many respects.
9.He referred earlier to
"griggory
men"
(i.e.,
gree-gree
men,
persons
who work
with
charms),
but his account is
second-hand and
perhaps
this
passage
refers to
a
separate
circumstance.
10. The
Temne,
like other
groups,
make clear distinctions
between
various
types
of
serpents
and
snakes
in nonritual
contexts,
but
discussion
of esoteric ritual is
always
clouded
in
ambiguity.
Nevertheless,
further
research is needed
to
determine the
type represented
in each
particular
case
and
the
peculiar
significance
attributed
to
each.
11. This is
not,
as
Hommel
says
(1974:
11),
evidence that
the
mask
has been
desanctified.
I have seen
several
metal-
ornamented masks
in
use,
and
others
are illustrated
in
Johnston
1906,
vol. 2:
fig.
410;
Gervis
1952:
(end);
Alldridge
1901:
fig.
147.
See also
the
description
of Volz
1910:
57;
and
Ellis
1914: 54.
12. The
model
described here
holds
true most
faithfully
in
small
villages
of
less
than
twenty
houses
away
from the
motor roads. In
larger
towns
the
variance
may
be due
to
a
broader
range
of
competing
concerns
beyond
those
of the
ritual
societies, and,
to
some
extent,
the
disintegration
of
traditional
systems
and
the influence
of
Western
education.
For
example,
the
gardens
are sometimes
placed
at
any
point,
with
the strict
exception
of the
west,
if the Poro
grove
is
there. The
Bondo house is
almost
invariably
in
the
east,
although
I found
it
in the north in
two instances. In
both
of those
instances,
however,
it
had been moved
re-
cently
from
an older
site
in
the
east.
The location of the
Poro house
was more
irregular.
In
six
out
of eleven
Poro
villages
that
I
mapped,
it
was within the
western
quadrant.
One was
in
the
north,
but west of
the
Bondo
house,
which
was
in the
northeast.
One was in the
northeast,
in
a
village
that had
no
Bondo house.
Three were
in the southern
quadrant, although
one
of
these was west
of
the old
part
of
town,
which
has
expanded
since
the
establishment
of the
Por6 site. The
location
of three
Poro houses in the south
and
a
Bondo house in the north
may
be accounted
for,
in
part, by
a
confusion that I
occasionally
found
among
edu-
cated
Temne
between the
traditional
concept
of a vertical
east-west
cartological
axis and the
European-designed
map
with its vertical
north-south
axis.
For
example,
some said
that the sun
rose
in the north
and set
in
the
south. In
other
words,
the
critical
equation
of
up/down=beginnings/ends,
seems
now to
have
incorporated
the new
corollary,
north/
south.
Bibliography
Alldridge,
Thomas
J.
1894.
"Wanderings
in the
Hinterland
of
Sierra
Leone,"
The
Geographical
Journal
4,2:
123-40,
192.
Alldridge,
Thomas
J.
1901.
The Sherbro and
Its Hinterland.
London.
d'Azevedo,
Warren. 1973. "Mask
Makers and
Myth
in
Western
Liberia,"
in
Primitive Art
and
Society,
ed. A.
Forge.
London.
d'Azevedo,
Warren. 1980. Review
of
African
Art
of
the
West
Atlantic Coast:
Transition
in
Form
and
Content,
by
Frederick
Lamp.
African
Arts
14,1:
81-87.
Bledsoe,
Caroline.
1980.
Women and
Marriage
in
Kpelle
Soci-
ety.
Stanford.
Blyden,
Edward
W.
1969
(1908).
African
Life
and
Customs.
London.
Butt-Thompson,
Frederick
W.
1970
(1929).
West
African
Se-
cret Societies.
Westport,
Conn.
Cosentino,
Donald.
1982.
Defiant
Maids and
Stubborn Far-
mers:
Tradition
and Invention
in
Mende
Story Performance.
Cambridge,
England.
Dapper,
Olfert.
1964
(1681).
Umbstaendliche
and
eigentliche
Beschreibung
von
Afrika
Anno 1668.
Stuttgart.
Dubinskas,
Frank A.
1972. "The
Beauty
of
the Sowo:
Spirit
of the
Mende
Women's Secret
Society."
Unpublished
ms.
Eberl,
Rudolf
(Ralph
Eberl-Elber,
pseud.).
1936.
Westafrikas
Letzles Raetsel:
Erlebnisbericht
iiber
die
Forschungreise
1935
durch Sierra
Leone.
Salzburg.
Ellis,
George
W.
1914.
Negro
Culture in
West
Africa.
New
York.
Frere,
N.G. 1926. "The
Bureh
Chiefdom,
Karene
District,"
the Temne to
be
drab,
gray,
or
colorless
to the
sight
(Timothy
1952:
64).
7. These
flaps represent literally
the
kind of
hide
flaps
worn
in four
radiating
directions
around
the
neck
by
medical
practitioners among
the
eastern
Mende,
Kissi,
and Loma
(cf.
Fig.
19).
8. A Temne
N6wo
mask in
the
University
Museum,
Uni-
versity
of
Pennsylvania,
was
collected in the
field
in 1924-25
(Fig.
25).
Nowo is
documented
among
the
Vai as
early
as
1854
(Koelle:
203),
although
no
illustration
is
given.
There-
fore
I
must revise
my opinion
given
elsewhere
(Lamp
1979:
37)
on the recent
development
of the
N6wo
masquerade,
although,
still,
the extensive absence of
any
mention of
such
a
spirit
(whom
we
know
today
to
masquerade pub-
licly
and
ubiquitously)
in most
nineteenth-century
litera-
ture
suggests
that we
have,
in
the twentieth
century,
a
phenomenon
that
is
new
in
many respects.
9.He referred earlier to
"griggory
men"
(i.e.,
gree-gree
men,
persons
who work
with
charms),
but his account is
second-hand and
perhaps
this
passage
refers to
a
separate
circumstance.
10. The
Temne,
like other
groups,
make clear distinctions
between
various
types
of
serpents
and
snakes
in nonritual
contexts,
but
discussion
of esoteric ritual is
always
clouded
in
ambiguity.
Nevertheless,
further
research is needed
to
determine the
type represented
in each
particular
case
and
the
peculiar
significance
attributed
to
each.
11. This is
not,
as
Hommel
says
(1974:
11),
evidence that
the
mask
has been
desanctified.
I have seen
several
metal-
ornamented masks
in
use,
and
others
are illustrated
in
Johnston
1906,
vol. 2:
fig.
410;
Gervis
1952:
(end);
Alldridge
1901:
fig.
147.
See also
the
description
of Volz
1910:
57;
and
Ellis
1914: 54.
12. The
model
described here
holds
true most
faithfully
in
small
villages
of
less
than
twenty
houses
away
from the
motor roads. In
larger
towns
the
variance
may
be due
to
a
broader
range
of
competing
concerns
beyond
those
of the
ritual
societies, and,
to
some
extent,
the
disintegration
of
traditional
systems
and
the influence
of
Western
education.
For
example,
the
gardens
are sometimes
placed
at
any
point,
with
the strict
exception
of the
west,
if the Poro
grove
is
there. The
Bondo house is
almost
invariably
in
the
east,
although
I found
it
in the north in
two instances. In
both
of those
instances,
however,
it
had been moved
re-
cently
from
an older
site
in
the
east.
The location of the
Poro house
was more
irregular.
In
six
out
of eleven
Poro
villages
that
I
mapped,
it
was within the
western
quadrant.
One was
in
the
north,
but west of
the
Bondo
house,
which
was
in the
northeast.
One was in the
northeast,
in
a
village
that had
no
Bondo house.
Three were
in the southern
quadrant, although
one
of
these was west
of
the old
part
of
town,
which
has
expanded
since
the
establishment
of the
Por6 site. The
location
of three
Poro houses in the south
and
a
Bondo house in the north
may
be accounted
for,
in
part, by
a
confusion that I
occasionally
found
among
edu-
cated
Temne
between the
traditional
concept
of a vertical
east-west
cartological
axis and the
European-designed
map
with its vertical
north-south
axis.
For
example,
some said
that the sun
rose
in the north
and set
in
the
south. In
other
words,
the
critical
equation
of
up/down=beginnings/ends,
seems
now to
have
incorporated
the new
corollary,
north/
south.
Bibliography
Alldridge,
Thomas
J.
1894.
"Wanderings
in the
Hinterland
of
Sierra
Leone,"
The
Geographical
Journal
4,2:
123-40,
192.
Alldridge,
Thomas
J.
1901.
The Sherbro and
Its Hinterland.
London.
d'Azevedo,
Warren. 1973. "Mask
Makers and
Myth
in
Western
Liberia,"
in
Primitive Art
and
Society,
ed. A.
Forge.
London.
d'Azevedo,
Warren. 1980. Review
of
African
Art
of
the
West
Atlantic Coast:
Transition
in
Form
and
Content,
by
Frederick
Lamp.
African
Arts
14,1:
81-87.
Bledsoe,
Caroline.
1980.
Women and
Marriage
in
Kpelle
Soci-
ety.
Stanford.
Blyden,
Edward
W.
1969
(1908).
African
Life
and
Customs.
London.
Butt-Thompson,
Frederick
W.
1970
(1929).
West
African
Se-
cret Societies.
Westport,
Conn.
Cosentino,
Donald.
1982.
Defiant
Maids and
Stubborn Far-
mers:
Tradition
and Invention
in
Mende
Story Performance.
Cambridge,
England.
Dapper,
Olfert.
1964
(1681).
Umbstaendliche
and
eigentliche
Beschreibung
von
Afrika
Anno 1668.
Stuttgart.
Dubinskas,
Frank A.
1972. "The
Beauty
of
the Sowo:
Spirit
of the
Mende
Women's Secret
Society."
Unpublished
ms.
Eberl,
Rudolf
(Ralph
Eberl-Elber,
pseud.).
1936.
Westafrikas
Letzles Raetsel:
Erlebnisbericht
iiber
die
Forschungreise
1935
durch Sierra
Leone.
Salzburg.
Ellis,
George
W.
1914.
Negro
Culture in
West
Africa.
New
York.
Frere,
N.G. 1926. "The
Bureh
Chiefdom,
Karene
District,"
Sierra Leone
Studies
o.s.,
2:
63-64.
Gervis,
Paul. 1952.
Sierra Leone
Story.
London.
Hair,
Paul
E.H.
1973.
"Early
Sources on
Religion
and
Social
Values
in
the
Sierra
Leone
Region:
2)
Eustache de
la
Fosse
1480,"
Africana
Research Bulletin
4,
3: 49-54.
Hall,
Henry
U. 1937.
Papers
R.G. 11.
Unpublished
ms.
University
Museum,
University
of
Pennsylvania,
Philadelphia.
Sierra Leone
Studies
o.s.,
2:
63-64.
Gervis,
Paul. 1952.
Sierra Leone
Story.
London.
Hair,
Paul
E.H.
1973.
"Early
Sources on
Religion
and
Social
Values
in
the
Sierra
Leone
Region:
2)
Eustache de
la
Fosse
1480,"
Africana
Research Bulletin
4,
3: 49-54.
Hall,
Henry
U. 1937.
Papers
R.G. 11.
Unpublished
ms.
University
Museum,
University
of
Pennsylvania,
Philadelphia.
Hall,
Henry
U. 1938. Sherbro
of
Sierra
Leone;
a
Preliminary
Re-
port
on the
Work
of
the
University
Museum's
Expedition.to
West
Africa,
1937.
Philadelphia.
Hoffer,
Carol
P.
(C.P. MacCormack).
1971.
"Acquisition
and Exercise of
Political
Power
by
a
Woman
Paramount
Chief
of the Sherbro
People."
Ph.D.
dissertation,
Bryn
Mawr
College.
Holsoe,
Svend
E.
1980. "Notes
on
the
Vai Sande
Society
in
Liberia,"
Ethnologische
Zeitschrift
Zuerich
(1980)
1: 97-112.
Hommel,
William.
1974. Art
of
the Mende.
College
Park,
Maryland.
Innes,
Gordon. 1965. "The
Function
of
the
Song
in
Mende
Folktales,"
Sierra Leone
Language
Review
4:
54-63.
Innes,
Gordon. 1969.
A
Mende-English Dictionary.
Cam-
bridge England.
Jedrej,
M. Charles. 1976.
"Medicine,
Fetish
and
Secret
Soci-
ety
in a
West
African
Culture,"
Africa
46,
3:
247-57.
Jedrej,
M.
Charles.
1980.
"Structural
Aspects
of a
West Af-
rican Secret
Society,"
Ethnologische
Zeitschrift
Zuerich
(1980)
1:133-42.
Johnston,
Harry.
1906.
Liberia. 2
vols. London.
Koelle,
Sigismund
W.
1854. Outlines
of
a Grammar
of
the
Vei
Language together
with a
Vei-English Vocabulary.
London.
Lamp,
Frederick. 1978.
"Frogs
into
Princes: The
Temne
Rabai
Initiation,"
African
Arts
11,2:
38-39,
94-95.
Lamp
Frederick. 1979.
African
Art
of
the West
Atlantic
Coast:
Transition
in Form and Content. New York.
Lamp,
Frederick.
1982.
"Temne Rounds: The
Arts as
Spa-
tial and
Temporal
Indicators
in
a West African
Society."
Ph.D.
dissertation,
Yale
University.
Lamp,
Frederick.
1983. "House of Stones:
Memorial
Art of
Fifteenth-Century
Sierra
Leone,"
The Art
Bulletin
65,2:
219-37.
Lamp,
Frederick.
Forthcoming.
'Heavenly
Bodies:
Menses, Moon,
and
Ritual
Sanction
among
the
Temne,"
in
Blood
Magic:
New
Perspectives
in
the
Anthropology
of
Menstruation,
eds. T.
Buckley
&
A.
Gottlieb.
Little,
Kenneth
L.
1967. The
Mende
of
Sierra
Leone.
London.
Littlejohn,
James.
1960. "The Temne
House,"
Sierra
Leone
Studies
n.s.,
14:
63-79.
Littlejohn,
James.
1963. "Temne
Space,"
Anthropological
Quarterly
36: 1-17.
Margai,
Milton. 1965.
Akafa
Kdlol
ka
Kakomsir.
Bo,
Sierra
Leone.
Matthews,
John.
1966
(1788).
A
Voyage
to the
River Sierra
Leone. London.
Meneghini,
Mario. 1982.
"The
Gola Masks."
Unpublished
ms.
Monts,
Lester
P.
1984.
"Sande Tomboke:
Dance in the
Vai
Sande
Society,"
African
Arts
7,4:
53-59,
94-95.
Newland,
H. Osman.
1969
(1916).
Sierra Leone:
Its
People,
Products,
and Secret Societies.
Westport,
Conn.
Oven,
D. 1971.
Tropical
Butterflies.
Oxford.
Parsons,
Robert T.
1964.
Religion
in
an
African
Society.
Leiden.
Phillips,
Ruth
B.
1980. "The
Iconography
of
the
Mende
Sowei
Mask,'
Ethnologische
Zeitschrift
Zuerich
(1980)
1:
113-
32.
Phillips,
Ruth
B.
1984." "So
That
People
Will
See
That
I
Am
Skilled
in
Carving':
The Role of the
Woodcarver
among
the
Mende."
Unpublished
ms.
Pichl,
Walter
J.
1967.
Sherbro-English
and
English-Sherbro
Vo-
cabulary.
Pittsburgh.
Read,
C.H. and O.M.
Dalton.
1899.
Antiquities
from the
City
of
Benin and
from
Other
Parts
of
West
Africa
in
The
British
Museum.
London.
Richards,
J.V.
Olufemi.
1974. "The
Sande: A
Socio-Cultural
Hall,
Henry
U. 1938. Sherbro
of
Sierra
Leone;
a
Preliminary
Re-
port
on the
Work
of
the
University
Museum's
Expedition.to
West
Africa,
1937.
Philadelphia.
Hoffer,
Carol
P.
(C.P. MacCormack).
1971.
"Acquisition
and Exercise of
Political
Power
by
a
Woman
Paramount
Chief
of the Sherbro
People."
Ph.D.
dissertation,
Bryn
Mawr
College.
Holsoe,
Svend
E.
1980. "Notes
on
the
Vai Sande
Society
in
Liberia,"
Ethnologische
Zeitschrift
Zuerich
(1980)
1: 97-112.
Hommel,
William.
1974. Art
of
the Mende.
College
Park,
Maryland.
Innes,
Gordon. 1965. "The
Function
of
the
Song
in
Mende
Folktales,"
Sierra Leone
Language
Review
4:
54-63.
Innes,
Gordon. 1969.
A
Mende-English Dictionary.
Cam-
bridge England.
Jedrej,
M. Charles. 1976.
"Medicine,
Fetish
and
Secret
Soci-
ety
in a
West
African
Culture,"
Africa
46,
3:
247-57.
Jedrej,
M.
Charles.
1980.
"Structural
Aspects
of a
West Af-
rican Secret
Society,"
Ethnologische
Zeitschrift
Zuerich
(1980)
1:133-42.
Johnston,
Harry.
1906.
Liberia. 2
vols. London.
Koelle,
Sigismund
W.
1854. Outlines
of
a Grammar
of
the
Vei
Language together
with a
Vei-English Vocabulary.
London.
Lamp,
Frederick. 1978.
"Frogs
into
Princes: The
Temne
Rabai
Initiation,"
African
Arts
11,2:
38-39,
94-95.
Lamp
Frederick. 1979.
African
Art
of
the West
Atlantic
Coast:
Transition
in Form and Content. New York.
Lamp,
Frederick.
1982.
"Temne Rounds: The
Arts as
Spa-
tial and
Temporal
Indicators
in
a West African
Society."
Ph.D.
dissertation,
Yale
University.
Lamp,
Frederick.
1983. "House of Stones:
Memorial
Art of
Fifteenth-Century
Sierra
Leone,"
The Art
Bulletin
65,2:
219-37.
Lamp,
Frederick.
Forthcoming.
'Heavenly
Bodies:
Menses, Moon,
and
Ritual
Sanction
among
the
Temne,"
in
Blood
Magic:
New
Perspectives
in
the
Anthropology
of
Menstruation,
eds. T.
Buckley
&
A.
Gottlieb.
Little,
Kenneth
L.
1967. The
Mende
of
Sierra
Leone.
London.
Littlejohn,
James.
1960. "The Temne
House,"
Sierra
Leone
Studies
n.s.,
14:
63-79.
Littlejohn,
James.
1963. "Temne
Space,"
Anthropological
Quarterly
36: 1-17.
Margai,
Milton. 1965.
Akafa
Kdlol
ka
Kakomsir.
Bo,
Sierra
Leone.
Matthews,
John.
1966
(1788).
A
Voyage
to the
River Sierra
Leone. London.
Meneghini,
Mario. 1982.
"The
Gola Masks."
Unpublished
ms.
Monts,
Lester
P.
1984.
"Sande Tomboke:
Dance in the
Vai
Sande
Society,"
African
Arts
7,4:
53-59,
94-95.
Newland,
H. Osman.
1969
(1916).
Sierra Leone:
Its
People,
Products,
and Secret Societies.
Westport,
Conn.
Oven,
D. 1971.
Tropical
Butterflies.
Oxford.
Parsons,
Robert T.
1964.
Religion
in
an
African
Society.
Leiden.
Phillips,
Ruth
B.
1980. "The
Iconography
of
the
Mende
Sowei
Mask,'
Ethnologische
Zeitschrift
Zuerich
(1980)
1:
113-
32.
Phillips,
Ruth
B.
1984." "So
That
People
Will
See
That
I
Am
Skilled
in
Carving':
The Role of the
Woodcarver
among
the
Mende."
Unpublished
ms.
Pichl,
Walter
J.
1967.
Sherbro-English
and
English-Sherbro
Vo-
cabulary.
Pittsburgh.
Read,
C.H. and O.M.
Dalton.
1899.
Antiquities
from the
City
of
Benin and
from
Other
Parts
of
West
Africa
in
The
British
Museum.
London.
Richards,
J.V.
Olufemi.
1974. "The
Sande: A
Socio-Cultural
Organization
in the
Mende
Community
in
Sierra
Leone,
Baessler-Archiv
n.f.,
22:
265-81.
Sawyerr,
Harry
A. 1970.
God:
Ancestor
or Creator.
London.
Sayers,
Eldred
F. 1927.
"A
Few
Temne
Songs,"
Sierra Leone
Studies
o.s.,
10:109-11.
Schlenker,
Christian F.
1861.
A
Collection
of
Temne
Traditions,
Fables,
and Proverbs.
London.
Schoen,
J.F.
1884.
Vocabulary
of
the
Mende
Language.
Lon-
don.
Schwab,
George.
1947.
Tribes
of
the
Liberian Hinterland.
Cambridge,
Mass.
Schwab,
George.
1964.
"Indigenous
Education: The Poro
of
West
Africa,"
in Traditions
of
African
Education,
ed.
D.
Scanlon.
New York.
Shaw,
Rosalind
H. 1982.
"Temne
Divination:
The
Man-
agement
of
Secrecy
and Revelation."
Ph.D.
dissertation,
University
of London.
Thomas,
Northcote
W.
1970
(1916).
Anthropological Report
on
Sierra
Leone,
pt.
1.
Westport,
Conn.
Thompson,
Robert F.
1981. The
Four
Moments
of
the
Sun:
Kongo
Art in Two
Worlds.
Washington,
D.C.
Timothy,
E.B. 1952. "The
Deeds
of Bokari. A
Temne
Folktale,
Freely
Retold,"
African
Affairs
51: 61-72.
Turay,
Abu
K.
1967. "Temne
Supernatural
Terminolo-
gy,"Sierra
Leone Bulletin
of
Religion
9:
50-55.
Volz,
Walter.
1910.
"Reise
durch
das Hinterland
von
Liberia,
im Winter
1906/1907
(Rudolf
Zeller,
ed.),"
Jahres-
bericht der
Geographischen
Gesellschaft,
von Bern
22:
112-280.
Wallis,
Charles
B.
1903. The
Advance
of
Our West
African
Em-
pire.
London.
Westermann,
Diedrich.
1921.
Die
Gola-Sprache
in Liberia.
Hamburg.
Williams,
T.M.
1956.
Eloma Esu
Rothemne.
Bo,
Sierra
Leone."
HUFFMAN,
notes,
from
page
73
1.
Bent
1896;
Hall
1905;
Maclver
1906;
Caton-Thompson
1931;
Summers,
Robinson
&
Whitty
1961;
Garlake
1973;
Huffman
1982.
2.
For
further discussion
see
Huffman
1981.
3. See
the
origin
myth
in
Frobenius 1931:
237-40.
4. The
king
sometimes
married his
sister. This was
a
fea-
ture
of divine
kingship.
5.
Similar
shaped
notches
on
Shona headrests are
female
symbols
(Nettleton
1984).
Bibliography
Bent,
J.T.
1896.
The
Ruined Cities
of
Mashonaland.
London:
Longmans,
Green,
&
Co.
Bourdillon,
M.F.C. 1976. The Shona
Peoples.
Gwelo:
Mambo
Press.
Burbridge,
A. 1924.
"In
Spirit-bound
Rhodesia,"
NADA
2:
17-29.
Burbridge,
A. 1925. "The
Witch Doctor's
Power,"
NADA
3:
22-31.
Bullock,
C. 1927.
The
Mashona.
Cape
Town:
Juta.
Caton-Thompson,
G. 1931.
The
Zimbabwe
Culture: Ruins
and
Reactions.
Oxford:
Clarendon
Press.
Edwards,
W.
1928.
"Sacred
Places,"
NADA 6:
23-27.
Fortune,
G. 1956.
"A Rozi
Text with Translation and
Notes,"
NADA
33:
67-91.
Franklin,
H. 1933.
"Vakaranga
Superstitions,"
NADA
11:
122-24.
Frobenius,
L. 1931.
Erythraa:
Lander und
Zeiten des
heiligan
Konigsmordes.
Berlin:
Atlantis-Verlag.
Garlake,
P.S. 1973.
Great
Zimbabwe.
London: Thames &
Hudson.
Gelfand,
M.
1959.
Shona
Ritual.
Cape
Town:
Juta.
Organization
in the
Mende
Community
in
Sierra
Leone,
Baessler-Archiv
n.f.,
22:
265-81.
Sawyerr,
Harry
A. 1970.
God:
Ancestor
or Creator.
London.
Sayers,
Eldred
F. 1927.
"A
Few
Temne
Songs,"
Sierra Leone
Studies
o.s.,
10:109-11.
Schlenker,
Christian F.
1861.
A
Collection
of
Temne
Traditions,
Fables,
and Proverbs.
London.
Schoen,
J.F.
1884.
Vocabulary
of
the
Mende
Language.
Lon-
don.
Schwab,
George.
1947.
Tribes
of
the
Liberian Hinterland.
Cambridge,
Mass.
Schwab,
George.
1964.
"Indigenous
Education: The Poro
of
West
Africa,"
in Traditions
of
African
Education,
ed.
D.
Scanlon.
New York.
Shaw,
Rosalind
H. 1982.
"Temne
Divination:
The
Man-
agement
of
Secrecy
and Revelation."
Ph.D.
dissertation,
University
of London.
Thomas,
Northcote
W.
1970
(1916).
Anthropological Report
on
Sierra
Leone,
pt.
1.
Westport,
Conn.
Thompson,
Robert F.
1981. The
Four
Moments
of
the
Sun:
Kongo
Art in Two
Worlds.
Washington,
D.C.
Timothy,
E.B. 1952. "The
Deeds
of Bokari. A
Temne
Folktale,
Freely
Retold,"
African
Affairs
51: 61-72.
Turay,
Abu
K.
1967. "Temne
Supernatural
Terminolo-
gy,"Sierra
Leone Bulletin
of
Religion
9:
50-55.
Volz,
Walter.
1910.
"Reise
durch
das Hinterland
von
Liberia,
im Winter
1906/1907
(Rudolf
Zeller,
ed.),"
Jahres-
bericht der
Geographischen
Gesellschaft,
von Bern
22:
112-280.
Wallis,
Charles
B.
1903. The
Advance
of
Our West
African
Em-
pire.
London.
Westermann,
Diedrich.
1921.
Die
Gola-Sprache
in Liberia.
Hamburg.
Williams,
T.M.
1956.
Eloma Esu
Rothemne.
Bo,
Sierra
Leone."
HUFFMAN,
notes,
from
page
73
1.
Bent
1896;
Hall
1905;
Maclver
1906;
Caton-Thompson
1931;
Summers,
Robinson
&
Whitty
1961;
Garlake
1973;
Huffman
1982.
2.
For
further discussion
see
Huffman
1981.
3. See
the
origin
myth
in
Frobenius 1931:
237-40.
4. The
king
sometimes
married his
sister. This was
a
fea-
ture
of divine
kingship.
5.
Similar
shaped
notches
on
Shona headrests are
female
symbols
(Nettleton
1984).
Bibliography
Bent,
J.T.
1896.
The
Ruined Cities
of
Mashonaland.
London:
Longmans,
Green,
&
Co.
Bourdillon,
M.F.C. 1976. The Shona
Peoples.
Gwelo:
Mambo
Press.
Burbridge,
A. 1924.
"In
Spirit-bound
Rhodesia,"
NADA
2:
17-29.
Burbridge,
A. 1925. "The
Witch Doctor's
Power,"
NADA
3:
22-31.
Bullock,
C. 1927.
The
Mashona.
Cape
Town:
Juta.
Caton-Thompson,
G. 1931.
The
Zimbabwe
Culture: Ruins
and
Reactions.
Oxford:
Clarendon
Press.
Edwards,
W.
1928.
"Sacred
Places,"
NADA 6:
23-27.
Fortune,
G. 1956.
"A Rozi
Text with Translation and
Notes,"
NADA
33:
67-91.
Franklin,
H. 1933.
"Vakaranga
Superstitions,"
NADA
11:
122-24.
Frobenius,
L. 1931.
Erythraa:
Lander und
Zeiten des
heiligan
Konigsmordes.
Berlin:
Atlantis-Verlag.
Garlake,
P.S. 1973.
Great
Zimbabwe.
London: Thames &
Hudson.
Gelfand,
M.
1959.
Shona
Ritual.
Cape
Town:
Juta.
CONTRIBUTORS
PATRICIA
DAVISON is Head of the
Department
of
Ethnography,
South
African
Museum,
Cape
Town.
THIERRY
GENTIS
is Assistant
Curator at
the
Haffenreffer
Museum
of
Anthropology,
Brown Uni-
versity
MARIAN
HARTLAND-ROWE is an
advisor to the
textile
print
workshop
at
the
Phuthadikobo
Museum,
Mochudi.
THOMAS
N.
HUFFMAN
is Professor and
Head
of the
Department
of
Archaeology,
University
of
the
Witwatersrand,
Johannesburg.
FREDERICK LAMP
is
Associate
Curator
in
the
Arts
of
Africa,
the
Americas,
and
Oceania at the
Baltimore Museum
of Art.
J.D.
LEWIS-WILLIAMS is
Senior
Lecturer,
Department
of
Archaeology,
University
of the
Wit-
watersrand,
Johannesburg.
ANITRA
C.E.
NETTLETON is Senior
Lecturer,
History
of
Art
Department,
University
of
the Wit-
watersrand,
Johannesburg.
ELIZABETH ANN
SCHNEIDER is a Ph.D.
candidate
in
the
Fine Arts
Department,
University
of
the
Witwatersrand,
Johannesburg.
CATHERINE A.M.
VOGEL is
a
Masters
graduate
in
the
History
of Art
Department,
University
of
the
Witwatersrand,
Johannesburg.
CONTRIBUTORS
PATRICIA
DAVISON is Head of the
Department
of
Ethnography,
South
African
Museum,
Cape
Town.
THIERRY
GENTIS
is Assistant
Curator at
the
Haffenreffer
Museum
of
Anthropology,
Brown Uni-
versity
MARIAN
HARTLAND-ROWE is an
advisor to the
textile
print
workshop
at
the
Phuthadikobo
Museum,
Mochudi.
THOMAS
N.
HUFFMAN
is Professor and
Head
of the
Department
of
Archaeology,
University
of
the
Witwatersrand,
Johannesburg.
FREDERICK LAMP
is
Associate
Curator
in
the
Arts
of
Africa,
the
Americas,
and
Oceania at the
Baltimore Museum
of Art.
J.D.
LEWIS-WILLIAMS is
Senior
Lecturer,
Department
of
Archaeology,
University
of the
Wit-
watersrand,
Johannesburg.
ANITRA
C.E.
NETTLETON is Senior
Lecturer,
History
of
Art
Department,
University
of
the Wit-
watersrand,
Johannesburg.
ELIZABETH ANN
SCHNEIDER is a Ph.D.
candidate
in
the
Fine Arts
Department,
University
of
the
Witwatersrand,
Johannesburg.
CATHERINE A.M.
VOGEL is
a
Masters
graduate
in
the
History
of Art
Department,
University
of
the
Witwatersrand,
Johannesburg.
99 99

Hall,
R.N. 1905. Great
Zimbabwe.
London:
Metheun.
Hammond-Tooke,
W.D.
1974.
"World-View I:
A
System
of
Beliefs,"
in The
Bantu-speaking
Peoples
of
Southern
Africa,
ed. W.D.
Hammond-Tooke,
pp.
318-43.
London:
Rout-
ledge
&
Kegan
Paul.
Hamutyinei,
M.A. and
A.B.
Plangger.
1974.
Tsumo-Shumo:
Shona Proverbial
Lore and
Wisdom.
Gwelo: Mambo Press.
Hodza,
A. and G. Fortune. 1979.
Shona
Praise
Poetry.
Ox-
ford: Clarendon
Press.
Huffman,
T.N.
1981.
"Snakes
and
Birds:
Expressive Space
at Great
Zimbabwe,"
African
Studies
40,2:131-50.
Huffman,
T.N. 1982.
"Archaeology
and
Ethnohistory
of the
African Iron
Age,"
Annual
Review
of
Anthropology
11:
133-
50.
Huffman,
T.N.
1984.
"Expressive
Space
in the
Zimbabwe
Culture,"
Man
19,4.
Kriel,
A. 1971. An
African
Horizon.
Cape
Town:
School of
African
Studies,
University
of
Cape
Town.
Kuper,
A.
1980.
"Symbolic
Dimensions
of the
Southern
Bantu
Homestead,"
Africa
50,1:
8-23.
Mbizo. 1924. "The
Lightning
Doctor,"
NADA
2: 60-62.
Maclver,
D.R.
1906.
Mediaeval
Rhodesia.
London: Macmillan.
Nettleton,
A.C.E.
1984.
"The Traditional
Woodcarving
of
the
Venda and
Shona." Ph.D. dissertation,
University
of
the
Witwatersrand,
Johannesburg.
Posselt,
W.
1924.
"The
Early Days
of Mashonaland
and
a
Visit
to the
Zimbabwe
Ruins,"
NADA
2: 70-76.
Summers,
R.S.
1965.
Zimbabwe:
A
Rhodesian
Mystery.
Cape
Town: Thomas
Nelson
&
Sons.
Summers,
R.,
K.R.
Robinson and
A.
Whitty.
1961.
Zim-
babwe
Excavations,
1958.
Occasional
Papers
of the National
Museum
of
Southern
Rhodesia, A3,23:
157-332.
Theal,
G.M.
1898-1903.
Records
of
South-Eastern
Africa.
9
vols. London: Government of the
Cape
Colony.
Van
Warmelo,
N.J.
(ed.).
1932. Contributions Towards
Venda
History
,
Religion
and
Tribal Ritual.
Ethnological
Publica-
tion
3. Pretoria:
Government Printer.
Van der
Merwe,
W.J.
1957.
"The
Shona
Idea of
God,"
NADA
34: 38-63.
GENTIS,
bibliography
from
page
50
Bastin,
M.L. 1984. "Ritual Masks
of the
Chokwe,"
African
Arts
17,4.
Ben-Amos,
P. and
A. Rubin
(eds.).
1983.
The Art
of
Power,
the
Power
of
Art:
Studies
in Benin
Iconography.
Los
Angeles:
Museum of Cultural
History,
UCLA.
Brain,
Robert and
Adam Pollock.
1971.
Bangwa
Funerary
Sculpture.
London: Gerald
Duckworth
& Co.
Cole,
H.M. and D.H. Ross.
1977.
The
Arts
of
Ghana. Los
Angeles:
Museum
of Cultural
History,
UCLA.
Delange,
J.
1974.
The Art
and
Peoples
of
Black
Africa.
New
York: E.P.
Dutton
& Co.
DeMott,
B. 1979-80.
Dogon
Masks:
A Structural
Study
of
Form
and
Meaning.
Ann Arbor:
University
of
Michigan
Re-
search
Press.
Fagg.,
W. 1970.
Divine
Kingship
in
Africa.
London:
British
Museum.
Fry,
J.
1978.
Twenty-Five
African
Sculptures.
Ottawa: Na-
tional
Gallery
of
Canada.
Gallois-Duquette,
D.
1981.
In For
Spirits
and
Kings:
African
Art
from
the
Paul
and
Ruth Tishman
Collection,
ed.
S.
Vogel.
New York: The
Metropolitan
Museum
of Art.
Gentis,
T.
1983.
Traditional
Art
of
Africa.
Bristol,
R.I.: Haf-
fenreffer Museum of
Anthropology,
Brown
University.
Gillon,
W. 1979.
Collecting
African
Art.
New York:
Rizzoli
International
Publications.
Gubert,
B.
1981.
"Three
Songye
and
Kongo Figures,"
Afri-
can Arts
15,1.
Harter,
P. 1981.
"Les
perles
de
verre au
Cameroun,"
Arts
Hall,
R.N. 1905. Great
Zimbabwe.
London:
Metheun.
Hammond-Tooke,
W.D.
1974.
"World-View I:
A
System
of
Beliefs,"
in The
Bantu-speaking
Peoples
of
Southern
Africa,
ed. W.D.
Hammond-Tooke,
pp.
318-43.
London:
Rout-
ledge
&
Kegan
Paul.
Hamutyinei,
M.A. and
A.B.
Plangger.
1974.
Tsumo-Shumo:
Shona Proverbial
Lore and
Wisdom.
Gwelo: Mambo Press.
Hodza,
A. and G. Fortune. 1979.
Shona
Praise
Poetry.
Ox-
ford: Clarendon
Press.
Huffman,
T.N.
1981.
"Snakes
and
Birds:
Expressive Space
at Great
Zimbabwe,"
African
Studies
40,2:131-50.
Huffman,
T.N. 1982.
"Archaeology
and
Ethnohistory
of the
African Iron
Age,"
Annual
Review
of
Anthropology
11:
133-
50.
Huffman,
T.N.
1984.
"Expressive
Space
in the
Zimbabwe
Culture,"
Man
19,4.
Kriel,
A. 1971. An
African
Horizon.
Cape
Town:
School of
African
Studies,
University
of
Cape
Town.
Kuper,
A.
1980.
"Symbolic
Dimensions
of the
Southern
Bantu
Homestead,"
Africa
50,1:
8-23.
Mbizo. 1924. "The
Lightning
Doctor,"
NADA
2: 60-62.
Maclver,
D.R.
1906.
Mediaeval
Rhodesia.
London: Macmillan.
Nettleton,
A.C.E.
1984.
"The Traditional
Woodcarving
of
the
Venda and
Shona." Ph.D. dissertation,
University
of
the
Witwatersrand,
Johannesburg.
Posselt,
W.
1924.
"The
Early Days
of Mashonaland
and
a
Visit
to the
Zimbabwe
Ruins,"
NADA
2: 70-76.
Summers,
R.S.
1965.
Zimbabwe:
A
Rhodesian
Mystery.
Cape
Town: Thomas
Nelson
&
Sons.
Summers,
R.,
K.R.
Robinson and
A.
Whitty.
1961.
Zim-
babwe
Excavations,
1958.
Occasional
Papers
of the National
Museum
of
Southern
Rhodesia, A3,23:
157-332.
Theal,
G.M.
1898-1903.
Records
of
South-Eastern
Africa.
9
vols. London: Government of the
Cape
Colony.
Van
Warmelo,
N.J.
(ed.).
1932. Contributions Towards
Venda
History
,
Religion
and
Tribal Ritual.
Ethnological
Publica-
tion
3. Pretoria:
Government Printer.
Van der
Merwe,
W.J.
1957.
"The
Shona
Idea of
God,"
NADA
34: 38-63.
GENTIS,
bibliography
from
page
50
Bastin,
M.L. 1984. "Ritual Masks
of the
Chokwe,"
African
Arts
17,4.
Ben-Amos,
P. and
A. Rubin
(eds.).
1983.
The Art
of
Power,
the
Power
of
Art:
Studies
in Benin
Iconography.
Los
Angeles:
Museum of Cultural
History,
UCLA.
Brain,
Robert and
Adam Pollock.
1971.
Bangwa
Funerary
Sculpture.
London: Gerald
Duckworth
& Co.
Cole,
H.M. and D.H. Ross.
1977.
The
Arts
of
Ghana. Los
Angeles:
Museum
of Cultural
History,
UCLA.
Delange,
J.
1974.
The Art
and
Peoples
of
Black
Africa.
New
York: E.P.
Dutton
& Co.
DeMott,
B. 1979-80.
Dogon
Masks:
A Structural
Study
of
Form
and
Meaning.
Ann Arbor:
University
of
Michigan
Re-
search
Press.
Fagg.,
W. 1970.
Divine
Kingship
in
Africa.
London:
British
Museum.
Fry,
J.
1978.
Twenty-Five
African
Sculptures.
Ottawa: Na-
tional
Gallery
of
Canada.
Gallois-Duquette,
D.
1981.
In For
Spirits
and
Kings:
African
Art
from
the
Paul
and
Ruth Tishman
Collection,
ed.
S.
Vogel.
New York: The
Metropolitan
Museum
of Art.
Gentis,
T.
1983.
Traditional
Art
of
Africa.
Bristol,
R.I.: Haf-
fenreffer Museum of
Anthropology,
Brown
University.
Gillon,
W. 1979.
Collecting
African
Art.
New York:
Rizzoli
International
Publications.
Gubert,
B.
1981.
"Three
Songye
and
Kongo Figures,"
Afri-
can Arts
15,1.
Harter,
P. 1981.
"Les
perles
de
verre au
Cameroun,"
Arts
Hall,
R.N. 1905. Great
Zimbabwe.
London:
Metheun.
Hammond-Tooke,
W.D.
1974.
"World-View I:
A
System
of
Beliefs,"
in The
Bantu-speaking
Peoples
of
Southern
Africa,
ed. W.D.
Hammond-Tooke,
pp.
318-43.
London:
Rout-
ledge
&
Kegan
Paul.
Hamutyinei,
M.A. and
A.B.
Plangger.
1974.
Tsumo-Shumo:
Shona Proverbial
Lore and
Wisdom.
Gwelo: Mambo Press.
Hodza,
A. and G. Fortune. 1979.
Shona
Praise
Poetry.
Ox-
ford: Clarendon
Press.
Huffman,
T.N.
1981.
"Snakes
and
Birds:
Expressive Space
at Great
Zimbabwe,"
African
Studies
40,2:131-50.
Huffman,
T.N. 1982.
"Archaeology
and
Ethnohistory
of the
African Iron
Age,"
Annual
Review
of
Anthropology
11:
133-
50.
Huffman,
T.N.
1984.
"Expressive
Space
in the
Zimbabwe
Culture,"
Man
19,4.
Kriel,
A. 1971. An
African
Horizon.
Cape
Town:
School of
African
Studies,
University
of
Cape
Town.
Kuper,
A.
1980.
"Symbolic
Dimensions
of the
Southern
Bantu
Homestead,"
Africa
50,1:
8-23.
Mbizo. 1924. "The
Lightning
Doctor,"
NADA
2: 60-62.
Maclver,
D.R.
1906.
Mediaeval
Rhodesia.
London: Macmillan.
Nettleton,
A.C.E.
1984.
"The Traditional
Woodcarving
of
the
Venda and
Shona." Ph.D. dissertation,
University
of
the
Witwatersrand,
Johannesburg.
Posselt,
W.
1924.
"The
Early Days
of Mashonaland
and
a
Visit
to the
Zimbabwe
Ruins,"
NADA
2: 70-76.
Summers,
R.S.
1965.
Zimbabwe:
A
Rhodesian
Mystery.
Cape
Town: Thomas
Nelson
&
Sons.
Summers,
R.,
K.R.
Robinson and
A.
Whitty.
1961.
Zim-
babwe
Excavations,
1958.
Occasional
Papers
of the National
Museum
of
Southern
Rhodesia, A3,23:
157-332.
Theal,
G.M.
1898-1903.
Records
of
South-Eastern
Africa.
9
vols. London: Government of the
Cape
Colony.
Van
Warmelo,
N.J.
(ed.).
1932. Contributions Towards
Venda
History
,
Religion
and
Tribal Ritual.
Ethnological
Publica-
tion
3. Pretoria:
Government Printer.
Van der
Merwe,
W.J.
1957.
"The
Shona
Idea of
God,"
NADA
34: 38-63.
GENTIS,
bibliography
from
page
50
Bastin,
M.L. 1984. "Ritual Masks
of the
Chokwe,"
African
Arts
17,4.
Ben-Amos,
P. and
A. Rubin
(eds.).
1983.
The Art
of
Power,
the
Power
of
Art:
Studies
in Benin
Iconography.
Los
Angeles:
Museum of Cultural
History,
UCLA.
Brain,
Robert and
Adam Pollock.
1971.
Bangwa
Funerary
Sculpture.
London: Gerald
Duckworth
& Co.
Cole,
H.M. and D.H. Ross.
1977.
The
Arts
of
Ghana. Los
Angeles:
Museum
of Cultural
History,
UCLA.
Delange,
J.
1974.
The Art
and
Peoples
of
Black
Africa.
New
York: E.P.
Dutton
& Co.
DeMott,
B. 1979-80.
Dogon
Masks:
A Structural
Study
of
Form
and
Meaning.
Ann Arbor:
University
of
Michigan
Re-
search
Press.
Fagg.,
W. 1970.
Divine
Kingship
in
Africa.
London:
British
Museum.
Fry,
J.
1978.
Twenty-Five
African
Sculptures.
Ottawa: Na-
tional
Gallery
of
Canada.
Gallois-Duquette,
D.
1981.
In For
Spirits
and
Kings:
African
Art
from
the
Paul
and
Ruth Tishman
Collection,
ed.
S.
Vogel.
New York: The
Metropolitan
Museum
of Art.
Gentis,
T.
1983.
Traditional
Art
of
Africa.
Bristol,
R.I.: Haf-
fenreffer Museum of
Anthropology,
Brown
University.
Gillon,
W. 1979.
Collecting
African
Art.
New York:
Rizzoli
International
Publications.
Gubert,
B.
1981.
"Three
Songye
and
Kongo Figures,"
Afri-
can Arts
15,1.
Harter,
P. 1981.
"Les
perles
de
verre au
Cameroun,"
Arts
Hall,
R.N. 1905. Great
Zimbabwe.
London:
Metheun.
Hammond-Tooke,
W.D.
1974.
"World-View I:
A
System
of
Beliefs,"
in The
Bantu-speaking
Peoples
of
Southern
Africa,
ed. W.D.
Hammond-Tooke,
pp.
318-43.
London:
Rout-
ledge
&
Kegan
Paul.
Hamutyinei,
M.A. and
A.B.
Plangger.
1974.
Tsumo-Shumo:
Shona Proverbial
Lore and
Wisdom.
Gwelo: Mambo Press.
Hodza,
A. and G. Fortune. 1979.
Shona
Praise
Poetry.
Ox-
ford: Clarendon
Press.
Huffman,
T.N.
1981.
"Snakes
and
Birds:
Expressive Space
at Great
Zimbabwe,"
African
Studies
40,2:131-50.
Huffman,
T.N. 1982.
"Archaeology
and
Ethnohistory
of the
African Iron
Age,"
Annual
Review
of
Anthropology
11:
133-
50.
Huffman,
T.N.
1984.
"Expressive
Space
in the
Zimbabwe
Culture,"
Man
19,4.
Kriel,
A. 1971. An
African
Horizon.
Cape
Town:
School of
African
Studies,
University
of
Cape
Town.
Kuper,
A.
1980.
"Symbolic
Dimensions
of the
Southern
Bantu
Homestead,"
Africa
50,1:
8-23.
Mbizo. 1924. "The
Lightning
Doctor,"
NADA
2: 60-62.
Maclver,
D.R.
1906.
Mediaeval
Rhodesia.
London: Macmillan.
Nettleton,
A.C.E.
1984.
"The Traditional
Woodcarving
of
the
Venda and
Shona." Ph.D. dissertation,
University
of
the
Witwatersrand,
Johannesburg.
Posselt,
W.
1924.
"The
Early Days
of Mashonaland
and
a
Visit
to the
Zimbabwe
Ruins,"
NADA
2: 70-76.
Summers,
R.S.
1965.
Zimbabwe:
A
Rhodesian
Mystery.
Cape
Town: Thomas
Nelson
&
Sons.
Summers,
R.,
K.R.
Robinson and
A.
Whitty.
1961.
Zim-
babwe
Excavations,
1958.
Occasional
Papers
of the National
Museum
of
Southern
Rhodesia, A3,23:
157-332.
Theal,
G.M.
1898-1903.
Records
of
South-Eastern
Africa.
9
vols. London: Government of the
Cape
Colony.
Van
Warmelo,
N.J.
(ed.).
1932. Contributions Towards
Venda
History
,
Religion
and
Tribal Ritual.
Ethnological
Publica-
tion
3. Pretoria:
Government Printer.
Van der
Merwe,
W.J.
1957.
"The
Shona
Idea of
God,"
NADA
34: 38-63.
GENTIS,
bibliography
from
page
50
Bastin,
M.L. 1984. "Ritual Masks
of the
Chokwe,"
African
Arts
17,4.
Ben-Amos,
P. and
A. Rubin
(eds.).
1983.
The Art
of
Power,
the
Power
of
Art:
Studies
in Benin
Iconography.
Los
Angeles:
Museum of Cultural
History,
UCLA.
Brain,
Robert and
Adam Pollock.
1971.
Bangwa
Funerary
Sculpture.
London: Gerald
Duckworth
& Co.
Cole,
H.M. and D.H. Ross.
1977.
The
Arts
of
Ghana. Los
Angeles:
Museum
of Cultural
History,
UCLA.
Delange,
J.
1974.
The Art
and
Peoples
of
Black
Africa.
New
York: E.P.
Dutton
& Co.
DeMott,
B. 1979-80.
Dogon
Masks:
A Structural
Study
of
Form
and
Meaning.
Ann Arbor:
University
of
Michigan
Re-
search
Press.
Fagg.,
W. 1970.
Divine
Kingship
in
Africa.
London:
British
Museum.
Fry,
J.
1978.
Twenty-Five
African
Sculptures.
Ottawa: Na-
tional
Gallery
of
Canada.
Gallois-Duquette,
D.
1981.
In For
Spirits
and
Kings:
African
Art
from
the
Paul
and
Ruth Tishman
Collection,
ed.
S.
Vogel.
New York: The
Metropolitan
Museum
of Art.
Gentis,
T.
1983.
Traditional
Art
of
Africa.
Bristol,
R.I.: Haf-
fenreffer Museum of
Anthropology,
Brown
University.
Gillon,
W. 1979.
Collecting
African
Art.
New York:
Rizzoli
International
Publications.
Gubert,
B.
1981.
"Three
Songye
and
Kongo Figures,"
Afri-
can Arts
15,1.
Harter,
P. 1981.
"Les
perles
de
verre au
Cameroun,"
Arts
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
Page
29,31,32
(left),
35,38
(top
left),
39
(left
&
center),
40
(right),
42
Photos:
Frederick
Lamp
30
Photo:
H. U. Hall
32
(right),
98 Photos:
Richard
Todd
33
Photo:
Delmar
Lipp
34
(left),
37
(left)
Photos:
Eliot
Elisofon
37
(center)
Photo:
Duane Suter
37
(right),
38
(bottom
left)
Photos:
Arvil
A.
Daniels
38
(center)
Photo:
Ken Heinen
44-51 Photos:
Danielle
Toth
53,
60-67,
inside
back
cover Photos:
Elizabeth
Ann
Schneider
56-59
Drawings:
Paul
den Hoed
& Bruce
Fordyce
74 Photos:
J.
Hosford
75,
76
(top
&
bottom),
77
Photos:
P. Davison
76
(center)
Photo: C.
Booth
78-83
Photos:
Catherine
A.
M.
Vogel
87-88 Photos:
Anitra
C.
E.
Nettleton
94
(center)
Photo:
Stephan
Zurkinden
95
(right)
Photo:
Joe
Coca
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
Page
29,31,32
(left),
35,38
(top
left),
39
(left
&
center),
40
(right),
42
Photos:
Frederick
Lamp
30
Photo:
H. U. Hall
32
(right),
98 Photos:
Richard
Todd
33
Photo:
Delmar
Lipp
34
(left),
37
(left)
Photos:
Eliot
Elisofon
37
(center)
Photo:
Duane Suter
37
(right),
38
(bottom
left)
Photos:
Arvil
A.
Daniels
38
(center)
Photo:
Ken Heinen
44-51 Photos:
Danielle
Toth
53,
60-67,
inside
back
cover Photos:
Elizabeth
Ann
Schneider
56-59
Drawings:
Paul
den Hoed
& Bruce
Fordyce
74 Photos:
J.
Hosford
75,
76
(top
&
bottom),
77
Photos:
P. Davison
76
(center)
Photo: C.
Booth
78-83
Photos:
Catherine
A.
M.
Vogel
87-88 Photos:
Anitra
C.
E.
Nettleton
94
(center)
Photo:
Stephan
Zurkinden
95
(right)
Photo:
Joe
Coca
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
Page
29,31,32
(left),
35,38
(top
left),
39
(left
&
center),
40
(right),
42
Photos:
Frederick
Lamp
30
Photo:
H. U. Hall
32
(right),
98 Photos:
Richard
Todd
33
Photo:
Delmar
Lipp
34
(left),
37
(left)
Photos:
Eliot
Elisofon
37
(center)
Photo:
Duane Suter
37
(right),
38
(bottom
left)
Photos:
Arvil
A.
Daniels
38
(center)
Photo:
Ken Heinen
44-51 Photos:
Danielle
Toth
53,
60-67,
inside
back
cover Photos:
Elizabeth
Ann
Schneider
56-59
Drawings:
Paul
den Hoed
& Bruce
Fordyce
74 Photos:
J.
Hosford
75,
76
(top
&
bottom),
77
Photos:
P. Davison
76
(center)
Photo: C.
Booth
78-83
Photos:
Catherine
A.
M.
Vogel
87-88 Photos:
Anitra
C.
E.
Nettleton
94
(center)
Photo:
Stephan
Zurkinden
95
(right)
Photo:
Joe
Coca
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
Page
29,31,32
(left),
35,38
(top
left),
39
(left
&
center),
40
(right),
42
Photos:
Frederick
Lamp
30
Photo:
H. U. Hall
32
(right),
98 Photos:
Richard
Todd
33
Photo:
Delmar
Lipp
34
(left),
37
(left)
Photos:
Eliot
Elisofon
37
(center)
Photo:
Duane Suter
37
(right),
38
(bottom
left)
Photos:
Arvil
A.
Daniels
38
(center)
Photo:
Ken Heinen
44-51 Photos:
Danielle
Toth
53,
60-67,
inside
back
cover Photos:
Elizabeth
Ann
Schneider
56-59
Drawings:
Paul
den Hoed
& Bruce
Fordyce
74 Photos:
J.
Hosford
75,
76
(top
&
bottom),
77
Photos:
P. Davison
76
(center)
Photo: C.
Booth
78-83
Photos:
Catherine
A.
M.
Vogel
87-88 Photos:
Anitra
C.
E.
Nettleton
94
(center)
Photo:
Stephan
Zurkinden
95
(right)
Photo:
Joe
Coca
d'Afrique
Noire.
Arnouville,
France.
Huet,
M.
1978. The Dance,
Art and
Ritual
of
Africa.
New
York:
Random
House.
Laude,
J.
1973.
African
Art
of
the
Dogon.
New
York: The
Brooklyn
Museum with
the
Viking
Press.
Maesen,
A.
1967. Art
of
the
Congo.
Minneapolis:
Walker Art
Center.
Nicklin,
K.
and
J.
Salmons. 1984.
"Cross
River
Art
Styles,"
African
Arts
18,1.
Northern,
T.
1981. In For
Spirits
and
Kings:
African
Art
from
The Paul and
Ruth
Tishman
Collection,
ed.
Susan
Vogel.
New York:
The
Metropolitan
Museum of Art.
Scheinberg,
A.
She:
Images of
the
Women
in
Black
African
Art.
New York:
Germans
Van Eck
Gallery.
Sieber,
R. 1980.
African
Furniture and
Household
Objects.
Bloomington:
Indiana
University
Press.
Sieber,
R. and A. Rubin. 1969.
Sculpture of
Black
Africa:
The
Paul Tishman
Collection.
Los
Angeles:
Los
Angeles County
Museum of Art.
Thompson,
R.F. 1974.
African
Art in Motion.
Los
Angeles:
UCLA.
Timmermans,
P. 1967.
"Les
Lwa
Lwa,"
Africa-Tervuren
13,3-4.
Vogel,
S.
(ed.).
1981.
For
Spirits
and
Kings: African
Art
from
the
Tishman Collection.
New
York:
Metropolitan
Museum
of Art.
LEWIS-WILLIAMS, notes,
from
page
59
I
thank
my
colleagues
Mike
Evers,
Tom
Huffman,
and
Lyn
Wadley
who
kindly
commented on
a draft of
this article.
Research has
been funded
by
the
Human Sciences
Re-
search Council
and the
University
of
the
Witwatersrand.
Bibliography
Alexander,
J.
1838.
An
Expedition
of
Discovery
into
tihe
Interior
of
Africa. London:
Henry
Colbum.
Katz,
R.
1982.
Boiling
Energy:
Community
Healing
among
the
Kalahlari
!Kung. Cambridge,
Mass.: Harvard
University
Press.
Lee,
R.B. and I. Devore
(eds.).
Kalahlari Hunter-Gatherers.
Cambridge,
Mass.: Harvard
University
Press.
Lewis-Williams,
J.D.
1981.
Believing
and
Seeing:
Symibolic
Meanings
in
Southern
San
Rock
Paintings.
London:
Academic
Press.
Lewi,s-Williams,
J.D.
1983.
The Rock
Art
of
Southern
Africa.
Cambridge:
Cambridge
University
Press.
Marshall,
L. 1976. Tihe
!Kung
of
Nyae
Nyae. Cambridge,
Mass.: Harvard
University
Press.
Pager,
H. 1971. Ndedenma.
Graz: Akademische Druck
Verlag-
sanstalt.
Siegel,
R.K.
and
L.J.
West
(eds.).
1975.
Hallucinations:
Be-
haviour,
Experience,
and
Theory.
New
York:
Wiley.
Tobias,
P.V.
(ed.).
1978.
The
Bushmen.
Cape
Town:
Human
& Rousseau.
Tongue,
Helen
M. 1909.
Bushman
Paintings.
Oxford: Clar-
endon
Press.
Vinnicombe,
P 1976.
People
of
the
Eland.
Pietermaritzburg;
Natal
University
Press.
SCHNEIDER,
notes,
fromi
page
66
1. There are
perhaps
exceptions among
the other
groups,
such as the various Sotho
peoples
who
do
some wall
deco-
ration
using
earth
pigments,
textures,
or
molded
mud
relief
patterns.
2. The
Ndzundza are also
known
as the
people
of
Mabhogo
(a
mid-nineteenth-century
chief)
or
the
Mahlangu (present
royal famrily).
Manala was also an
early
chief.
3.
Haselberger
1961:
343-44;
Forge
1973:
xx;
d'Azevedo
1973:xix;
Firth
1973:
v,
47;
Leach 1973:
223;
Fernandez
1973:
216;
Etzkorn 1973: 343-77.
4. In
many
instances the
purchased
oxide
colors
that
pre-
dominate reflect
the
colors
of the
clay
local
to
the
owners'
previous
residence. A former
counselor
to
the
paramount
chief
demonstrated this fact
to me
by correctly
identifying
the
geographic
location of some of
my
design
unit
samples,
mainly by
the colors used.
One
woman
proudly
described
going
back
to her
family's
home area
many
miles
away
to
bring
back colored
clay
from
a
special deposit
for
use
on
the walls of her
new
home.
5.
According
to
respondents,
the
bright
colors
of
purchased
pigments
are
today
preferred
over
colored
clays.
Any
kind
of
brush,
even a
toothbrush
or
shaving
brush,
enables the
painter
to outline the
designs
with more
precision.
6. This
paper
is
part
of a
much
larger
study
based
on em-
pirical
data collected in the
field,
and
augments
these
in-
triguing
accounts. See
Ph.D. in
preparation,
University
of
the Witwatersrand.
7. F.
Bothma,
government
ethnologist, personal
communi-
cation,
July
15,
1977.
8. For
example,
at the
end
of the 1870s
two white
settlers
purchased
eight
farms from Afrikaners.
The
Ndzundza
chief's emissaries
told them
this was Ndzundza
land,
pur-
chased with Ndzundza blood
(British
Parliamentary
Papers
1881-1882,
vol. 36:
815),
and that if
they
did
not
leave
the
next
day
their
heads would be
smashed and
they
would be
d'Afrique
Noire.
Arnouville,
France.
Huet,
M.
1978. The Dance,
Art and
Ritual
of
Africa.
New
York:
Random
House.
Laude,
J.
1973.
African
Art
of
the
Dogon.
New
York: The
Brooklyn
Museum with
the
Viking
Press.
Maesen,
A.
1967. Art
of
the
Congo.
Minneapolis:
Walker Art
Center.
Nicklin,
K.
and
J.
Salmons. 1984.
"Cross
River
Art
Styles,"
African
Arts
18,1.
Northern,
T.
1981. In For
Spirits
and
Kings:
African
Art
from
The Paul and
Ruth
Tishman
Collection,
ed.
Susan
Vogel.
New York:
The
Metropolitan
Museum of Art.
Scheinberg,
A.
She:
Images of
the
Women
in
Black
African
Art.
New York:
Germans
Van Eck
Gallery.
Sieber,
R. 1980.
African
Furniture and
Household
Objects.
Bloomington:
Indiana
University
Press.
Sieber,
R. and A. Rubin. 1969.
Sculpture of
Black
Africa:
The
Paul Tishman
Collection.
Los
Angeles:
Los
Angeles County
Museum of Art.
Thompson,
R.F. 1974.
African
Art in Motion.
Los
Angeles:
UCLA.
Timmermans,
P. 1967.
"Les
Lwa
Lwa,"
Africa-Tervuren
13,3-4.
Vogel,
S.
(ed.).
1981.
For
Spirits
and
Kings: African
Art
from
the
Tishman Collection.
New
York:
Metropolitan
Museum
of Art.
LEWIS-WILLIAMS, notes,
from
page
59
I
thank
my
colleagues
Mike
Evers,
Tom
Huffman,
and
Lyn
Wadley
who
kindly
commented on
a draft of
this article.
Research has
been funded
by
the
Human Sciences
Re-
search Council
and the
University
of
the
Witwatersrand.
Bibliography
Alexander,
J.
1838.
An
Expedition
of
Discovery
into
tihe
Interior
of
Africa. London:
Henry
Colbum.
Katz,
R.
1982.
Boiling
Energy:
Community
Healing
among
the
Kalahlari
!Kung. Cambridge,
Mass.: Harvard
University
Press.
Lee,
R.B. and I. Devore
(eds.).
Kalahlari Hunter-Gatherers.
Cambridge,
Mass.: Harvard
University
Press.
Lewis-Williams,
J.D.
1981.
Believing
and
Seeing:
Symibolic
Meanings
in
Southern
San
Rock
Paintings.
London:
Academic
Press.
Lewi,s-Williams,
J.D.
1983.
The Rock
Art
of
Southern
Africa.
Cambridge:
Cambridge
University
Press.
Marshall,
L. 1976. Tihe
!Kung
of
Nyae
Nyae. Cambridge,
Mass.: Harvard
University
Press.
Pager,
H. 1971. Ndedenma.
Graz: Akademische Druck
Verlag-
sanstalt.
Siegel,
R.K.
and
L.J.
West
(eds.).
1975.
Hallucinations:
Be-
haviour,
Experience,
and
Theory.
New
York:
Wiley.
Tobias,
P.V.
(ed.).
1978.
The
Bushmen.
Cape
Town:
Human
& Rousseau.
Tongue,
Helen
M. 1909.
Bushman
Paintings.
Oxford: Clar-
endon
Press.
Vinnicombe,
P 1976.
People
of
the
Eland.
Pietermaritzburg;
Natal
University
Press.
SCHNEIDER,
notes,
fromi
page
66
1. There are
perhaps
exceptions among
the other
groups,
such as the various Sotho
peoples
who
do
some wall
deco-
ration
using
earth
pigments,
textures,
or
molded
mud
relief
patterns.
2. The
Ndzundza are also
known
as the
people
of
Mabhogo
(a
mid-nineteenth-century
chief)
or
the
Mahlangu (present
royal famrily).
Manala was also an
early
chief.
3.
Haselberger
1961:
343-44;
Forge
1973:
xx;
d'Azevedo
1973:xix;
Firth
1973:
v,
47;
Leach 1973:
223;
Fernandez
1973:
216;
Etzkorn 1973: 343-77.
4. In
many
instances the
purchased
oxide
colors
that
pre-
dominate reflect
the
colors
of the
clay
local
to
the
owners'
previous
residence. A former
counselor
to
the
paramount
chief
demonstrated this fact
to me
by correctly
identifying
the
geographic
location of some of
my
design
unit
samples,
mainly by
the colors used.
One
woman
proudly
described
going
back
to her
family's
home area
many
miles
away
to
bring
back colored
clay
from
a
special deposit
for
use
on
the walls of her
new
home.
5.
According
to
respondents,
the
bright
colors
of
purchased
pigments
are
today
preferred
over
colored
clays.
Any
kind
of
brush,
even a
toothbrush
or
shaving
brush,
enables the
painter
to outline the
designs
with more
precision.
6. This
paper
is
part
of a
much
larger
study
based
on em-
pirical
data collected in the
field,
and
augments
these
in-
triguing
accounts. See
Ph.D. in
preparation,
University
of
the Witwatersrand.
7. F.
Bothma,
government
ethnologist, personal
communi-
cation,
July
15,
1977.
8. For
example,
at the
end
of the 1870s
two white
settlers
purchased
eight
farms from Afrikaners.
The
Ndzundza
chief's emissaries
told them
this was Ndzundza
land,
pur-
chased with Ndzundza blood
(British
Parliamentary
Papers
1881-1882,
vol. 36:
815),
and that if
they
did
not
leave
the
next
day
their
heads would be
smashed and
they
would be
d'Afrique
Noire.
Arnouville,
France.
Huet,
M.
1978. The Dance,
Art and
Ritual
of
Africa.
New
York:
Random
House.
Laude,
J.
1973.
African
Art
of
the
Dogon.
New
York: The
Brooklyn
Museum with
the
Viking
Press.
Maesen,
A.
1967. Art
of
the
Congo.
Minneapolis:
Walker Art
Center.
Nicklin,
K.
and
J.
Salmons. 1984.
"Cross
River
Art
Styles,"
African
Arts
18,1.
Northern,
T.
1981. In For
Spirits
and
Kings:
African
Art
from
The Paul and
Ruth
Tishman
Collection,
ed.
Susan
Vogel.
New York:
The
Metropolitan
Museum of Art.
Scheinberg,
A.
She:
Images of
the
Women
in
Black
African
Art.
New York:
Germans
Van Eck
Gallery.
Sieber,
R. 1980.
African
Furniture and
Household
Objects.
Bloomington:
Indiana
University
Press.
Sieber,
R. and A. Rubin. 1969.
Sculpture of
Black
Africa:
The
Paul Tishman
Collection.
Los
Angeles:
Los
Angeles County
Museum of Art.
Thompson,
R.F. 1974.
African
Art in Motion.
Los
Angeles:
UCLA.
Timmermans,
P. 1967.
"Les
Lwa
Lwa,"
Africa-Tervuren
13,3-4.
Vogel,
S.
(ed.).
1981.
For
Spirits
and
Kings: African
Art
from
the
Tishman Collection.
New
York:
Metropolitan
Museum
of Art.
LEWIS-WILLIAMS, notes,
from
page
59
I
thank
my
colleagues
Mike
Evers,
Tom
Huffman,
and
Lyn
Wadley
who
kindly
commented on
a draft of
this article.
Research has
been funded
by
the
Human Sciences
Re-
search Council
and the
University
of
the
Witwatersrand.
Bibliography
Alexander,
J.
1838.
An
Expedition
of
Discovery
into
tihe
Interior
of
Africa. London:
Henry
Colbum.
Katz,
R.
1982.
Boiling
Energy:
Community
Healing
among
the
Kalahlari
!Kung. Cambridge,
Mass.: Harvard
University
Press.
Lee,
R.B. and I. Devore
(eds.).
Kalahlari Hunter-Gatherers.
Cambridge,
Mass.: Harvard
University
Press.
Lewis-Williams,
J.D.
1981.
Believing
and
Seeing:
Symibolic
Meanings
in
Southern
San
Rock
Paintings.
London:
Academic
Press.
Lewi,s-Williams,
J.D.
1983.
The Rock
Art
of
Southern
Africa.
Cambridge:
Cambridge
University
Press.
Marshall,
L. 1976. Tihe
!Kung
of
Nyae
Nyae. Cambridge,
Mass.: Harvard
University
Press.
Pager,
H. 1971. Ndedenma.
Graz: Akademische Druck
Verlag-
sanstalt.
Siegel,
R.K.
and
L.J.
West
(eds.).
1975.
Hallucinations:
Be-
haviour,
Experience,
and
Theory.
New
York:
Wiley.
Tobias,
P.V.
(ed.).
1978.
The
Bushmen.
Cape
Town:
Human
& Rousseau.
Tongue,
Helen
M. 1909.
Bushman
Paintings.
Oxford: Clar-
endon
Press.
Vinnicombe,
P 1976.
People
of
the
Eland.
Pietermaritzburg;
Natal
University
Press.
SCHNEIDER,
notes,
fromi
page
66
1. There are
perhaps
exceptions among
the other
groups,
such as the various Sotho
peoples
who
do
some wall
deco-
ration
using
earth
pigments,
textures,
or
molded
mud
relief
patterns.
2. The
Ndzundza are also
known
as the
people
of
Mabhogo
(a
mid-nineteenth-century
chief)
or
the
Mahlangu (present
royal famrily).
Manala was also an
early
chief.
3.
Haselberger
1961:
343-44;
Forge
1973:
xx;
d'Azevedo
1973:xix;
Firth
1973:
v,
47;
Leach 1973:
223;
Fernandez
1973:
216;
Etzkorn 1973: 343-77.
4. In
many
instances the
purchased
oxide
colors
that
pre-
dominate reflect
the
colors
of the
clay
local
to
the
owners'
previous
residence. A former
counselor
to
the
paramount
chief
demonstrated this fact
to me
by correctly
identifying
the
geographic
location of some of
my
design
unit
samples,
mainly by
the colors used.
One
woman
proudly
described
going
back
to her
family's
home area
many
miles
away
to
bring
back colored
clay
from
a
special deposit
for
use
on
the walls of her
new
home.
5.
According
to
respondents,
the
bright
colors
of
purchased
pigments
are
today
preferred
over
colored
clays.
Any
kind
of
brush,
even a
toothbrush
or
shaving
brush,
enables the
painter
to outline the
designs
with more
precision.
6. This
paper
is
part
of a
much
larger
study
based
on em-
pirical
data collected in the
field,
and
augments
these
in-
triguing
accounts. See
Ph.D. in
preparation,
University
of
the Witwatersrand.
7. F.
Bothma,
government
ethnologist, personal
communi-
cation,
July
15,
1977.
8. For
example,
at the
end
of the 1870s
two white
settlers
purchased
eight
farms from Afrikaners.
The
Ndzundza
chief's emissaries
told them
this was Ndzundza
land,
pur-
chased with Ndzundza blood
(British
Parliamentary
Papers
1881-1882,
vol. 36:
815),
and that if
they
did
not
leave
the
next
day
their
heads would be
smashed and
they
would be
d'Afrique
Noire.
Arnouville,
France.
Huet,
M.
1978. The Dance,
Art and
Ritual
of
Africa.
New
York:
Random
House.
Laude,
J.
1973.
African
Art
of
the
Dogon.
New
York: The
Brooklyn
Museum with
the
Viking
Press.
Maesen,
A.
1967. Art
of
the
Congo.
Minneapolis:
Walker Art
Center.
Nicklin,
K.
and
J.
Salmons. 1984.
"Cross
River
Art
Styles,"
African
Arts
18,1.
Northern,
T.
1981. In For
Spirits
and
Kings:
African
Art
from
The Paul and
Ruth
Tishman
Collection,
ed.
Susan
Vogel.
New York:
The
Metropolitan
Museum of Art.
Scheinberg,
A.
She:
Images of
the
Women
in
Black
African
Art.
New York:
Germans
Van Eck
Gallery.
Sieber,
R. 1980.
African
Furniture and
Household
Objects.
Bloomington:
Indiana
University
Press.
Sieber,
R. and A. Rubin. 1969.
Sculpture of
Black
Africa:
The
Paul Tishman
Collection.
Los
Angeles:
Los
Angeles County
Museum of Art.
Thompson,
R.F. 1974.
African
Art in Motion.
Los
Angeles:
UCLA.
Timmermans,
P. 1967.
"Les
Lwa
Lwa,"
Africa-Tervuren
13,3-4.
Vogel,
S.
(ed.).
1981.
For
Spirits
and
Kings: African
Art
from
the
Tishman Collection.
New
York:
Metropolitan
Museum
of Art.
LEWIS-WILLIAMS, notes,
from
page
59
I
thank
my
colleagues
Mike
Evers,
Tom
Huffman,
and
Lyn
Wadley
who
kindly
commented on
a draft of
this article.
Research has
been funded
by
the
Human Sciences
Re-
search Council
and the
University
of
the
Witwatersrand.
Bibliography
Alexander,
J.
1838.
An
Expedition
of
Discovery
into
tihe
Interior
of
Africa. London:
Henry
Colbum.
Katz,
R.
1982.
Boiling
Energy:
Community
Healing
among
the
Kalahlari
!Kung. Cambridge,
Mass.: Harvard
University
Press.
Lee,
R.B. and I. Devore
(eds.).
Kalahlari Hunter-Gatherers.
Cambridge,
Mass.: Harvard
University
Press.
Lewis-Williams,
J.D.
1981.
Believing
and
Seeing:
Symibolic
Meanings
in
Southern
San
Rock
Paintings.
London:
Academic
Press.
Lewi,s-Williams,
J.D.
1983.
The Rock
Art
of
Southern
Africa.
Cambridge:
Cambridge
University
Press.
Marshall,
L. 1976. Tihe
!Kung
of
Nyae
Nyae. Cambridge,
Mass.: Harvard
University
Press.
Pager,
H. 1971. Ndedenma.
Graz: Akademische Druck
Verlag-
sanstalt.
Siegel,
R.K.
and
L.J.
West
(eds.).
1975.
Hallucinations:
Be-
haviour,
Experience,
and
Theory.
New
York:
Wiley.
Tobias,
P.V.
(ed.).
1978.
The
Bushmen.
Cape
Town:
Human
& Rousseau.
Tongue,
Helen
M. 1909.
Bushman
Paintings.
Oxford: Clar-
endon
Press.
Vinnicombe,
P 1976.
People
of
the
Eland.
Pietermaritzburg;
Natal
University
Press.
SCHNEIDER,
notes,
fromi
page
66
1. There are
perhaps
exceptions among
the other
groups,
such as the various Sotho
peoples
who
do
some wall
deco-
ration
using
earth
pigments,
textures,
or
molded
mud
relief
patterns.
2. The
Ndzundza are also
known
as the
people
of
Mabhogo
(a
mid-nineteenth-century
chief)
or
the
Mahlangu (present
royal famrily).
Manala was also an
early
chief.
3.
Haselberger
1961:
343-44;
Forge
1973:
xx;
d'Azevedo
1973:xix;
Firth
1973:
v,
47;
Leach 1973:
223;
Fernandez
1973:
216;
Etzkorn 1973: 343-77.
4. In
many
instances the
purchased
oxide
colors
that
pre-
dominate reflect
the
colors
of the
clay
local
to
the
owners'
previous
residence. A former
counselor
to
the
paramount
chief
demonstrated this fact
to me
by correctly
identifying
the
geographic
location of some of
my
design
unit
samples,
mainly by
the colors used.
One
woman
proudly
described
going
back
to her
family's
home area
many
miles
away
to
bring
back colored
clay
from
a
special deposit
for
use
on
the walls of her
new
home.
5.
According
to
respondents,
the
bright
colors
of
purchased
pigments
are
today
preferred
over
colored
clays.
Any
kind
of
brush,
even a
toothbrush
or
shaving
brush,
enables the
painter
to outline the
designs
with more
precision.
6. This
paper
is
part
of a
much
larger
study
based
on em-
pirical
data collected in the
field,
and
augments
these
in-
triguing
accounts. See
Ph.D. in
preparation,
University
of
the Witwatersrand.
7. F.
Bothma,
government
ethnologist, personal
communi-
cation,
July
15,
1977.
8. For
example,
at the
end
of the 1870s
two white
settlers
purchased
eight
farms from Afrikaners.
The
Ndzundza
chief's emissaries
told them
this was Ndzundza
land,
pur-
chased with Ndzundza blood
(British
Parliamentary
Papers
1881-1882,
vol. 36:
815),
and that if
they
did
not
leave
the
next
day
their
heads would be
smashed and
they
would be
skinned alive. The settlers
appealed
to the
Afrikaner
magis-
trate
at
Lydenburg
to enforce their
claims,
but
the
request
was received with
laughter.
Obviously
the Ndzundza
were
the effective
authority
in this land.
9.
Stories
of
atrocities
reached
England,
and the
Afrikaners,
who had
just
regained
control of the Transvaal
from the
British,
were
called
upon
to
justify
their use of brutal force
British
Parliamentary
Papers
1882-1883,
vol.
37:
620-21, 637,
skinned alive. The settlers
appealed
to the
Afrikaner
magis-
trate
at
Lydenburg
to enforce their
claims,
but
the
request
was received with
laughter.
Obviously
the Ndzundza
were
the effective
authority
in this land.
9.
Stories
of
atrocities
reached
England,
and the
Afrikaners,
who had
just
regained
control of the Transvaal
from the
British,
were
called
upon
to
justify
their use of brutal force
British
Parliamentary
Papers
1882-1883,
vol.
37:
620-21, 637,
skinned alive. The settlers
appealed
to the
Afrikaner
magis-
trate
at
Lydenburg
to enforce their
claims,
but
the
request
was received with
laughter.
Obviously
the Ndzundza
were
the effective
authority
in this land.
9.
Stories
of
atrocities
reached
England,
and the
Afrikaners,
who had
just
regained
control of the Transvaal
from the
British,
were
called
upon
to
justify
their use of brutal force
British
Parliamentary
Papers
1882-1883,
vol.
37:
620-21, 637,
skinned alive. The settlers
appealed
to the
Afrikaner
magis-
trate
at
Lydenburg
to enforce their
claims,
but
the
request
was received with
laughter.
Obviously
the Ndzundza
were
the effective
authority
in this land.
9.
Stories
of
atrocities
reached
England,
and the
Afrikaners,
who had
just
regained
control of the Transvaal
from the
British,
were
called
upon
to
justify
their use of brutal force
British
Parliamentary
Papers
1882-1883,
vol.
37:
620-21, 637,
WANTED
Fine African tribal art. Send full details to
Box
61,
African
Arts,
African
Studies
Center
UCLA,
Los
Angeles,
CA
90024.
ART
HISTORIAN
University
of
Maryland,
College
Park.
Art
Histo-
rian.
Rank and
salary
open.
Start
August
1985.
Specialist
in
African
art. Teach courses
in
Afri-
can
art and
general
survey
in Art
History
I.
Ph.D. and
teaching experience
required.
Three letters
of
recommendation
if
requested.
Deadline
July
1,
1985.
AA &
EEOE.
Write:
Secy.
to
Chr.,
Art
Dept.,
1211
Art/Socy
Bldg.,
College
Park,
MD 20742.
SASE.
650).
British intervention
resulted
in
the
commutation
of
the
regent
Nyabela's
death
sentence
to
life
imprisonment.
Mampuru,
however,
was
hanged.
10.
David
Hammond-Tooke,
University
of the Witwater-
srand,
personal
communication,
September
17,1984.
Bibliography
Birkhoff,
G.D. 1933. Aesthetic
Measure.
Cambridge,
Mass.:
Harvard
University
Press.
British
Parliamentary Papers.
1881-1882
(vol.
36);
1882-1883
(vol.
37);
1884-1885
(vol.
38).
Shannon:
Irish
University
Press.
Charbonnier,
G.
1969. Conversations
with
Claude
Levi-
Strauss. London:
Jonathan
Cape.
Dawson, L.,
V.
Fredrickson,
and
N.
Graburn. 1974.
Tradi-
tions
in
Transition.
Culture
Contact and
Material
Change.
Berkeley:
Lowie
Museum
of
Anthropology,
University
of
California.
d'Azevedo,
W.L. 1973.
The
Traditional Artist
in
African
Societies.
Bloomington:
Indiana
University
Press.
Etzkorn,
P.K. 1973.
"On the
Sphere
of
Social
Validity
in
Af-
rican Art:
Sociological
Reflections
on
Ethnographic
Data,"
in
Thle
Traditional Artist
in
African
Societies,
ed.
W.L. d'Azevedo.
Bloomington:
Indiana
University
Press.
Fernandez
J.
1973. "The
Exposition
and
Imposition
of
Or-
der: Artistic
Expression
in
Fang
Culture,"
in The
Tradi-
tional Artist in
African
Societies,
ed.
W.L.
d'Azevedo.
Bloomington:
Indiana
University
Press.
Firth,
R.
1973.
"Tikopia
Art and
Society,"
in
Primitive
Art
and
Society,
ed. A.
Forge.
London: Oxford
University
Press.
Forge,
Anthony
(ed.)
1973. Primitive Art
and
Society.
Lon-
don: Oxford
University
Press.
Frescura,
F. 1981. Rural Shelter
in
Southern
Africa. Johannes-
burg:
Ravan Press.
Haselberger,
H.
1961. "Method of
Studying Ethnological
Art,"
Current
Anthropology
2,4.
Leach,
E.
1973. "Levels
of
Communication
and Problems of
Taboo in
the
Appreciation
of
Primitive
Art,"
in Primitive
Art and
Society,
ed.
A.
Forge.
London: Oxford
University
Press.
Massie,
R.M. 1905.
Tihe
Native Tribes
of
the Transvaal. Lon-
don:
Great
Britain War
Office.
Meiring,
A.L.
1955. "The
Amandebele
of
Pretoria,"
South
African
Architectural
Record,
April.
Rasmussen,
Kent. 1975. "Ndebele Wars
and
Migrations:
c.
1821-1839."
Ph.D.
dissertation,
University
of
California,
Los
Angeles.
Schoeman,
H.S.
1968. "A
Preliminary
Report
on
Tradi-
tional Beadwork in the
Mkhwanazi Area of the Mtunzini
District,
Zululand,"
African
Studies
27,2.
Johannesburg:
Witwatersrand
University
Press.
Shepard,
A.O. in E.P.
Hatcher,
1967.
Visual
Metaphors:
A
Formal
Analysis
of
Navajo
Art.
New York:
West
Publishing
Co.
Spence,
B. and B. Biermann.
1954.
"M'pogga,"
Architectural
Review,
February.
Twala,
Regina
G.
1951.
"Beads as
Regulating
the
Social
Life
of the
Zulu
and
Swazik,"
African
Studies, 10,3.
Johannes-
burg:
Witwatersrand Press.
Walton,
J.
1977. "Art and
Magic
in the Southern
Bantu
Vernacular
Architecture,"
in
Shelter,
Sign
and
Symbol,
ed.
P.
Oliver.
Woodstock,
N.Y:
The Overlook
Press.
Van
Warmelo,
N.J.
1930.Transvaal
Ndebele
Texts,
Pretoria:
Government
Printer,
Department
of Native Affairs.
Van
Warmelo,
N.J.
1935.
Preliminary
Survey
of
the Bantu
Tribes
of
South
Africa.
Pretoria: Government
Printer.
Zaslavsky,
Claudia. 1973.
Africa
Counts. Boston:
Prindle,
Weber
&
Schmidt.
WANTED
Fine African tribal art. Send full details to
Box
61,
African
Arts,
African
Studies
Center
UCLA,
Los
Angeles,
CA
90024.
ART
HISTORIAN
University
of
Maryland,
College
Park.
Art
Histo-
rian.
Rank and
salary
open.
Start
August
1985.
Specialist
in
African
art. Teach courses
in
Afri-
can
art and
general
survey
in Art
History
I.
Ph.D. and
teaching experience
required.
Three letters
of
recommendation
if
requested.
Deadline
July
1,
1985.
AA &
EEOE.
Write:
Secy.
to
Chr.,
Art
Dept.,
1211
Art/Socy
Bldg.,
College
Park,
MD 20742.
SASE.
650).
British intervention
resulted
in
the
commutation
of
the
regent
Nyabela's
death
sentence
to
life
imprisonment.
Mampuru,
however,
was
hanged.
10.
David
Hammond-Tooke,
University
of the Witwater-
srand,
personal
communication,
September
17,1984.
Bibliography
Birkhoff,
G.D. 1933. Aesthetic
Measure.
Cambridge,
Mass.:
Harvard
University
Press.
British
Parliamentary Papers.
1881-1882
(vol.
36);
1882-1883
(vol.
37);
1884-1885
(vol.
38).
Shannon:
Irish
University
Press.
Charbonnier,
G.
1969. Conversations
with
Claude
Levi-
Strauss. London:
Jonathan
Cape.
Dawson, L.,
V.
Fredrickson,
and
N.
Graburn. 1974.
Tradi-
tions
in
Transition.
Culture
Contact and
Material
Change.
Berkeley:
Lowie
Museum
of
Anthropology,
University
of
California.
d'Azevedo,
W.L. 1973.
The
Traditional Artist
in
African
Societies.
Bloomington:
Indiana
University
Press.
Etzkorn,
P.K. 1973.
"On the
Sphere
of
Social
Validity
in
Af-
rican Art:
Sociological
Reflections
on
Ethnographic
Data,"
in
Thle
Traditional Artist
in
African
Societies,
ed.
W.L. d'Azevedo.
Bloomington:
Indiana
University
Press.
Fernandez
J.
1973. "The
Exposition
and
Imposition
of
Or-
der: Artistic
Expression
in
Fang
Culture,"
in The
Tradi-
tional Artist in
African
Societies,
ed.
W.L.
d'Azevedo.
Bloomington:
Indiana
University
Press.
Firth,
R.
1973.
"Tikopia
Art and
Society,"
in
Primitive
Art
and
Society,
ed. A.
Forge.
London: Oxford
University
Press.
Forge,
Anthony
(ed.)
1973. Primitive Art
and
Society.
Lon-
don: Oxford
University
Press.
Frescura,
F. 1981. Rural Shelter
in
Southern
Africa. Johannes-
burg:
Ravan Press.
Haselberger,
H.
1961. "Method of
Studying Ethnological
Art,"
Current
Anthropology
2,4.
Leach,
E.
1973. "Levels
of
Communication
and Problems of
Taboo in
the
Appreciation
of
Primitive
Art,"
in Primitive
Art and
Society,
ed.
A.
Forge.
London: Oxford
University
Press.
Massie,
R.M. 1905.
Tihe
Native Tribes
of
the Transvaal. Lon-
don:
Great
Britain War
Office.
Meiring,
A.L.
1955. "The
Amandebele
of
Pretoria,"
South
African
Architectural
Record,
April.
Rasmussen,
Kent. 1975. "Ndebele Wars
and
Migrations:
c.
1821-1839."
Ph.D.
dissertation,
University
of
California,
Los
Angeles.
Schoeman,
H.S.
1968. "A
Preliminary
Report
on
Tradi-
tional Beadwork in the
Mkhwanazi Area of the Mtunzini
District,
Zululand,"
African
Studies
27,2.
Johannesburg:
Witwatersrand
University
Press.
Shepard,
A.O. in E.P.
Hatcher,
1967.
Visual
Metaphors:
A
Formal
Analysis
of
Navajo
Art.
New York:
West
Publishing
Co.
Spence,
B. and B. Biermann.
1954.
"M'pogga,"
Architectural
Review,
February.
Twala,
Regina
G.
1951.
"Beads as
Regulating
the
Social
Life
of the
Zulu
and
Swazik,"
African
Studies, 10,3.
Johannes-
burg:
Witwatersrand Press.
Walton,
J.
1977. "Art and
Magic
in the Southern
Bantu
Vernacular
Architecture,"
in
Shelter,
Sign
and
Symbol,
ed.
P.
Oliver.
Woodstock,
N.Y:
The Overlook
Press.
Van
Warmelo,
N.J.
1930.Transvaal
Ndebele
Texts,
Pretoria:
Government
Printer,
Department
of Native Affairs.
Van
Warmelo,
N.J.
1935.
Preliminary
Survey
of
the Bantu
Tribes
of
South
Africa.
Pretoria: Government
Printer.
Zaslavsky,
Claudia. 1973.
Africa
Counts. Boston:
Prindle,
Weber
&
Schmidt.
WANTED
Fine African tribal art. Send full details to
Box
61,
African
Arts,
African
Studies
Center
UCLA,
Los
Angeles,
CA
90024.
ART
HISTORIAN
University
of
Maryland,
College
Park.
Art
Histo-
rian.
Rank and
salary
open.
Start
August
1985.
Specialist
in
African
art. Teach courses
in
Afri-
can
art and
general
survey
in Art
History
I.
Ph.D. and
teaching experience
required.
Three letters
of
recommendation
if
requested.
Deadline
July
1,
1985.
AA &
EEOE.
Write:
Secy.
to
Chr.,
Art
Dept.,
1211
Art/Socy
Bldg.,
College
Park,
MD 20742.
SASE.
650).
British intervention
resulted
in
the
commutation
of
the
regent
Nyabela's
death
sentence
to
life
imprisonment.
Mampuru,
however,
was
hanged.
10.
David
Hammond-Tooke,
University
of the Witwater-
srand,
personal
communication,
September
17,1984.
Bibliography
Birkhoff,
G.D. 1933. Aesthetic
Measure.
Cambridge,
Mass.:
Harvard
University
Press.
British
Parliamentary Papers.
1881-1882
(vol.
36);
1882-1883
(vol.
37);
1884-1885
(vol.
38).
Shannon:
Irish
University
Press.
Charbonnier,
G.
1969. Conversations
with
Claude
Levi-
Strauss. London:
Jonathan
Cape.
Dawson, L.,
V.
Fredrickson,
and
N.
Graburn. 1974.
Tradi-
tions
in
Transition.
Culture
Contact and
Material
Change.
Berkeley:
Lowie
Museum
of
Anthropology,
University
of
California.
d'Azevedo,
W.L. 1973.
The
Traditional Artist
in
African
Societies.
Bloomington:
Indiana
University
Press.
Etzkorn,
P.K. 1973.
"On the
Sphere
of
Social
Validity
in
Af-
rican Art:
Sociological
Reflections
on
Ethnographic
Data,"
in
Thle
Traditional Artist
in
African
Societies,
ed.
W.L. d'Azevedo.
Bloomington:
Indiana
University
Press.
Fernandez
J.
1973. "The
Exposition
and
Imposition
of
Or-
der: Artistic
Expression
in
Fang
Culture,"
in The
Tradi-
tional Artist in
African
Societies,
ed.
W.L.
d'Azevedo.
Bloomington:
Indiana
University
Press.
Firth,
R.
1973.
"Tikopia
Art and
Society,"
in
Primitive
Art
and
Society,
ed. A.
Forge.
London: Oxford
University
Press.
Forge,
Anthony
(ed.)
1973. Primitive Art
and
Society.
Lon-
don: Oxford
University
Press.
Frescura,
F. 1981. Rural Shelter
in
Southern
Africa. Johannes-
burg:
Ravan Press.
Haselberger,
H.
1961. "Method of
Studying Ethnological
Art,"
Current
Anthropology
2,4.
Leach,
E.
1973. "Levels
of
Communication
and Problems of
Taboo in
the
Appreciation
of
Primitive
Art,"
in Primitive
Art and
Society,
ed.
A.
Forge.
London: Oxford
University
Press.
Massie,
R.M. 1905.
Tihe
Native Tribes
of
the Transvaal. Lon-
don:
Great
Britain War
Office.
Meiring,
A.L.
1955. "The
Amandebele
of
Pretoria,"
South
African
Architectural
Record,
April.
Rasmussen,
Kent. 1975. "Ndebele Wars
and
Migrations:
c.
1821-1839."
Ph.D.
dissertation,
University
of
California,
Los
Angeles.
Schoeman,
H.S.
1968. "A
Preliminary
Report
on
Tradi-
tional Beadwork in the
Mkhwanazi Area of the Mtunzini
District,
Zululand,"
African
Studies
27,2.
Johannesburg:
Witwatersrand
University
Press.
Shepard,
A.O. in E.P.
Hatcher,
1967.
Visual
Metaphors:
A
Formal
Analysis
of
Navajo
Art.
New York:
West
Publishing
Co.
Spence,
B. and B. Biermann.
1954.
"M'pogga,"
Architectural
Review,
February.
Twala,
Regina
G.
1951.
"Beads as
Regulating
the
Social
Life
of the
Zulu
and
Swazik,"
African
Studies, 10,3.
Johannes-
burg:
Witwatersrand Press.
Walton,
J.
1977. "Art and
Magic
in the Southern
Bantu
Vernacular
Architecture,"
in
Shelter,
Sign
and
Symbol,
ed.
P.
Oliver.
Woodstock,
N.Y:
The Overlook
Press.
Van
Warmelo,
N.J.
1930.Transvaal
Ndebele
Texts,
Pretoria:
Government
Printer,
Department
of Native Affairs.
Van
Warmelo,
N.J.
1935.
Preliminary
Survey
of
the Bantu
Tribes
of
South
Africa.
Pretoria: Government
Printer.
Zaslavsky,
Claudia. 1973.
Africa
Counts. Boston:
Prindle,
Weber
&
Schmidt.
WANTED
Fine African tribal art. Send full details to
Box
61,
African
Arts,
African
Studies
Center
UCLA,
Los
Angeles,
CA
90024.
ART
HISTORIAN
University
of
Maryland,
College
Park.
Art
Histo-
rian.
Rank and
salary
open.
Start
August
1985.
Specialist
in
African
art. Teach courses
in
Afri-
can
art and
general
survey
in Art
History
I.
Ph.D. and
teaching experience
required.
Three letters
of
recommendation
if
requested.
Deadline
July
1,
1985.
AA &
EEOE.
Write:
Secy.
to
Chr.,
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Dept.,
1211
Art/Socy
Bldg.,
College
Park,
MD 20742.
SASE.
650).
British intervention
resulted
in
the
commutation
of
the
regent
Nyabela's
death
sentence
to
life
imprisonment.
Mampuru,
however,
was
hanged.
10.
David
Hammond-Tooke,
University
of the Witwater-
srand,
personal
communication,
September
17,1984.
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Witwatersrand
University
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Shepard,
A.O. in E.P.
Hatcher,
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Visual
Metaphors:
A
Formal
Analysis
of
Navajo
Art.
New York:
West
Publishing
Co.
Spence,
B. and B. Biermann.
1954.
"M'pogga,"
Architectural
Review,
February.
Twala,
Regina
G.
1951.
"Beads as
Regulating
the
Social
Life
of the
Zulu
and
Swazik,"
African
Studies, 10,3.
Johannes-
burg:
Witwatersrand Press.
Walton,
J.
1977. "Art and
Magic
in the Southern
Bantu
Vernacular
Architecture,"
in
Shelter,
Sign
and
Symbol,
ed.
P.
Oliver.
Woodstock,
N.Y:
The Overlook
Press.
Van
Warmelo,
N.J.
1930.Transvaal
Ndebele
Texts,
Pretoria:
Government
Printer,
Department
of Native Affairs.
Van
Warmelo,
N.J.
1935.
Preliminary
Survey
of
the Bantu
Tribes
of
South
Africa.
Pretoria: Government
Printer.
Zaslavsky,
Claudia. 1973.
Africa
Counts. Boston:
Prindle,
Weber
&
Schmidt.
The
following
articles
in
this issue have been
accepted
for
publication
after
being
refereed
by
members of the
African
Arts
review
panel:
"Cosmos, Cosmetics,
and the
Spirit
of
Bondo,"
p.
28.
OPPOSITE PAGE.
NDZUNDZA
NDEBELE WOMAN
FROM
THE NORTHERN
TRANSVAAL,
SOUTH
AFRICA,
IN TRADI-
TIONAL
BEADED COSTUME.
The
following
articles
in
this issue have been
accepted
for
publication
after
being
refereed
by
members of the
African
Arts
review
panel:
"Cosmos, Cosmetics,
and the
Spirit
of
Bondo,"
p.
28.
OPPOSITE PAGE.
NDZUNDZA
NDEBELE WOMAN
FROM
THE NORTHERN
TRANSVAAL,
SOUTH
AFRICA,
IN TRADI-
TIONAL
BEADED COSTUME.
The
following
articles
in
this issue have been
accepted
for
publication
after
being
refereed
by
members of the
African
Arts
review
panel:
"Cosmos, Cosmetics,
and the
Spirit
of
Bondo,"
p.
28.
OPPOSITE PAGE.
NDZUNDZA
NDEBELE WOMAN
FROM
THE NORTHERN
TRANSVAAL,
SOUTH
AFRICA,
IN TRADI-
TIONAL
BEADED COSTUME.
The
following
articles
in
this issue have been
accepted
for
publication
after
being
refereed
by
members of the
African
Arts
review
panel:
"Cosmos, Cosmetics,
and the
Spirit
of
Bondo,"
p.
28.
OPPOSITE PAGE.
NDZUNDZA
NDEBELE WOMAN
FROM
THE NORTHERN
TRANSVAAL,
SOUTH
AFRICA,
IN TRADI-
TIONAL
BEADED COSTUME.
100 100 100 100