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This study explores the factors that divorcing couples say contributed to the breakdown of their marriage and how those factors are related to thoughts and interest in reconciliation. A sample of 886 individual divorcing parents in Hennepin County, Minnesota, in 2008 responded to a brief survey after mandated parenting classes. The two most common reasons given for seeking a divorce were “growing apart” (55%) and “not able to talk together” (53%). Growing apart, differences in tastes, and money problems were negatively associated with interest in reconciliation; abuse and adultery were not associated with interest in reconciliation.
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Reasons for Divorce and Openness to
Marital Reconciliation
Alan J. Hawkins
a
, Brian J. Willoughby
a
& William J. Doherty
b
a
School of Family Life, Brigham Young University, Provo, Utah, USA
b
Family Social Science, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis,
Minnesota, USA
Version of record first published: 13 Aug 2012
To cite this article: Alan J. Hawkins, Brian J. Willoughby & William J. Doherty (2012): Reasons for
Divorce and Openness to Marital Reconciliation, Journal of Divorce & Remarriage, 53:6, 453-463
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Journal of Divorce & Remarriage, 53:453–463, 2012
Copyright © Taylor & Francis Group, LLC
ISSN: 1050-2556 print/1540-4811 online
DOI: 10.1080/10502556.2012.682898
Reasons for Divor ce and Openness
to Marital Reconciliation
ALAN J. HAWKINS and BRIAN J. WILLOUGHBY
School of Family Life, Brigham Young University, Provo, Utah, USA
WILLIAM J. DOHERTY
Family Social Science, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, Minnesota, USA
This study explores the factors that divorcing couples say
contributed to the breakdown of their marriage and how those
factors are related to thoughts and interest in reconciliation.
A sample of 886 individual divorcing parents in Hennepin County,
Minnesota, in 2008 responded to a brief survey after mandated
parenting classes. The two most common reasons given for seek-
ing a divorce were “growing apart” (55%) and “not able to talk
together” (53%). Growing apart, differences in tastes, and money
problems were negatively associated with interest in reconcilia-
tion; abuse and adultery were not associated with interest in
reconciliation.
KEYWORDS divorce, divorce attitudes, reconciliation
This study explores how the factors that divorcing people believe
contributed to their divorce are related to openness to reconciliation and the
belief that their marriage could still be saved. The limited body of research
on reasons for divorce suggests that most divorces are initiated because
of problems such as falling out of love, changing personal needs, lack of
satisfaction, and feelings of greater entitlement, especially for more edu-
cated individuals, whereas severe problems such as abuse and addiction
are noted less frequently (Amato & Previti, 2003). De Graaf and Kalmijn
(2006) noted a change over time in the Netherlands from more serious rea-
sons for divorce, such as violence and infidelity, to less acute reasons, such
as relational problems (e.g., growing apart, not enough attention). A U.S.
Address correspondence to Alan J. Hawkins, Brigham Young University, 2050 JFSB,
Provo, UT 84602, USA. E-mail: hawkinsa@byu.edu
453
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454 A. J. Hawkins et al.
national survey (National Fatherhood Initiative, 2005) found that the most
common reason given for divorce among those who had ever divorced
was “lack of commitment” (73%). Other significant factors included too
much arguing (56%), infidelity (55%), marrying too young (46%), unrealistic
expectations (45%), lack of equality in the relationship (44%), lack of pre-
marital preparation (41%), and domestic violence (29%). This limited body
of research suggests that a number of divorces might be prevented without
threat to the health and safety of the spouses.
Another reason why some believe that more divorces can be prevented
comes from longitudinal research with representative samples of U.S. adults.
One study found that half of divorces come from marriages with low rather
than high amounts of conflict (Amato & Hohmann-Marriott, 2007). This sug-
gests that there is more potential than often assumed to repair relationships.
Those who end low-conflict marriages generally report declines in well-
being; those who end high-conflict marriages report increased well-being
(Amato & Hohmann-Marriott). Waite, Luo, and Lewin (2009) also found that
divorce is not a reliable path to better psychological well-being for adults.
In addition, a recent study documented that a subset of divorcing indi-
viduals hold hope for the marriage well into the divorce process. Doherty,
Willoughby, and Peterson (2011) found that about 25% of individuals and
about 10% of couples (both spouses) going through a mandated divorcing-
parents class felt that their marriage could still be saved, even at a late
stage in the legal process of divorce. Similarly, 30% of individuals and 10%
of couples expressed interest in a for mal reconciliation service, if it were
available.
Finally, research on people already divorced suggests that some who
divorce later have regrets about the divorce. A handful of surveys from vari-
ous states suggest that perhaps half of divorced individuals wished they had
worked harder to try and overcome their marital differences (see Hawkins &
Fackrell, 2009, for a summary). A study that followed divorced individu-
als over time found that, in 75% of divorced couples, at least one partner
was having regrets about the decision to divorce 1 year after the breakup
(Hetherington & Kelly, 2002). Divorce scholar Robert Emery reports that
ambivalent or mixed feelings about a divorce are common (Emery & Sbarra,
2002). These findings suggest that, for some, the decision to divorce might
not have been fully considered.
RESEARCH QUESTIONS AND HYPOTHESES
This study aims to understand better the reasons that divorcing individu-
als give for the breakdown of their marriage and whether these reasons
differ significantly by gender. Also, we seek to understand whether the rea-
sons divorcing individuals give for marital breakdown are due primarily to
inherently destructive problems, such as abuse, addiction, and adultery, or
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Reasons for Divorce 455
whether they are more likely due to interpersonal issues such as growing
apart, or to conflict over money or domestic labor, or in-laws. If the lat-
ter, then this gives more credence to divorce prevention intervention and
policy, whereas if the former is true, then this raises important concerns
about subjecting individuals to unwanted and perhaps unwise consideration
of reconciliation.
In addition, it would be useful for researchers and policymakers to
understand how reasons couples give for marital breakdown are associated
with openness to reconciliation. We hypothesized that divorcing individuals
who report experiencing destructive problems such as abuse, addictions, or
adultery would be less interested in reconciliation. In contrast, those who
report interpersonal problems concerning role issues, communication diffi-
culties, violation of expectations, feelings of inattention, and the like would
be more interested in reconciliation because their problems are less severe.
We also explore whether these potential associations differ by gender.
METHOD
Sample and Procedure
Individuals in the sample were surveyed while taking parent education
courses offered in Hennepin County, Minnesota, the metropolitan area of
Minneapolis. The total sample consisted of 886 individual divorcing parents
who took parenting classes mandated by state law and district court policy
from March to December of 2008 at two sites, one free site for noncontested
cases offered at the court building and one private facility that charged a
fee to couples with contested cases. At the end of the courses, participants
were asked to fill out an evaluation form and a one-page survey used in this
study. The University of Minnesota Institutional Review Board approved the
research. All those attending the classes were asked to complete the evalua-
tion and survey; 98% did so. Nevertheless, despite the mandatory nature of
the classes, court records indicated that only about 60% of all divorcing cou-
ples in Hennepin County completed the classes. Information about parents
who did not attend the classes is not available. Thus, it is unknown how the
current sample differs from those who did not attend the classes.
Approximately 45% of the sample was male and 55% was female. The
average age of the participants was 39.1 (SD = 7.9) years old. The average
marriage length was 11.8 (SD = 6.6) years. About 19% of the sample had
been married for 5 years or less, and 10% had been married for more than
20 years. The mean number of children was 1.9 (SD = .94). In terms of edu-
cation, 2% of the sample had less than a high school education, 16% had only
a high school diploma or equivalent, and 53% had graduated from college.
These educational levels closely reflected those of the married population in
Minnesota.
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456 A. J. Hawkins et al.
Measures
REASONS FOR DIVORCE
Reasons for divorce were assessed by a scale developed and validated by
de Graaf and Kalmijn (2006) in their study of changing reasons for divorce
over historical time periods. It provides individuals with a list of 20 possible
factors in their divorce. In the directions for this study, each individual was
asked to check the factors that were important in his or her divorce. Reasons
are provided in Table 1. If individuals marked a reason as important, that
item was coded as yes (1) for analyses. Otherwise, responses were coded
no (0). Thus for each participant, yes responses indicated the reasons he or
she felt were important factors in his or her divorce.
Preliminary data reduction analyses were undertaken to see if reasons
for divorce covaried or could be combined into subcategories. Tetrachoric
correlations and exploratory factor analyses using techniques appropriate
for dichotomous variables were both examined to determine if responses
loaded on common factors. These preliminary results (not reported here)
suggested a poor factor structure and little overlap between reasons for
divorce. The only two items with significant and strong overlap were the
items “how we divided child care responsibilities” and “how we divided
household responsibilities,” which produced a tetrachoric correlation of .68.
Due to this higher correlation, responses to this item were summed into
TABLE 1 Percentage of Sample Indicating Factor Was an Important Reason in Their Divorce,
by Gender
Factor Total sample Female Male χ
2
Growing apart 55% 52% 59% 3.62
Not able to talk together 53% 53% 52% 0.153
How my spouse handles money 40% 42% 38% 1.21
Infidelity 37% 39% 34% 2.19
Personal problems of my spouse 37% 35% 39% 1.99
Not getting enough attention 34% 33% 36% 0.724
My spouse’s personal habits 29% 29% 28% 0.072
Sexual problems 24% 22% 27% 2.99
Differences in tastes and preferences 23% 23% 24% 0.318
Alcohol or drug problems 22% 27% 16% 16.43
∗∗
How we divided household responsibilities 21% 26% 16% 11.69
∗∗
Conflicts over raising our own children 20% 21% 18% 1.34
In-law problems 18% 19% 17% 0.683
My spouse’s leisure activities 18% 23% 12% 18.30
∗∗
How we divided child care responsibilities 17% 22% 10% 24.56
∗∗
Physical violence 13% 18% 6% 29.78
∗∗
My spouse’s friends 11% 10% 13% 3.01
My spouse worked too many hours 9% 13% 5% 19.27
∗∗
Religious differences 9% 9% 8% 0.704
Note. N = 886.
p < .05.
∗∗
p < .01.
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Reasons for Divorce 457
one measure assessing the importance of division of domestic labor to
divorce.
O
UTCOME MEASURES
Two outcome measures were assessed. Belief about whether their marriage
could be saved was assessed b y one item asking participants, “Even at this
point, do you think your divorce could be prevented if one or both of
you works hard to save the marriage?” Responses were 2 (yes), 1 (maybe),
and 0 (no). Interest in possible reconciliation services was assessed by one
item proposing to participants, “If the court offered a reconciliation service,
I would seriously consider trying it.” Responses were 2 = (yes), 1 = (maybe ),
and 0 = (no). (The item does not give any detail about the potential service.)
C
ONTROLS
Participants were asked a series of questions regarding their backgrounds,
including age, gender, level of education, and the number of children in their
family. Education was assessed by asking the participants the highest grade
they had completed. Divorce initiation was also controlled for by asking
each participant who took the lead in the divorce process. Responses were
you, your spouse, or both of us together. You and your spouse responses were
combined to create an outcome that reflected if one or both partners took
the lead in the divorce process.
Data Analysis
Analyses for this study consisted of multinomial logistic regression mod-
els run to predict responses separately for the “marriage could be saved”
outcome and “interest in a reconciliation service” outcome. There was a
moderate correlation of .6 between these two items. Because we believe that
the items assess conceptually different concepts, and because the moderate
correlation left r oom for distinctive sets of statistical findings, we analyzed
the items separately. The reference outcome for both items was “no.” Each
model included all reasons for divorce as predictors and controlled for age,
gender, number of children, education, and divorce initiation. Due to the
data collection method utilized, it was possible that data could include
information from both spouses, creating potential dependency in the data
set. To address this, spouses were identified by matching individuals within
the data who indicated the same marriage date, number of children, and
age of those children. Individuals who matched on all three items were
labeled as couples and removed from the data set utilized in this study.
Missing data were handled by listwise deletion. Difference by site of data
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458 A. J. Hawkins et al.
collection (i.e., courthouse for uncontested, private facility for contested)
were examined to explore if participants differed in their listed important
reasons for divorce. Only two significant differences emerged. Participants
from the private facility, who were referred there because they had con-
tested cases, were more likely to report that conflicts over raising their own
children, χ
2
(1, N = 886) = 5.94, p < .05, and how the couple divided house-
hold responsibilities, χ
2
(1, N = 886) = 10.45, p < .05, were important factors
in the divorce. No other site differences emerged. Due to these differences,
data source was also coded and included as a control in all analyses.
RESULTS
Descriptive Results
Twenty-six percent of the sample indicated some agreement (yes or maybe)
to the item asking if their marriage could still be saved. Thirty-three percent
of the sample indicated some interest in reconciliation services if they were
offered. Eighty-four percent of the sample indicated that one spouse initiated
the divorce process; women (66%) were twice as likely as men (33.1%) to
indicate that they initiated the divorce process, χ
2
(2, N = 886) = 271.35,
p < .001, and men (19%) were more likely than women (14%) to indicate
the divorce was initiated by both partners, χ
2
(1, N = 886) = 9.83, p < .01.
As shown in Table 1, the most commonly cited reason for seeking a
divorce was growing apart (55%). This was followed by not being able to
talk together (53%), money problems (40%), personal problems of spouse
(37%), infidelity (37%), and not getting enough attention (34%). The three
least common reasons given were my spouse’s friends (11%), spouse worked
too much (9%), and religious differences (9%).
Table 1 also reports on gender differences in reasons for divorce.
Several significant differences were found. Women were significantly more
likely than men to report that alcohol and drug problems, how household
responsibilities were divided, spouse’s leisure activities, physical violence,
and spouse working too many hours were important factors in the divorce.
Men (59%) were more likely than women (52%) to report growing apart as
an important factor in the divorce.
Predictors of Belief That Marriage Could Be Saved
Multinomial logistic regression results predicting responses to the item ask-
ing if their marriage could still be saved are summarized in Table 2. Results
controlling for age, gender, education, number of children, initiation status,
and data collection site showed that three reasons for divorce significantly
influenced the likelihood that individuals would select yes as opposed to
no on this item. Indicating that growing apart (e
β
= .511, p < .01) and
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Reasons for Divorce 459
TABLE 2 Multinomial Logistic Regression Results Predicting Belief That Marriage Could Still
Be Saved
Response = Maybe Response = Yes
Variable β SE e
β
β SE e
β
Growing apart .495
.219 .610 .671
∗∗
.235 .511
Can’t talk together .167 .228 1.18 .294 .246 1.34
Spouse’s money habits .146 .220 .864 .125 .242 .882
Infidelity .030 .215 1.03 .357 .229 1.43
Spouse’s personal problems .057 .220 .945 .133 .242 .875
Inattention .397 .231 1.49 .569
.250 1.77
Spouse’s personal habits .055 .248 .947 .162 .283 .850
Sexual problems .453
.227 1.57 .254 .278 .776
Difference in tastes .613
.278 .542 .665
.326 .514
Alcohol or drugs .095 .269 .909 .407 .322 .666
Domestic labor .231 .184 1.26 .280 .221 1.32
Parenting conflict .367 .291 .693 .353 .332 .703
In-laws .448 .266 1.57 .467 .298 1.60
Spouse’s leisure activities .164 .283 1.18 .518 .380 .596
Violence .141 .348 .868 .073 .402 1.08
Friends .077 .332 1.08 .131 .392 .877
Spouse worked too much .305 .355 1.36 .586 .376 1.80
Religion .579 .331 1.78 .059 .469 .943
Note. Models control for gender, age, education, initiator status, data collection site, and number of
children.
p < .05.
∗∗
p < .01.
differences in tastes (e
β
= .514, p < .05) were important factors in the
divorce lowered the likelihood by about half that individuals believed that
their marriage could be saved. Not getting enough attention (e
β
= 1.77,
p < .05) increased by 77% the likelihood that individuals thought their mar-
riage could be saved compared to those who said their marriage could
not be saved. Notably, the most serious factors—physical violence, alco-
hol or drug problems, and infidelity—were not associated with increased or
decreased odds of believing the marriage could be saved.
On the item asking if the marriage could still be saved, the factors
growing apart (e
β
= .610, p < .05) and differences in tastes (e
β
= .542,
p < .05) decreased by about half the likelihood that individuals reported
“maybe” compared to “no.” Conversely, on the same item, indicating that
sexual problems were an important factor in the divorce (e
β
= 1.57,
p < .05) increased the likelihood by 57% that individuals reported “maybe”
compared to “no.”
To test if gender moderated the relationship between reasons for
divorce and belief that the marriage could still be saved, a series of
gender-by-reasons-for-divorce interactions were added to the base model
and tested. To simplify these results, responses to the item asking if the
marriage could still be saved were dichotomized, with “yes” and “maybe”
responses being combined to indicate any beliefs that marriage could be
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460 A. J. Hawkins et al.
saved. Results found no significant interactions, suggesting that the associa-
tions between reasons for divorce and belief that marriage could be saved
were stable across gender.
Predictors of Interest in Reconciliation
For multinomial logistic regression models predicting the likelihood of being
interested in reconciliation services, five factors were significant in predict-
ing “yes” versus “no” responses. Full results are summarized in Table 3.
Four factors decreased the probability of being interested in reconciliation
services (saying “yes”): money problems (e
β
= .571, p < .05), grow-
ing apart (e
β
= .355, p < .01), alcohol or drug problems (e
β
= .465,
p < .05), and differences in tastes (e
β
= .417, p < .01). Indicating that
in-law problems were an important factor in the divorce (e
β
= 1.39,
p < .01) increased by 39% the likelihood of being interested in reconcili-
ation services. Note that experiencing physical violence or infidelity was not
associated with increased or decreased odds of interest in a reconciliation
service.
With regard to interest in reconciliation services, only one factor,
inattention, increased significantly the probability (e
β
= 1.78, p < .05) of
selecting “maybe” versus “no” on that item.
TABLE 3 Multinomial Logistic Regression Results Predicting Interest in Reconciliation Services
Response = Maybe Response = Yes
Variable β SE e
β
β SE e
β
Growing apart .291 .219 .748 1.04
∗∗
.247 .355
Can’t talk together .119 .226 .888 .336 .258 1.40
Spouse’s money habits .135 .217 .873 .561
.261 .571
Infidelity .078 .210 1.08 .162 .242 1.18
Spouse’s personal problems .400 .226 .671 .278 .249 .757
Inattention .575
.228 1.78 .240 .264 1.27
Spouse’s personal habits .122 .250 .885 .317 .296 .728
Sexual problems .158 .236 1.17 .015 .272 1.02
Difference in tastes .447 .269 .640 .875
.343 .417
Alcohol or drugs .134 .256 1.14 .765
.364 .465
Domestic labor .046 .177 1.05 .049 .218 1.05
Parenting conflict .326 .294 .722 .173 .323 .841
In-laws .301 .278 1.35 .898
∗∗
.290 1.39
Spouse’s leisure activities .018 .289 .982 .008 .348 1.01
Violence .046 .343 1.05 .148 .414 1.16
Friends .182 .363 .834 .500 .356 1.65
Spouse worked too much .303 .346 1.35 .603 .397 1.83
Religion .506 .346 1.66 .205 .437 1.23
Note. Models control for gender, age, education, initiator status, data collection site, and number of
children.
p < .05.
∗∗
p < .01.
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Reasons for Divorce 461
Gender interactions were also explored using the same method previ-
ously described. One significant interaction was found, between gender and
listing inattention as an important reason for divorce (β = –.693, p < .05).
Post-hoc analysis of this interaction via simple slope analysis revealed that
indicating inattention was significant for men (e
β
= .871, p < .01), in that it
lowered the probability that men were interested in reconciliation, but had
no effect for women (e
β
= 1.02, ns).
DISCUSSION
The most common reasons for divorce cited by both men and women were
the less severe problems such as growing apart, communication problems,
and not enough attention from the spouse. This was in accord with de
Graaf and Kalmijn’s (2006) Dutch study, which indicated a trend over time
from “hard” reasons for divorce (e.g., abuse, adultery) to “soft” reasons (e.g.,
psychological and relational problems). In our study, experiencing physical
violence or alcohol and drug problems in the marriage, two of the most
destructive factors, were infrequently given as reasons for divorce. Infidelity,
a factor that is difficult to overcome, was given as an important reason for
divorce by slightly more than one third of respondents. These findings also
are similar to the reasons for divorce cited in the research by Amato and
Previti (2003). Overall, these data suggest that the most common factors that
contribute to seeking a divorce, at least in this sample, are the ones most
amenable to intervention.
Our results exploring how reasons for divorce were related to outcomes
were somewhat counterintuitive. Some of the less severe reasons that we
expected would be associated with greater hope for the marriage actually
decreased expectations and interest in reconciliation services. Specifically,
growing apart, differences in tastes, and money problems were negatively
associated with the outcomes. But two other factors that could be consid-
ered less serious—feeling a lack of attention from one’s spouse and in-law
problems—were associated with thinking the marriage could be saved and
interest in a reconciliation service. One speculation is that some of the less
serious reasons such as growing apart and differences in tastes reflect a con-
clusion by the individual that there is now a basic incompatibility in the
relationship. Lack of attention from one’s spouse, on the other hand, implies
a sense that the spouse could still offer something in the relationship if he
or she chose to be attentive. Likewise, in-law problems might feel repairable
if the spouse took a different stance toward his or her family.
Just as intriguing as the significant predictors of the outcomes are the
reasons for divorce that were not associated with the belief that the marriage
could still be saved and interest in a reconciliation service. Note that neither
physical abuse nor infidelity influenced the odds of these outcomes. These
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462 A. J. Hawkins et al.
results are hard to explain. That is, one would expect that destructive prob-
lems such as physical abuse and infidelity would produce less ambivalence
about divorce and more determination to terminate the marriage. Instead,
the results suggest that divorcing individuals who have experienced these
destructive problems are no more or less likely to believe the marriage can
be saved or to have interest in a reconciliation service than those experi-
encing less severe problems. One possibility is that these are more apt to
be volatile relationships with higher levels of both positives and negatives,
thus canceling out an effect on hopes for reconciliation. Our findings might
also be linked to studies suggesting that those in abusive relationships are
often still invested in and committed to their partners (Rhatigan & Axsom,
2006), indicating that those in destructive relationships might feel conflicting
feelings about ending such relationships despite the presence of violence or
abuse.
This study has a number of limitations worth noting. The data came
from one county in Minnesota and the findings cannot be generalized
beyond that population. The outcome measures reflected beliefs and inter-
ests and not behavior; we don’t know how many respondents would follow
through on their expressed interest in reconciliation services. The reasons-
for-divorce scale did not ask for weighted reasons for divorce, just a list of
all reasons that were important; thus, the reasons cannot be ranked at the
individual level.
The implications of this study for divorce prevention policy are com-
plex. On the one hand, a number of reasons for seeking a divorce that are
quite common and would seem to be amenable to marital intervention to
repair the relationship nevertheless are associated with less hope for rec-
onciliation and less interest in a reconciliation service. Accordingly, policy
efforts that urge divorcing parties to consider seriously the possibility of
reconciliation are more likely to be ignored by the very people for whom
marital problems could be addressed by marital interventions with reason-
able chances of success. On the other hand, those individuals experiencing
the most destructive problems are no less likely to be hopeful of saving
their marriage or no less interested in a reconciliation service than those
experiencing less serious problems. Policymakers then must make sure that
efforts to help couples reconcile make use of trained professionals with the
skills to deal with serious and difficult marital problems such as abuse and
infidelity.
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201–212.
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... Research on reasons for divorce has identified specific categories related to issues attributed to divorce decisions. At the most basic level, this research has identified "soft" reasons (i.e., growing apart and communication) and "hard" reasons for divorce (i.e., domestic violence and infidelity; Hawkins et al., 2012;National Divorce Decision-Making Project, 2015). As illustrated in the previous sections, both types of reasons for divorce, whether related to communication (soft reasons; Amato, n.d.) or domestic violence (hard reasons; Lincoln & Chae, 2010) have been found to play a role in marital dissolution among African Americans. ...
... Common reasons for divorce Participants were presented with a list of 14 common reasons for divorce (e.g., growing apart, communication issues). These 1-item measures were adopted from past research that identified these issues as major reasons for divorce (see Amato, 2010;Dew et al., 2012;Hawkins et al., 2012;Rodrigues et al., 2006). For each of the reasons for divorce, participants were asked: "how much has each played a role in the decision to divorce?" Items were rated on a scale from '1' (none) to '4' (a lot). ...
... For the overall sample, and consistent with past research, communication issues were the strongest factor that contributed to participants' decisions to divorce (Hawkins et al., 2012). When looking at gender differences, female participants reported more problems than male participants on several measures, including communication, emotional/ psychological/verbal mistreatment, mental health, working too little, alcohol/drug abuse, online addiction, and physical violence. ...
Article
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Programming for divorce education continues to grow, but research on how programs benefit racially marginalized groups remains limited. Through a convergent mixed-methods design, this study examined the experiences of divorcing African American parents (n = 116) who took part in a state-mandated, online divorce education program. Quantitative analyses revealed women reported more problems than men in terms of what they attributed to their decision to divorce, including communication issues, emotional/psychological/verbal mistreatment, mental health, working too little, alcohol/drug abuse, online addiction, and physical violence. Participants demonstrated an improved understanding of divorce-related topics and positive coparenting practices after program participation. Findings from the qualitative analyses paralleled those from the quantitative analyses, as an increased awareness of the impacts of divorce on children emerged as the greatest benefit to participation. Participants also noted their appreciation for online delivery and content, as well as how the program helped them learn more about coparenting. Implications for facilitating divorce education programs with African American parents are discussed.
... However, choosing the appropriate model of intervention and being an agent of change through its application depends on the professional competence of the therapist (4,5). Couple interventions are effective ways to deal with relationship problems and marital distress, as they are typically intended to assist individuals in resolving their relationship problems and growing closer to one another (6). Thus, they are crucial not only in treating vulnerable couples but also in preventing further distress among them since marital discord and dissolution have become common and costly. ...
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Background Couple interventions focus on resolving relationship issues and improving partners’ intimacy. Several intervention models are used on different occasions to deal with the issues. The present systematic review and meta-analysis investigated the effectiveness of such couple interventions dealing with marital distress. Methods Using the PRISMA guidelines for reporting systematic reviews and meta-analyses, a search was carried out to identify published articles in the areas of study. The meta-analysis investigated the effectiveness of couple interventions by comparing the post-intervention assessments of the experimental and control groups. Results The systematic review helped to identify twelve empirical studies published within the last ten years in the following databases: ScienceDirect, EBSCO, APA PsycINFO, NCBI, ProQuest, and Google Scholar. Meta-analysis showed a statistically significant overall effect size (Cohen’s d = 0.85, 95% CI: 0.56 - 1.14). Cochran’s Q showed that there was a substantial difference between the studies. There were signs of publication bias. Conclusion The current study revealed an overall large effect size, indicating that different couple interventions had a noticeable impact on distressed couples who received interventions as opposed to couples who did not receive any interventions.
... Our findings do not support this notion. Even though "growing apart" is reported as one of the main reasons for seeking a divorce (Hawkins et al., 2012), it seems that this phenomenon is not captured in terms of Big Five personality traits. Instead, people might become more dissimilar in psychological characteristics other than the Big Five traits. ...
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Romantic partners tend to be more similar in self-reported personality traits than would be expected by chance. This similarity can be due to the choice of a similar partner, partners becoming more similar to each other over time, or dissimilar couples breaking up. To examine whether these processes (choice, convergence, or breakup) explain personality trait similarities in couples, we followed a sample of 1,180 German couples (N = 2,360 individuals; age range = 17–82 years old) from right after moving in together (ranging from 0 to 4 years after) up to 16 years thereafter. Using bivariate latent growth curve models, we found that couples were already similar in openness, conscientiousness, extraversion, and agreeableness in the first years of moving in together. Although couples showed correlated change in conscientiousness, this did not increase similarity. Response surface analyses showed that separation risk was generally unrelated to dissimilarity. Furthermore, romantic partners did not become more dissimilar in the years before separation. Taken together, these results suggest that personality similarity in cohabiting couples is fully driven by choosing a similar partner. We discuss the implications of these findings for theory and research on personality similarity in romantic relationships.
... When a person considers the advantages and disadvantages of their marriage, it is more likely for doubt to arise negative or positive interactions." In a study, Hawkins, Willoughby & Doherty (2012) discovered that, among 886 divorced parents surveyed, growing apart was the most often stated cause for seeking a divorce (55%). This was followed by the inability to communicate (53%), financial difficulties (40%), marital issues (37%), adultery (37%), and inadequate attention (34%). ...
Article
This qualitative research explores the changing reasons of divorce in District Bahawalnagar over the period of two decades i.e., the decades of 1990 and 2000, as the world witnessed the rapidly changing dynamics of world of information and technology at the turn of the century. The sample of the study comprised of 10 participants, including 5 divorced females from 1990s and 5 from the decades of 2000. The tool of data collection was in-depth interviews. For the purpose of exploring the changing priorities of marriages and the importance of mental health and interpersonal relationships, a thematic semi-structured interview guide was prepared. The theoretical lens of social exchange theory was used in this research and data analysis was done using the technique of thematic analysis. The study found that traditional gender roles have changed, and women are becoming more empowered. The increasing divorce rate can be normalized in the future, but the legal system in Pakistan is not helping women secure legal rights.
... People may take issue with the way their partner does or does not express affection, spend time together, communicate, coparent, and contribute financially, to name only a few of the many behaviors couples often raise (97). Dysfunctional behavior is a key feature of relational conflict, including hostile or critical communication, withdrawing from arguments, infidelity, and sometimes physical aggression or violence (98,99). Sometimes couples report feeling like "roommates" rather than intimate partners and interactions become cold and resentful (100,101). ...
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Intimate relationship distress is prevalent and is associated with poorer health, mental health, and mortality outcomes. Evidence-based couple therapies target cognitive, behavioral, and emotional processes that underlie relationship dysfunction. Increasing research and clinical evidence supports the efficacy of ketamine-assisted psychotherapy (KAP) for addressing clinical mental health concerns, including depression, anxiety disorders, posttraumatic stress disorder, and more. The purported mechanisms of KAP are also likely to improve psychosocial and relational functioning for patients and may be useful for supporting change mechanisms in couple therapy. This paper reviews the current evidence for therapeutic ketamine and KAP and outlines how the mechanisms of ketamine therapy may also augment the cognitive, behavioral, and emotional interventions in the most commonly used evidence-based couple therapies. Key mechanisms include increased neuroplasticity, changes in functional connectivity, adaptive dissociation, decreased inhibition, and reduced avoidance. Given the reciprocal interaction between relationship dysfunction and mental health problems, ketamine may also help alleviate relationship distress by directly treating clinical mental health symptoms. We then outline a proposed framework for ketamine-assisted couple therapy, addressing the application of KAP preparation, dosing, and integration to a dyadic intervention framework in a way that can be applied to different couple therapy modalities. This clinical framework for couples’ KAP may be useful for clinicians and researchers working to improve the efficacy of couple therapy, particularly when one or both partners has accompanying mental health concerns.
Article
Evaluative research on the effectiveness of divorce education continues to grow, but research is still limited on programmatic impacts for historically underserved groups. Using a mixed-methods design, this study analyzed data from divorcing American Indian parents ( n = 153) who took part in a court-mandated, online divorce education program. The study examined participants’ reasons for divorce, understanding of divorce and coparenting plans, and participant experiences in the course. Quantitative analyses revealed that mothers reported more problems than fathers in terms of what influenced their decision to divorce, which included emotional, psychological, and verbal mistreatment, childrearing differences, extended family issues, and physical violence. Both mothers and fathers demonstrated an improved understanding of divorce-related topics and positive coparenting practices. Qualitative analyses demonstrated parallels with quantitative analyses, as an increased awareness of the effects of divorce on children was most frequently mentioned as the greatest benefit to participation. Participants also noted their appreciation for the program's online content and delivery method, while acknowledging how the program helped them learn more about coparenting. Implications for facilitating divorce education programs with American Indian parents are discussed.
Research Proposal
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The two most popular models inwell-known count regression models are Poisson and negative binomial regression models. Poisson regression is a generalized linear model form of regression analysis used to model count data and contingency tables. Poisson regression assumes the response variable Y has a Poisson distribution, and assumes the logarithm of its expected value can be modeled by a linear combination of unknown parameters. Negative binomial regression is similar to regular multiple regression except that the dependent (Y) variables an observed count that follows the negative binomial distribution. This research studies some factors affecting divorce using Poisson and negative binomial regression models. The factors are unemployment rate, inflation and Gini coefficient. The data were taken from the website of the Statistics Center for the years 2002 to 2023.Under the Poisson regression model, each factor has been reported to have an effect on the divorce rate. The two factors of inflation and unemployment had a direct effect and income inequality factors had an inverse effect on the divorce rate. But, under the negative binomial regression model, only inflation has an effect on the number of divorces. It is worth noting that according to the AIC values, the negative binomial regression model has a better fit than the Poisson regression model because its AIC value is lower.
Article
Full-text available
The two most popular models inwell-known count regression models are Poisson and negative binomial regression models. Poisson regression is a generalized linear model form of regression analysis used to model count data and contingency tables. Poisson regression assumes the response variable Y has a Poisson distribution, and assumes the logarithm of its expected value can be modeled by a linear combination of unknown parameters. Negative binomial regression is similar to regular multiple regression except that the dependent (Y) variables an observed count that follows the negative binomial distribution. This research studies some factors affecting divorce using Poisson and negative binomial regression models. The factors are unemployment rate, inflation and Gini coefficient. The data were taken from the website of the Statistics Center for the years 2002 to 2023.Under the Poisson regression model, each factor has been reported to have an effect on the divorce rate. The two factors of inflation and unemployment had a direct effect and income inequality factors had an inverse effect on the divorce rate. But, under the negative binomial regression model, only inflation has an effect on the number of divorces. It is worth noting that according to the AIC values, the negative binomial regression model has a better fit than the Poisson regression model because its AIC value is lower.
Article
Full-text available
We replicate and extend research using the Investment Model (Rusbult, 1980, J. Exp. Social Psychol., 45, 101–117) to understand battered women's commitment to abusive relationships. The Investment Model is a nonpathologizing theory that views commitment as a function of one's satisfaction with, alternatives to, and investments in the relationship. These factors were examined in a shelter-based sample of battered women. Investment model variables, particularly satisfaction, were also examined as mediators of the relationship between abuse exposure and commitment. Both Investment Model and abuse exposure constructs were assessed using instruments more fully developed than in previous research. Results indicated that each of the Investment Model factors contributed uniquely to women's commitment, and that relationship satisfaction mediated the relationship between psychological (but not physical) abuse and commitment. Implications for future research and intervention are discussed.
Article
Divorce is a complex event that can be viewed from multiple perspectives. For example, sociological research has focused primarily on structural and life course predictors of marital disruption, such as social class, race, and age at first marriage (Bumpass, Martin, & Sweet, 1991; White, 1991). Psychological research, in contrast, has focused on dimensions of marital interaction, such as conflict management (Gottman, 1994), or on person- ality characteristics, such as antisocial behavior or chronic negative affect (Leonard & Roberts, 1998). One limitation of these approaches is that nei- ther considers the individual's perceptions about why the divorce oc- curred. Indeed, when explaining what caused their marriages to end, peo- ple appear to give relatively little credence to widely studied factors such as age at marriage or conflict resolution skills. In this article, we use a third approach to studying divorce—one that considers the subjective accounts of recently divorced individuals. Examining the accounts of divorced indi- viduals provides a useful complement to more objective methods and is necessary for a full understanding of the divorce process. This approach to
Article
We used national panel data collected between 1980 and 1997 to classify 208 people's open-ended responses to a question on why their marriages ended in divorce. Infidelity was the most commonly reported cause, followed by incompatibility, drinking or drug use, and growing apart. People's specific reasons for divorcing varied with gender, social class, and life course variables. Former husbands and wives were more likely to blame their ex-spouses than themselves for the problems that led to the divorce. Former husbands and wives claimed, however, that women were more likely to have initiated the divorce. People who attributed the cause of the divorce to the relationship itself, rather than to internal (self) or external factors, tended to have the best postdivorce adjustment.
Article
This study examines the consequences for psychological well-being of marital stability and change over the five-year period between the two waves of the National Survey of Families and Households. We develop and test the following hypotheses: (1) those who divorce or separate experience declines in psychological well-being compared to those who remain married; (2) among those unhappy with their marriage, those who divorce or separate see improvements in psychological well-being, especially if they remarry, compared to those who remain married to the same person; (3) psychological well-being declines in the first year or two following the end of the marriage and then improves to previous levels; (4) women experience greater improvements in psychological well-being from leaving an unhappy marriage than do men. We find strong and consistent support only for the first of these.
Article
This study offers the first research data on the interest of divorcing parents in marital reconciliation. A sample of 2,484 divorcing parents was surveyed after taking required parenting classes. They were asked about whether they believed their marriage could still be saved with hard work, and about their interest in reconciliation services. About 1 in 4 individual parents indicated some belief that their marriage could still be saved, and in about 1 in 9 matched couples both partners did. As for interest in reconciliation services, about 3 in 10 individuals indicated potential interest. In a sub-sample of 329 matched couples, about 1 in 3 couples had one partner interested but not the other, and in 1 in 10 couples both partners were interested in reconciliation services. Findings were consistent across most demographic and marital factors. The only strong predictors of reconciliation interest were gender, with males being more interested than females, and initiator status, with far greater interest among those whose partner initiated the divorce. These findings are discussed in terms of attachment theory and future prospects of divorce services.
Article
We used data from Waves 1 and 2 of the National Survey of Families and Households to study high- and low-distress marriages that end in divorce. A cluster analysis of 509 couples who divorced between waves revealed that about half were in high-distress relationships and the rest in low-distress relationships. These 2 groups were not artifacts of the timing of the interview or of measurement error. Irrespective of marital quality, couples who divorced shared many risk characteristics, such as having divorced parents. Individuals in high-distress marriages reported increases in happiness following divorce, whereas those in low-distress marriages reported declines in happiness. These results suggest two basic motivations to divorce: poor relationship quality and a weak commitment to marriage.
Article
Using survey data on 1,718 ever-divorced men and women in the Netherlands, the authors describe the motives people give for their divorce. The authors distinguish motives regarding three types of issues: relational issues, behavioral problems, and problems about work and the division of labor. They observe three important trends: the normalization of divorce, the psychologization of relationships, and the emancipation of women. First, severe divorce motives (e.g., violence and infidelity) have become less important. The authors interpret this finding in terms of a threshold hypothesis: When the threshold for divorce is higher, marriages that end in divorce will be more problematic. Second, there has been a trend toward more relational and psychological motives, particularly among women. Third, problems in the realm of work and household labor have become more important motives for a divorce. This is consistent with the increase in emancipatory attitudes in the past decades.
A national survey on marriage in America
National Fatherhood Initiative. (2005). With this ring... A national survey on marriage in America. Gaithersburg, MD: Author.