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Sex Differences in Physical Attractiveness Preferences
Abstract
The present study investigated the validity of stereotyped beliefs about sex differences in preferences for opposite sex coloration. The likes and dislikes of 482 female and 549 male Caucasian college students for eye color, hair color, and complexion color of the opposite sex were investigated by means of a sexual selection questionnaire. Results indicated sex differences in both likes and dislikes for all three features. Males indicated somewhat greater preference for lighter female coloration, while females indicated somewhat greater preference for darker male coloration. These results were discussed in terms of the “kernel of truth” hypothesis of stereotyping, and the possible relationship to earlier research on semantic meanings of color and gender words. Special attention was paid to the tremendous aversion of both sexes to redheads, and to the possible implications of the study for understanding the predominance of black male/white female couplings in black-white interracial marriage in contemporary America.
... According to Feinman and Gill (1978), stereotypes serve a functional role in information processing by allowing individuals to create simplified images of the world in which they live, thereby conserving cognitive resources. Another benefit of stereotypes is that they enable individuals to respond quickly to different persons or situations based on pre-conceived beliefs about those individuals or circumstances. ...
... Another benefit of stereotypes is that they enable individuals to respond quickly to different persons or situations based on pre-conceived beliefs about those individuals or circumstances. However, researchers have noted that while stereotypes may contain a "kernel of truth," many are not based on reality (Feinman and Gill 1978). Instead, they may be based on unrepresentatively small samples of known individuals or on highly conspicuous representations of groups of people as seen in popular culture, including those circulated in the mass media. ...
... Red hair may be considered an example of such deviance. Studies show that redheads are rated as less likeable than individuals with different hair colors (Clayson and Maughan 1986;Feinman and Gill 1978). Researchers suggest that stigmas attached to red hair may lessen their general appeal (Takeda, Helms & Romanova, 2006). ...
This study explores how hair color affects perceptions of male and female Caucasian job applicants seeking professional managerial positions. Using a between-subjects design, 158 participants from two samples (Sample 1: future managers, Sample 2: current managers in the banking industry) were asked to rate one of six "paper" applicants after examining a hypothetical job description, a résumé, and a profile picture of the applicant. Paper applicants differed in terms of their gender (male or female) as well as their hair color, which was electronically manipulated (blonde, red, and brunette). Results from both samples reveal partial support for the hypotheses. In a sample of future managers, red-haired applicants were rated significantly lower than blondes and brunettes on all dependent variables including likelihood to hire, beginning salary, physical attractiveness and intelligence, but not on ability to handle stress or ability to supervise others. There were no gender differences for red-haired female and red-haired male job applicants. Findings from the banking industry sample reveal similar effects for likelihood to hire, such that red-haired applicants were rated lower than blondes and brunettes, although none of the other differences were significant. Results of this study are discussed in terms of implications for research on stereotypes and workplace practices related to hiring discrimination and equal employment opportunity.
... Frost et al. (2017) also assumed that the current frequency of hair colors in the population, where the prevalence of red hair is low, had stabilized and there is now an equilibrium between the rare-color advantage and the impaired health of people with red hair (Flegr and Sýkorová, 2019). Male preference for red, the rarest hair color, was not supported in several studies (Lawson, 1971;Clayson and Maughan, 1976;Feinman and Gill, 1978;Clayson and Maughan, 1986;Clayson and Klassen, 1989;Swami and Barrett, 2011;Guéguen, 2012). It was, however, partly supported by Wortham et al. (2018) who showed that red hair was preferred over other hair colors more frequently than expected based on the prevalence of redheads in the studied population (men preferred red hair 6% of the time, while only 3% of the female population were redheads). ...
... This seems to suggest that it is not the redheaded women's own initiative but rather the higher demand for them which might be responsible for redheaded women's higher sexual activity and a higher number of sexual partners. It could be argued that red hair color is often perceived as less attractive (Lawson, 1971;Clayson and Maughan, 1976;Feinman and Gill, 1978;Clayson and Maughan, 1986;Clayson and Klassen, 1989;Swami and Barrett, 2011;Guéguen, 2012). But Wortham et al. (2018) showed that red hair was preferred over other hair colors more frequently than expected based on the prevalence of redheads in the studied population (both sexes preferred red hair 6% of the time, while only 3% of the female population were redheads). ...
Women with red hair color, i.e., 1–9% of female Europeans, tend to be the subject of various stereotypes about their sexually liberated behavior. The aim of the present case–control study was to explore whether a connection between red hair color and sexual behavior really exists using data from 110 women (34% redheaded) and 93 men (22% redheaded). Redheadedness in women, correlated with various traits related to sexual life, namely with higher sexual desire as measured by Revised Sociosexual Orientation Inventory, with higher sexual activity and more sexual partners of the preferred gender over the past year, earlier initiation of sexual life, and higher sexual submissiveness. Structural equation modelling, however, showed that sexual desire of redheaded women mediated neither their higher sexual activity nor their higher number of sexual partners. These results indirectly indicate that the apparently more liberated sexual behavior in redheaded women could be the consequence of potential mates’ frequent attempts to have sex with them. Our results contradicted the three other tested models, specifically the models based on the assumption of different physiology, faster life history strategy, and altered self-perception of redheaded women induced by stereotypes about them. Naturally, the present study cannot say anything about the validity of other potential models that were not subjects of testing.
... Interestingly, researchers such as Mazur (1986) and Fallon (1990) Men have been shown to prefer women with fair complexion and light hair or eye colour (Feinman and Gill,' 1978), who are relatively short (Shepperd and Strathman, 1989), have large breasts (Scodel, 1957;Wiggins, Wiggins and Conger, 1968;Wildman, Wildman, Brown and Trice, 1976;Gitter et al, 1983;Furnham, Hester and Weir, 1990), a thin waist (Singh, 1993), and an hourglass figure (Furnham et al, 1990). Regarding facial characteristics, men find as attractive a woman with large eyes, small nose, small chin, large pupils, narrow cheeks, shorter hair, fuller lips or square faces (Cunningham, 1986;Meerdnik, Garbin and Leger, 1990;Johnston and Franklin, 1993). ...
... Regarding facial characteristics, men find as attractive a woman with large eyes, small nose, small chin, large pupils, narrow cheeks, shorter hair, fuller lips or square faces (Cunningham, 1986;Meerdnik, Garbin and Leger, 1990;Johnston and Franklin, 1993). On the other hand, evidence shows that women find as attractive men with; dark complexion, hair and eyes (Feinman and Gill, 1978), with a well defined musculature (Diamant, Long andMasterson, 1991), small buttocks (Beck et al, 1976), a moderately broad chest and upper body (Lavrakas, 1975;Beck et al, 1976;Wildman et al, 1976), relatively long faces and high cheeks (Meerdink et al, 1990), and also men who are tall (Shepperd and Strathman, 1989), and generally mesomorphic (Lavrakas, 1975;Beck, Ward-Hull and McLear, 1976). ...
This thesis proposes that judgments of attractiveness are necessarily relativistic. The scope of investigation was the contrast effect in judgments of physical attractiveness of self and strangers. As it stands, the effect predicts that exposure to highly attractive individuals will make people rate their own attractiveness or the attractiveness of others as lower. On the other hand, exposure to unattractive individuals is expected to have the reverse effect. This thesis deals with a number of issues of the contrast effect in judgments of attractiveness which have until now remained unclarified or unexplored. The theoretical part of the thesis covers issues such as the general theories of context effects, specifying the conditions when contrast or the opposite effect, assimilation are predicted, the importance of physical attractiveness for humans, as well as conventional definitions of it, the influence of the media in shaping people's attractiveness standards, and the applicability of Social Comparison theory on some of the issues under investigation. The findings of the thesis indicated that the contrast effect in judgments of attractiveness of strangers is a robust effect with considerable cross-cultural and cross-situational generality. Based on the results, a hypothesis was formulated on how the number of attractive people one is exposed to affects their ratings of attractiveness of others. Furthermore, the similarity between the target and the primes was found to promote the effect, however, the specificity of this similarity extended only as far as the sex of the stimuli. In line with previous findings the evidence on the contrast effect on self-ratings of attractiveness proved equivocal. The thesis tested two likely factors of this elusiveness and obtained encouraging data from one of them. Finally, the ubiquitous aim of the current work to test the ecological validity of the contrast effect in judgments of attractiveness placed the importance of the phenomenon in perspective.
... Hair color Like hair length, it is possible that hair color can serve as a signal to reproductive potential. Although a handful of studies have investigated the relationship between hair color and mate selection from an evolutionary perspective (e.g., Frost, 2006;Little, Penton-Voak, Burt, & Perrett, 2003;Sorokowski, 2008), most investigations of hair color preferences have been somewhat atheoretical and have focused primarily on perceived attractiveness (e.g., Clayson & Klassen, 1989;Feinman & Gill, 1978;Lawson, 1971;Rich & Cash, 1993;Swami & Barrett, 2011). Because hair color is one of the more clearly visible and discernable features of women's hair, it could serve as an important cue for potential mates. ...
... If lighter-colored hair (particularly among Caucasian individuals) is associated with youth and fecundity, then lighter-colored hair could serve as a cue for sexual selection. Indeed, it has been reported that American men tend to prefer lighter-haired women ( Feinman & Gill, 1978) and associate the characteristics of beauty more with blond women than women possessing other hair colors ( Cunningham, Druen, & Barbee, 1997;Lawson, 1971). This may explain why the majority of college females in one study expressed a desire for lighter-colored hair ( Jacobi & Cash, 1994), and why up to 40% of women in the United States add blond hair coloring to their hair ( Etcoff, 1999). ...
We investigated how women’s hair color (blond, brown, black) and length (short, medium, long) influences males’ judgments about the women’s age, health, physical attractiveness, relationship potential and parenting capability. Results, which are generally consistent with evolutionary psychology approaches, indicate that hair color and to a lesser extent length can affect perceptions of personal characteristics. More specifically, we found that lighter hair (blond and brown) compared to darker hair (black) is generally associated with perceptions of youth, health and attractiveness, and generally leads to more positive perceptions of relationship and parenting potential. Furthermore, the relationships between variables suggest that characteristics directly related to reproductive potential may be inferred from more obvious indirect characteristics. These results suggest that males are able to make complex judgments about women concerning their desirable relationship and parenting potential based on discernable characteristics such as hair color and length.
... Attractiveness of skin color was investigated both in the context of ethnic and monoethnic population comparisons. Generally, pale-skinned women were considered more attractive than darker skinned women in a wide range of cultures including North America (Feinman & Gill, 1978), Europe (Pawlowski & Szymanczyk, 2008), and Asia (B. J. Dixson, A. F. Dixson, Li, & Anderson, 2007;Rondilla & Spickard, 2007;Yamaguchi & Aoki, 2008). ...
... Women tended to like their natural or a slightly lighter skin tone when asked to assess their own faces (Bond & Cash, 1992;Hill, 2002-African Americans;Sahay & Piran, 1997-South Asian Canadians). Some of these results were discussed in the context of racial prejudice (e.g., Feinman & Gill, 1978), but other explanation might be that men, more than women, prefer lighter skin tone in women. ...
Skin color is one of the first features that we notice in another person and, therefore, it plays a significant role in the mate selection process as well as in the assessments of attractiveness of others. However, almost all modern research showing a preference for lighter skin tone (particularly in women) was conducted within populations of relatively light skin color. The current study was conducted among the Yali people, who are dark-skinned and native to the isolated highlands of West Papua. We found that for both males (n = 53) and females (n = 53) preferred skin tone was either average or slightly lighter than the average. At the same time, we found that the male preference for lighter skin tone in females was correlated with contact with other cultures. We discuss our results in the context of social and biological theories explaining skin tone preferences.
... The 'kernel of truth' theory provides a basis for this conjecture. This theory holds that stereotypical beliefs correspond, at least in some degree, with reality (i.e., Feinman and Gill, 1978) such that stereotypes influence perceptions. This might mean, for example, that observers regard red-heads as more hot-tempered, people with large foreheads as smarter or people with large eyes as innocent. ...
... The few extant studies have found for example, that direct eye contact activates a region of the brain involved in social tasks (Kampe, Dolan and Frith, 2001) and that large eyes affect perceptions of attractiveness, arousal (McKelvie, 1993) and perceived honesty (Zebrowitz, Voinescu and Collins, 1996). Other research has found that rhesus monkeys tend to focus specifically on the eyes of observed human faces (Wilson and Goldman-Rakic, 1994), that eyes are an important point of attention beginning in infancy (Zorzi, et al., 2003), that males/females prefer certain eye colors in the opposite sex, (Feinman and Gill, 1978) and that large eyes are preferred and are associated with attractiveness and may even predict some perceived personality attributes (Cunningham, Barbee and Pike, 1990). One study found that girls were slightly more likely to select boyfriends whose eye color matched their fathers' rather than their mothers' eye color (Wilson and Barrett, 1987). ...
Research from the medical, psychological and sociological literature has found significant effects of eyes and eye color: that infants focus in on others’ eyes and that eyes affect social tasks, arousal and perceived attractiveness and honesty. These findings suggest that advertising spokespersons’ eyes may play an important role in ad viewer responses to the ad. This study examined that idea to find significant effects of eye color on some advertising response variables. Findings from the largely Hispanic sample in this study further indicate that spokesperson eye color should match the eye color of the targeted audience.
... Although sex represents a central social identity category, eye color is also a grouping feature that is related to membership in distinct social group, including race. Therefore, an alternative explanation for the effect of matching eye color on perceived trustworthiness might be the linkage with attractiveness, mating and reproduction, or hedonic fluency as a result of repeated exposure to a particular eye/hair color when it matches the rater's own eye/hair color [82][83][84] . ...
Social face evaluation is a common and consequential element of everyday life based on the judgement of trustworthiness. However, the particular facial regions that guide such trustworthiness judgements are largely unknown. It is also unclear whether different facial regions are consistently utilized to guide judgments for different ethnic groups, and whether previous exposure to specific ethnicities in one’s social environment has an influence on trustworthiness judgements made from faces or facial regions. This registered report addressed these questions through a global online survey study that recruited Asian, Black, Latino, and White raters (N = 4580). Raters were shown full faces and specific parts of the face for an ethnically diverse, sex-balanced set of 32 targets and rated targets’ trustworthiness. Multilevel modelling showed that in forming trustworthiness judgements, raters relied most strongly on the eyes (with no substantial information loss vis-à-vis full faces). Corroborating ingroup–outgroup effects, raters rated faces and facial parts of targets with whom they shared their ethnicity, sex, or eye color as significantly more trustworthy. Exposure to ethnic groups in raters’ social environment predicted trustworthiness ratings of other ethnic groups in nuanced ways. That is, raters from the ambient ethnic majority provided slightly higher trustworthiness ratings for stimuli of their own ethnicity compared to minority ethnicities. In contrast, raters from an ambient ethnic minority (e.g., immigrants) provided substantially lower trustworthiness ratings for stimuli of the ethnic majority. Taken together, the current study provides a new window into the psychological processes underlying social face evaluation and its cultural generalizability.
Protocol registration
The stage 1 protocol for this Registered Report was accepted in principle on 7 January 2022. The protocol, as accepted by the journal, can be found at: https://doi.org/10.6084/m9.figshare.18319244.
... Skin Pigmentation. Males have been reported to prefer females with relatively less pigmented skin (compared with others in the same population) across a suite of studies conducted within diverse human populations distributed across the globe, and including populations without European contact and a population of native South Africans (Coetzee et al., 2012;van den Berghe & Frost, 1986;Feinman & Gill, 1978;Dixson et al., 2007Dixson et al., , 2010Kleisner et al., 2017;reviews in Frost, 2007reviews in Frost, , 2014Jones, 1996). There are exceptions to this pattern (Dixson et al., 2007;Swami et al., 2008), and such variation may be related to biological and cultural processes whose causes remain unexplored Swami et al., 2008). ...
... Women's hair color may have an important role in people's perceptions of the women's physical or behavioral attractiveness. For example, Feinman and Gill (1978) suggest that men prefer women lighter coloration, such as blonde hair, and men also found these women more attractive than women with darker hair. ...
Very little research has investigated how a woman’s appearance affects the perceptions and judgments of her as a victim of harassment. This study focuses on how Vietnamese participants evaluate victims of street harassment based on nationality (Vietnamese vs. American) and hair color (dark/brown vs. light/blonde). After randomly viewing a blonde or dark-haired Vietnamese or White American target and reading her story of street harassment, participants rated her perceived threat, negative emotions, benign coping, self-blame, self-esteem, and frequency of street harassment. The results align with the hypotheses that blondes will be judged to experience less threat, negative emotions, and self-blame, but to experience more benign coping, self-esteem, and frequency of street harassment. This main effect for hair color, however, was qualified by significant interactions of these dependent measures suggesting that the blonde Vietnamese target was especially likely to not experience street harassment as negative. This research suggests that hair color, much like clothing and makeup, is used to judge women’s experiences of street harassment.
... In our study, we tested the consistency of mate choice in long-term and short-term relationships with respect to eye and hair colour. It has been found that eye and hair colour influence perceived attractiveness (e.g., Feinman & Gill, 1978), trustworthiness (Kleisner, Priplatova, Frost, & Flegr, 2013), dominance (Kleisner, Kočnar, Rubešová, & Flegr, 2010), and health status (Frost, Kleisner, & Flegr, 2017), which suggests that these characteristics may play an important role in human mate choice (Frost, 2006;White & Rabago-Smith, 2011). The aim of this study was to determine whether individuals tend to select partners who have similar traits as their ex-partners. ...
Partner preferences are formed by several mechanisms, including an imprinting-like effect (parent-similarity) and homogamy (self-similarity). It is still unknown, however, whether these preferences remain stable throughout an individual's lifetime. We have therefore tested the consistency of mate choice in eye and hair colour both in a shortand long-term context. In other words, we tested whether people systematically choose partners with a particular eye and hair colour. We asked 1,048 respondents to indicate the eye and hair colour of themselves, their opposite-sex and same-sex parent, and all the romantic partners they had in their lives. Our results show that people consistently choose partners of a particular eye and hair colour in both short- and long-term contexts, which suggests that people do have their ‘types’. Nevertheless, the consistency was significantly higher in a long-term context than in a short-term context. Furthermore, the eye colour of one's partner was predicted by the eye colour of one's opposite-sex as well as same-sex parent, but the strongest parental effect was found when both parents had same eye colour. There were no significant results for hair colour. Our results thus suggest that preferences for eye colour are determined by the imprinting-like effect rather than by homogamy, and that they remain stable over time. These findings also indirectly support an assumption of stability of this imprinting-like effect in humans, since people consistently choose partners with their opposite-sex parent's eye-colour.
... An empirical research done by Farrell and Finkelstein (2007) stated that women are most likely to display helping behaviors than men, hence supporting Heilman and Chen's (2005) and Bihm et al.'s (1979) assumptions. However, both Feinman (1978) and Ehrhart and Godfrey (2003) argued that it is the other way around. They stated that in terms of altruistic behavior, men are a more likely display such behavior in comparison to women. ...
Purpose
The purpose of this paper is to provide a historical account of organizational citizenship behavior (OCB) based on the existing literature.
Design/methodology/approach
The paper performs keywords search of published articles from 1930 to 2017 in widely used research databases.
Findings
The historical review shows that the OCB, as a field of study, was slow to develop. Although it has been introduced in the late 1970s and officially defined in the 1980s, its origins can be traced back to the 1930s. Despite this, OCB is generally regarded as a relatively new construct and has become one of the biggest subjects studied in the literature. OCB has reached far and wide into the business and management domains, supporting the fact that the well-being employees and their behaviors can greatly affect organizations’ effectiveness and performance. Having been the topic of a significant number of studies, there have been inconsistent research findings regarding the concepts. Furthermore, some concepts have been noted to overlap, with several scholars using different terms for essentially similar concepts.
Originality/value
The advent of technology and globalization has greatly affected organizations today which resulted in increased competition in the global business. Firms have started to look into the behavior exhibited by employees as a means of achieving competitive advantage, such as OCB. Voluminous works have been conducted regarding the study of OCB; however, none have been recorded to make an in-depth exploration of when and how it first surfaced. Since its official introduction, explorations regarding OCB have dramatically increased, most especially in the twenty-first century. Unfortunately, this has resulted in an increasing difficulty to keep up with the theoretical and empirical developments in the literature. As interest in OCB continues to grow, coherent integration of the concept becomes progressively more complex and necessary. This paper looks into the chronological evolution of the OCB, giving precise details of its development from the time it was first conceptualized up until the present wherein OCB has been used to indicate organizational effectiveness and performance.
... More specifically, previous research has categorized eyes exclusively, according to their hue as being either -blue‖ or -brown‖ (Rosenberg & Kagan, 1987;Kagan & Snidman, 1999;Herberner et al., 1989;Fallone & Baluch, 1993;Whisell & Whisell, 2011;Salter & Bloom, 2011;Arcus, 1994;Coplan et al., 1988;Kleisner et al., 2010Kleisner et al., , 2013Feinman & Gill, 1978;Gründl et al., 2012;West, 2011;Kocnar et al., 2013;Sulovari et al., 2015), or according to their luminance as being either -light‖ or -dark‖ (Beer & Fleming, 1987;Bassett & Dabbs, 2001;West, 2011). This presents us with two insurmountable problems -firstly, it is effectively impossible to compare results from studies using different categorization systems (i.e., hue, and luminance). ...
The notion that phenomenologically observable differences in the human eye are correlated with behavioral tendencies (other than gaze-following) has been addressed poorly in the psychological literature. Most notably, the proposed correlations are based on an arbitrary categorization in discrete categories of the continuous variability across various traits that could be contributing to individual eye morphologies. We review the relevant literature and assume a view of human eyes as sign stimuli, identifying the relative contrast between the iridal and scleral areas as the main contributor to the strength of the signal. Based on this view, we present a new method for the precise quantification of the relative luminosity of the iris (RLI) and briefly discuss its potential applications in psychological research.
... People with red hair, males in particular can find romantic life particularly difficult and are consistently found to be thought of as less attractive on average than brown, black or blond haired people. Feinman and Gill (1978), found that in general women preferred men with darker hair while men preferred women with light coloration, on the subject of redheads Feinman and Gill state in the abstract of this study "Special attention was paid to the tremendous aversion of both sexes to redheads" Clayson and Maughan (1986); in a study on stereotypes and hair colour found that redheaded females were seen as unattractive but competent while redheaded males "had a surprisingly negative stereotype, they were seen as very unattractive, less successful, and rather effeminate" (Clayson and Maughan 1986, abstract). Redheaded males have also been found to be seen as unattractive on a level par with obese people (Clayson & Klassen 1989). ...
Background: People with red hair account for just 1 to 2% of the population worldwide and suffer a degree of prejudice, particularly in the U.K.
Aims: To investigate any relationship between hair colour and anxiety or depression, and to survey the experiences and opinions of people with red hair throughout the world.
Method: 1742 people from 20 countries completed a survey including the HADS anxiety and depression scale, seven survey questions about experiences of bullying, and open ended questions about the representation of people with red hair in popular culture. Results from the HADS were compared between groups using t-tests and the survey and open ended questions were analysed qualitatively.
Results: In this sample women with red hair in the U.S.A. were found to be less anxious and depressed on average while red haired men in the U.K. were found to be more anxious according the HADS scale, small effect sizes were observed. Possible explanations are discussed. There was found to be a high prevalence of bullying against people with red hair and dis-satisfaction with the role of entertainment media in portraying red haired people
Conclusion and implications: People with red hair are at high risk of bullying victimisation and are depicted using negative stereotypes in popular culture. This may contribute to anxiety disorders and depression. Implications for government policy regarding education and hate crime laws are discussed. Further research should be carried out on adolescents, in the U.K. in particular to determine the relationship of hair colour to anxiety and depression using more appropriate measures.
... It is not surprising, then, that skin tone remains one of the most important distinguishing features of individuals , with lighter skin tones generally perceived as more attractive than darker skin tones across cultural groups (Belletti & Wade, 2008;Dixson, Dixson, Morgan, & Anderson, 2007;Feinman & Gill, 1978;Frost, 1994;Paw[swsl]lowski & Szymanczyk, 2008;Stephen, Smith, Stirrat, & Perrett, 2009;Swami, Furnham, & Joshi, 2008;Van den Berghe & Frost, 1986;Wade, Irvine, & Cooper, 2004; but see Lewis, 2010Lewis, , 2011Swami, Rozmus-Wrzesinska, et al., 2008). Combined with the higher status accorded Caucasoid features in most Western societies (Neal & Wilson, 1989), it has been suggested that these ideals have important psychosocial consequences for ethnic minority individuals (Boyd-Franklin, 1991;Russell et al., 1992). ...
This study examined skin tone dissatisfaction, measured using a skin tone chart, among a multiethnic sample of British adults. A total of 648 British White individuals, 292 British South Asians, and 260 British African Caribbean participants completed a visual task in which they were asked to indicate their actual and ideal skin tones. They also completed measures of body appreciation, self-esteem, and ethnic identity attachment. Results showed that Asians had a lighter skin tone ideal than White and African Caribbean participants. Conversely, White participants had higher skin tone dissatisfaction (preferring a darker skin tone) than Asian and African Caribbean participants, who preferred a lighter skin tone. Results also showed that skin tone dissatisfaction predicted body appreciation once the effects of participant ethnicity, age, ethnic identity attachment, and self-esteem had been accounted for. Implications of our findings and suggestions for future research are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2013 APA, all rights reserved).
... Evolutionary theories suggest that women generally desire men who are willing to support them and their children with resources and skills. These traits may be signaled with darker hair that is associated with maturity and stability (Feinman and Gill 1978). In contrast, men tend to seek women who are youthful and healthy so that they can bear healthy children. ...
Hypotheses were tested as explanations for why men and women have specific hair color preferences for mates. Traditional evolutionary psychology approaches suggest that men should prefer light hair on women because it signals youth and health, while women should desire dark hair on men because it signals maturity and stability. Repeated exposure predicts people prefer the hair color on mates they are exposed to most frequently. Uniqueness implies that men and women should desire the least prevalent hair colors on potential mates because of its scarcity and rarity. Findings primarily support traditional evolutionary psychology predictions and occasionally the repeated exposure hypothesis, but not uniqueness predictions. Sex and regional differences indicate that social and evolutionary processes combine to influence hair color preferences.
... Investigators also try to exclude tanning by measuring under the arm, where there is less subcutaneous fat and probably less dimorphism in skin color, given that the lightness of a woman's skin correlates with the thickness of her subcutaneous fat (Mazess, 1967). In any event, sexual selection may have targeted this sex difference, as suggested by a cross-cultural male preference for lighter complexioned women and, conversely, by some evidence of a female preference for darker complexioned men (Aoki, 2002;Feinman & Gill, 1978;Frost, 1988;Frost, 1994b;Frost, 2005;Van den Berghe & Frost, 1986). ...
Human hair and eye color is unusually diverse in northern and eastern Europe. The many alleles involved (at least seven for hair color) and their independent origin over a short span of evolutionary time indicate some kind of selection. Sexual selection is particularly indicated because it is known to favor color traits and color polymorphisms. In addition, hair and eye color is most diverse in what used to be, when first peopled by hunter-gatherers, a unique ecozone of low-latitude continental tundra. This type of environment skews the operational sex ratio (OSR) of hunter-gatherers toward a male shortage in two ways: (1) men have to hunt highly mobile and spatially concentrated herbivores over longer distances, with no alternate food sources in case of failure, the result being more deaths among young men; (2) women have fewer opportunities for food gathering and thus require more male provisioning, the result being less polygyny. These two factors combine to leave more women than men unmated at any one time. Such an OSR imbalance would have increased the pressures of sexual selection on early European women, one possible outcome being an unusual complex of color traits: hair- and eye-color diversity and, possibly, extreme skin depigmentation.
... In most cultures, the preference for light skin in women is stronger than the preference for light skin in men [VAN DEN BERGHE and FROST 1986]. There is also a general preference for light hair in women and for dark hair in men [FEIN- MAN and GILL 1978, JONES 1996b. Probably, several mechanisms contribute to the preference for skin color: In hunter-gatherer populations, a woman is pregnant a large part of the time. ...
Facial attractiveness: General patterns of facial preferences
This review covers universal patterns in facial preferences. Facial attractiveness has fascinated thinkers since antiquity, but has been the subject of intense scientific study for only the last quarter of a century. Many facial features contribute to facial attractiveness: Averageness and symmetry are preferred by males and females, probably because they signal genetic quality and developmental stability. Men prefer highly feminized female faces because they reflect high estrogen levels and low testosterone levels. This indicates that the woman is reproductively healthy. Women, on the other hand, prefer a moderate level of male facial masculinity, since facial masculinity that is too pronounced signals high level of testosterone and, thereby, a poorly developed pro-family personality. In women, facial hair is detrimental to facial attractiveness. In men, the effect is not consistent. Faces with a clear complexion are attractive to both men and women. Men prefer light and smooth skin in women. Positive facial expressions also enhance facial attractiveness. Many factors, in particular skin condition and facial proportions, affect perceived age, which is an important component of facial attractiveness. Men in particular strongly prefer youthful-looking female faces. Facial preferences enable an individual to recognize reproductively fit mates. Therefore, facial preferences are adaptive, although non-adaptive mechanisms related to general brain function also play a role.
... Eye color did not, however, significantly affect the number of responses received to each advert. Feinman and Gill (1978) analyzed the expressed likes and dislikes of male and female Caucasian college students concerning eye color, hair color, and the complexion of members of the opposite sex. They found that women reported that they preferred men with dark eyes whilst men reported that they preferred women with light colored eyes. ...
... Other evidence suggests that, in the West at least, beautiful women are portrayed as having a fair complexion and light hair colour (FEINMAN and GILL 1978). Blondes are typically equated with 'goodness' (e.g., in images of saints, goddesses and fairy godmothers; JUNI and ROTH 1985), whereas dark hair tends to be equated with villainy (CLAYSON and MAUGHAN 1986). ...
This study investigated the role of skin tone, hair colour, and body weight in perceptions of women's physical attractiveness and health. Four-hundred and thirty-six women and 423 men in eight distinct national settings on three continents rated a series of 18 female line drawings that varied in three levels of skin tone, two levels of hair colour, and three levels of body weight. Results showed significant cross-cultural differences in what was considered attractive and healthy, as a function of the three manipulated physical characteristics. However, the role played by, and the importance of, the three characteristics appeared to differ relative to the type of rating being made. Specifically, ratings of health were not congruent with ratings of physical attractiveness. There were also a number of interactions between the different variables, which were most pronounced with participants' nationality. Interactions between the different stimulus variables themselves were small, but nevertheless suggest combined effects. These results support recent arguments for contextualising interpersonal perceptions, rather than viewing them in isolation of sociocultural environments.
... Ac cord ing to Coo per (1971) blonde hair tra di tion ally is ap peal ing, bru nette hair lacks any dis tinc tive pos i tive or neg a tive at trib ute, but red hair has "blazed an er ratic trail". In a study by Feinman and Gill (1978) in which they ex am ined "likes" and "dis like" pref er ences of op po sites based upon phys ical at trib utes, they found over 80% ex pressed a dis like for peo ple with red hair. In the same study, the skin col our of most red heads was the most disliked of the eight skin colours. ...
Hair colour stereotyping is well documented in countless jokes as well as in the psychological literature. Blondes, for example, are stereotyped as incompetent, but likeable. Those with red hair are stereotyped as competent but cold or with a fiery temper. These and other stereotypes may affect job progression, mobility, and the rise to the corporate suite. To test this research question, the hair colour of CEOs of the Fortune 500 was recorded and analysed. The results support the pre conceived hair colour stereotypes. Of this group, only 11 CEOs (2.2%) were blonde while 17 CEOs (3.4%) had red hair. The remainder of the 460 male non-minority CEOs (92%) had either brown or black hair. Do ste reo types or per cep tions be come reality? Is awareness the first step in correcting the disparity? Is the disparity a problem? Does it point to discrimination in lower organisational ranks? Is this bias warranted? The article discusses the possible implications of these findings. Areas for further research are also included.
... Sexually selected traits may also differ between human populations, as slight initial differences in preferences between populations can lead to rapid divergence in expression of the preferred traits [7]. Examples of sexually dimorphic morphological traits that have been hypothesised to have been affected by sexual selection include (but are not limited to) hair and skin colour, breast size, facial hair, chest hair, head hair length, and body size-these traits have been previously shown to contribute to judgements of physical attractiveness [8,9,10,11,12,13]. ...
Intersexual selection has been proposed as an important force in shaping a number of morphological traits that differ between human populations and/or between the sexes. Important to these accounts is the source of mate preferences for such traits, but this has not been investigated. In a large sample of twins, we assess forced-choice, dichotomous mate preferences for height, skin colour, hair colour and length, chest hair, facial hair, and breast size. Across the traits, identical twins reported more similar preferences than nonidentical twins, suggesting genetic effects. However, the relative magnitude of estimated genetic and environmental effects differed greatly and significantly between different trait preferences, with heritability estimates ranging from zero to 57%.
... According to Cooper (1971) blonde hair traditionally is appealing, brunette hair lacks any distinctive positive or negative attributes, but red hair has " blazed an erratic trail. " In a study by Feinman and Gill (1978) in which they examined " likes and dislikes " preferences of opposites based upon physical attributes, they found over 80% expressed a dislike for people with red hair. In the same study, the skin color of most redheads was the most disliked of the eight skin colors. ...
Hair color stereotyping is well documented in jokes and the psychological literature. Blondes are stereotyped as incompetent, but likeable, while redheads are seen as competent but cold, or often with a fiery temper. Do these stereotypes affect job progression, mobility, and the rise to the corporate suite? To test this question, the hair color of CEOs of the top 500 members of the London Financial Times Stock Exchange (FTE) was analyzed. The chi-square analysis supports the preconceived hair color stereotypes. Do the stereotypes and results point to discrimination in lower organizational ranks? The article discusses the possible implications of these findings as well as areas for further research.
... Investigators also try to exclude tanning by measuring under the arm, where there is less subcutaneous fat and probably less dimorphism in skin color, given that the lightness of a woman's skin correlates with the thickness of her subcutaneous fat (Mazess, 1967). In any event, sexual selection may have targeted this sex difference, as suggested by a cross-cultural male preference for lighter complexioned women and, conversely, by some evidence of a female preference for darker complexioned men (Aoki, 2002;Feinman & Gill, 1978;Frost, 1988;Frost, 1994b;Frost, 2005;Van den Berghe & Frost, 1986). ...
Human hair and eye color is unusually diverse in northern and eastern Europe. The many alleles involved (at least seven for hair color) and their independent origin over a short span of evolutionary time indicate some kind of selection. Sexual selection is particularly indicated because it is known to favor color traits and color polymorphisms. In addition, hair and eye color is most diverse in what used to be, when first peopled by hunter-gatherers, a unique ecozone of low-latitude continental tundra. This type of environment skews the operational sex ratio (OSR) of hunter-gatherers toward a male shortage in two ways: (1) men have to hunt highly mobile and spatially concentrated herbivores over longer distances, with no alternate food sources in case of failure, the result being more deaths among young men; (2) women have fewer opportunities for food gathering and thus require more male provisioning, the result being less polygyny. These two factors combine to leave more women than men unmated at any one time. Such an OSR imbalance would have increased the pressures of sexual selection on early European women, one possible outcome being an unusual complex of color traits: hair-and eye-color diversity and, possibly, extreme skin depigmentation.
Human biological variation has historically been studied through the lens of racialization. Despite a general shift away from the use of overt racial terminologies, the underlying racialized frameworks used to describe and understand human variation still remain. Even in relatively recent anthropological and biomedical work, we can observe clear manifestations of such racial thinking. This paper shows how classification and valuation are two specific processes which facilitate racialization and hinder attempts to move beyond such frameworks. The bias induced by classification distorts descriptions of phenotypic variation in a way that erroneously portrays European populations as more variable than others. Implicit valuation occurs in tandem with classification and produces narratives of superiority/inferiority for certain phenotypic variants without an objective biological basis. The bias of racialization is a persistent impediment stemming from the inheritance of scientific knowledge developed under explicitly racial paradigms. It is also an internalized cognitive distortion cultivated through socialization in a world where racialization is inescapable. Though undeniably challenging, this does not present an insurmountable barrier, and this bias can be mitigated through the critical evaluation of past work, the active inclusion of marginalized perspectives, and the direct confrontation of institutional structures enforcing racialized paradigms. Special Issue: Race reconciled II: Interpreting and communicating biological variation and race in 2021
Penelitian ini menggunakan metode kuantitatif dengan jenis komparasi yang bertujuan untuk mengetahui perbedaan perilaku prososial ditinjau dari jenis kelamin pada mahasiswa Universitas Kristen Satya Wacana. Partisipan dalam penelitian ini melibatkan 120 mahasiswa yang terdiri dari 60 mahasiswa perempuan dan 60 mahasiswa laki-laki. Teknik sampling dalam penelitian ini menggunakan purposive sampling dengan kriteria partisipan remaja akhir usia 18-22 tahun yang sedang aktif mengikuti perkuliah dan sering mengikuti kegiatan sosial minimal tiga kali dalam setahun. Alat ukur yang digunakan disusun oleh peneliti berdasarkan aspek-aspek perilaku prososial. Hasil dalam penelitian ini menunjukkan bahwa tidak ada perbedaan perilaku prososial antara mahasiswa laki-laki dan mahasiswa perempuan dengan nilai signifikansi sama dengan 0,85 (p lebih besar dari 0,05) sehingga hipotesis dalam penelitian ini ditolak. Selain faktor jenis kelamin, masih banyak faktor lain yang dapat mempengaruhi seseorang melakukan perilaku prososial.
Knowledge of evolutionary influences on patterns of human mating, social interactions, and differential health is increasing, yet these insights have rarely been applied to historical analyses of human population dynamics. The genetic and evolutionary forces behind biases in interethnic mating and in the health of individuals of different ethnic groups in Latin America and the Caribbean since the European colonization of America are still largely ignored. We discuss how historical and contemporary sociocultural interactions and practices are strongly influenced by population-level evolutionary forces. Specifically, we discuss the historical implications of functional (de facto) polygyny, sex-biased admixture, and assortative mating in Latin America. We propose that these three evolutionary mechanisms influenced mating patterns, shaping the genetic and cultural landscape across Latin America and the Caribbean. Further, we discuss how genetic differences between the original populations that migrated at different times into Latin America contributed to their accommodation to and survival in the different local ecologies and interethnic interactions. Relevant medical and social implications follow from the genetic and cultural changes reviewed.
Atrakcyjność fizyczna była przedmiotem zainteresowania już w starożytności, jednak naukowe badania nad atrakcyjnością fizyczną z perspektywy biologicznej rozpoczęły się dopiero w latach 90. ubiegłego wieku. Niegdyś uważano, że jest to właściwość zależna jedynie od mody lub gustu. Dziś wiemy, że wiele cech decydujących o atrakcyjności fizycznej człowieka stanowi ważny sygnał informujący o jakości biologicznej (wysokiejstabilności rozwojowej, zdrowiu i zdolności reprodukcyjnej) oraz wieku osobnika.
Monografia ATRAKCYJNOŚĆ FIZYCZNA CZŁOWIEKA jest zbiorem kilkunastu prac naukowych dotyczących różnych aspektów (cech) wyglądu najczęściej decydujących o urodzie. Zawiera też prace dotyczące atrakcyjności głosu. Przedstawione oryginalne prace naukowe oparte są na różnorodnej metodologii. Dlatego oprócz walorów czysto poznawczych publikacja może być pomocna przy pisaniu prac naukowych, także dyplomowych.
Twarz jako pierwsza przyciąga wzrok oceniających, szczególnie płci przeciwnej. Uważa się, że o atrakcyjności twarzy decydują głownie trzy jej elementy – oczy, nos i usta, a także jej symetria. Ocena takich cech twarzy jak: kolor i jakość skóry (czysta i gładka) i włosów, zarost, kolor i struktura tęczówki oka, kształt i kolor ust, kształt nosa czy rodzaj makijażu mają wpływ na postrzeganie atrakcyjności fizycznej człowieka.
Związek męskiego głosu z budową fizyczną ciała jest niezwykle ciekawym zagadnieniem, zarówno dla antropologów fizycznych, jak i antropologów zajmujących się mechanizmami ewolucyjnymi. Kobiety oceniają niższe głosy mężczyzn, jako bardziej atrakcyjne, a ich właścicielom przypisują cechy takie, jak większa tężyzna fizyczna, wyższy wiek, intensywniejsze owłosienie klatki piersiowej i większe umięśnienie, a zgodność kobiet co do oceny tych parametrów jest bardzo duża. Ponieważ istnieje niewiele prac dotyczących związku atrakcyjności i jakości głosu z atrakcyjnością fizyczną ciała i twarzy, warto nadal kontynuować badania tego zagadnienia. Badania nad parametrami akustycznymi głosu człowieka są stosunkowo nowe. Wynika to z wcześniejszych ograniczeń technicznych związanych z rejestracją oraz analizą nagranych dźwięków. Jednakże dość szybko po udoskonaleniu narzędzi i opracowaniu odpowiedniej metodologii akustyka głosu znalazła się w kręgu zainteresowań biologów człowieka.
Badania nad atrakcyjnością dotyczą też różnych form zdobienia ciała. Spośród mnogości prac na temat atrakcyjności bardzo niewielki odsetek stanowią artykuły poświęcone ich związkom z postrzeganiem ludzi przez otoczenie społeczne. Z pewnością warto prowadzić tego rodzaju badania, gdyż oprócz typowo poznawczego celu pozwolą one na ocenę i weryfikację obecne wciąż funkcjonujących stereotypów, szczególnie dotyczących tatuaży i piercingu.
Krzysztof Borysławski
Sappiamo tutti che è meglio essere attraenti piuttosto che non attraenti ma non tutti conoscono i meccanismi psicologici implicati nella percezione della bellezza. La ricerca scientifica negli ultimi anni ha fatto molti progressi nel cercare di svelare i segreti della bellezza e della sua enorme influenza nei nostri rapporti sociali. Questo libro riporta lo stato dell'arte di tale ricerca. Quali sono le caratteristiche di un volto o di un corpo attraente? In che modo l'essere attraenti differisce fra maschi e femmine? Come evolve la percezione della bellezza nell'arco di vita? La bellezza ha avuto un valore adattivo nella nostra storia evolutiva? Poiché lo studio della bellezza è intimamente legato a quello dell'estetica e dell'arte, vengono anche esposti i risultati delle ricerche sulle tecniche utilizzate dagli artisti per rappresentare in modo più attraente i loro soggetti. La psicologia della bellezza, inoltre, non si limita agli aspetti visivi di corpo e volto, ma si interessa anche di temi come la bellezza della postura, dei movimenti corporei, della voce, dell'odore personale. Il volume prende anche in esame gli aspetti ''applicativi'', cioè le conseguenze che la bellezza ha nei rapporti sociali, nell'educazione, negli ambiti lavorativi, nella politica e nella giustizia e i risvolti legati alle ''patologie della bellezza'' come il narcisismo e i disturbi dell'immagine corporea.
Substantial testimony suggests a form of discrimination exists in the selection of black advertising models. This bias may be manifested in the fact that a disproportionately large number of advertisements highlighting black models contain models possessing features more Caucasian than negroid in nature. Several issues possibly undergirding this phenomenon are discussed, primary among them that an explanation may lie in the presence of within‐ group physical attractiveness stereotyping. Discussion is developed suggesting why a physiognomically more accurate representation of blacks is needed.
In diesem Beitrag wird die Frage gestellt, ob die Haarfarbe von SchülerInnen einen Erklärungswert für das Abschneiden in einem Intelligenztestverfahren hat. Auf Basis von internationalen Forschungsergebnissen ist davon auszugehen, dass nicht nur die „klassischen Parameter“ wie Geschlecht, Migrationshintergrund oder soziale Schicht einen Erklärungswert für das Abschneiden in Leistungstests liefern, sondern eben auch der Phänotyp, die äußere Erscheinung von SchülerInnen. N = 1.171 SchülerInnen machten im Zuge der Fragebogenerhebung in der 8. Schulstufe (NOESIS-Kohorte 2, Mai 2015) Angaben zu ihrer natürlichen Haarfarbe. Diese Daten wurden mit Ergebnissen aus einem Intelligenztestverfahren (CFT 20-R) in Verbindung gebracht. Es stellte sich heraus, dass die Haarfarbe durchaus dazu angetan ist, Differenzen in der Leistungsfähigkeit von SchülerInnen zu erklären. Diese Ergebnisse werden in einen Diskurs um die Konsequenzen der Nutzung solcher Parameter und der (Un-)Sinnigkeit der Verwendung dieser Parameter als Erklärungsfaktoren gestellt und kritisch erläutert.
Discussion of the nature of personal aesthetics, or physical attractiveness, seems to alternate between two positions, which we term Natural Classicism and Cultural Constructivism. These two positions are illustrated in fashion historian Julian Robinson’s (1998) account of a conversation that he had with art historian Sir Kenneth Clark:
“Sir Kenneth Clark said that...his own interests lay in classical styles of beauty as seen from a purely Mediterranean viewpoint, which had reached its zenith in the marble sculptures of ancient Greece. He explained that to a great extent the aesthetic appeal of such beauty depended on perfect symmetry, regular features, and an unvarying adherence to the prevailing classical ideals of shape, form and measurable proportions. In turn, I explained that my inclinations and convictions had become firmly rooted in the notion that human beauty is a reflection of cultural perceptions and inherited ideas of aesthetics, and that such aesthetics were not immutable...I went on to say that all human ideals and notions of beauty appeared to be inextricably linked to the varying forms of symbolism to which cultural groups appear to become “addicted” and which by ritual becomes an important aspect of their lives, and that each new generation learns these notions and addictions in the same way as it learns all other cultural matters - thus human beauty exists only in the eyes of those with the specific knowledge and cultural heritage to perceive it.” (pp. 13–14)
A newer version of the Polish text which has been published (in somewhat shortened form) as two English-language papers: "Facial attractiveness: General patterns of facial preferences" and "Facial attractiveness: Variation, adaptiveness and consequences of facial preferences".
The method for evaluating the colour rendering of light-emitting diode sources is controversial, especially for the appearance of human complexions. A psychophysical experiment was conducted using Chinese models to examine the effect of various illumination settings, characterized by two levels of preferred skin colour index and four levels of correlated colour temperature, on preference for the appearance of the Chinese complexion. Results showed that the preferred skin colour index was an effective indicator. Taking incomplete colour adaptation into account, the preferred skin colour index was recalculated and shown to be the best colour rendering index for the appearance of the Chinese complexion. This research examined the concept of preferred skin colour index for Chinese women. This can supplement other colour quality evaluation methods, and shows promise for commercial lighting applications.
The consistency of physical attractiveness ratings across cultural groups was examined. In Study 1, recently arrived native Asian and Hispanic students and White Americans rated the attractiveness of Asian, Hispanic, Black, and White photographed women. The mean correlation between groups in attractiveness ratings was
r = .93. Asians, Hispanics, and Whites were equally influenced by many facial features, but Asians were less influenced by some sexual maturity and expressive features. In Study 2, Taiwanese attractiveness ratings correlated with prior Asian, Hispanic, and American ratings, mean
r = .91. Supporting Study 1, the Taiwanese also were less positively influenced by certain sexual maturity and expressive features. Exposure to Western media did not influence attractiveness ratings in either study. In Study 3, Black and White American men rated the attractiveness of Black female facial photos and body types. Mean facial attractiveness ratings were highly correlated (
r = .94), but as predicted Blacks and Whites varied in judging bodies. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
The impetus for the present srudy was the serendipitous findings in an attempt at replicating a study by Wilson (1968). He had shown that the perceived height of a person increased with perceived status. A pilot study was conducted in which a target person was introduced to one group of 13 student subjects as a new professor and to another group of 10 subjects as a student janitor. Thirty minutes after the target person left, che students were asked to recall his physical characterisics. Both groups correctly remembered the target's height within less than 0.2 in. of his actual height, replicating the findings of Lerner and Moore (1974). The finding of interest, however, was that 62% of the "professor" group remembered the target as being blond and 15% remembered him as a redhead. In the "student janitor" group only 10% remembered him as a blond and 60% remembered him as a redhead (blond: Z = 2.45, f~ < 0.01). The target person was a strawberry blond with a flaming red mustache. A quick review indicated that haircolor has been associated symbolically with personal attributes, but the pattern appears to be mixed. Clowns, Howdy Doody, Lucille Ball, Red Skelton, Red Buttons, and probably Judas Iscarioc had/have red hair. Marilyn Monroe, Jessica Lange, and Steve Canyon are blonds. But then, Ramses 11, Cleopatra, Queen Elizabeth, and Thomas Jefferson, as well as Ann Margaret (occasionally) were redheads and Hitler was particularly fond of blonds. Nevertheless, the students in the above mentioned study appeared to be sharing a common stereotype based on haircolor. Very few investigations of preference by hair color have been conducted. Lawson ( 1971), one of a few who have studied this problem, found that for all men and women, for 42 comparisons, redheaded men were rated significantly superior on none. In fact, neither dark nor blond men saw redheaded men as superior on any trait. Women rated redheaded men cnly as "safe".
The present study investigated visuals on cosmetic surgery websites to better understand how these sites depict ideal beauty. The content analysis of 90 cosmetic surgery websites found most sites used general photos and more than half used 10 or more before-and-after photos. Women outnumbered men in general photographs but not in before-and-after photographs. Brunette men and women significantly outnumbered blondes. However, there were significantly more men with dark-colored eyes, while women were significantly more likely to have light-colored eyes. Implications are discussed.
Previous research found that survey response rates were influenced by physical characteristics of the interviewer. However, the effect of hair color on compliance to a survey request has never been studied. Female confederates wearing blond, brown, black, or red wigs solicited 1,200 male and female pedestrians for a survey. It was found those male passersby, but not the female, agreed more frequently to the confederates wearing blond wigs whereas they agreed less to the same confederates wearing red wigs. Greater youth and healthiness associated with blond hair in women is used to explain these results. The practical interest in face-to-face surveys is addressed.
Abstrakt: Atrakcyjność twarzy była przedmiotem rozważań już w starożytności, ale naukowe badania nad nią pochodzą głównie z ostatniego ćwierćwiecza. Badania te dowiodły, że istnieje szereg, często mierzalnych, własności twarzy, które wpływają atrakcyjności twarzy. Przeciętność proporcji oraz symetria twarzy są preferowane przypuszczalnie dlatego, że sygnalizują zdrowie genetyczne i wysoką tzw. stabilność rozwojową. Mężczyźni preferują silnie sfeminizowane twarze kobiet, ponieważ oznaczają one wysoki stosunek poziomu estrogenu do testosteronu, a zatem sprawność reprodukcyjną kobiety. Natomiast kobiety preferują umiarkowany stopień maskulinizacji twarzy mężczyzn, ponieważ znaczna maskulinizacja sygnalizuje wysoki poziom testosteronu, a zatem słabo wykształcone pro-rodzinne cechy osobowości. Z podobnych przyczyn mężczyźni preferują brak owłosienia twarzy kobiet, a kobiece preferencje dla zarostu twarzy mężczyzn są niejednolite. Czysta (tzn. pozbawiona brodawek itp.) skóra twarzy jest atrakcyjna u obu płci. Ponadto mężczyźni preferują u kobiet skórę jasną i gładką (tzn. bez zmarszczek). Korzystny wpływ na atrakcyjność twarzy ma też pozytywny wyraz twarzy. Wiele z wyżej wymienionych cech (przede wszystkim stan skóry i proporcje twarzy) wpływa na postrzegany wiek, a ten z kolei wpływa na atrakcyjność twarzy. Szczególnie mężczyźni silnie preferują młodo wyglądające twarze kobiet. Badania pokazują, że preferencje względem twarzy w dużej mierze są kryteriami rozpoznawania wartościowych, z reprodukcyjnego punktu widzenia, partnerów. Preferencje te mają zatem charakter adaptacji, choć w niektórych przypadkach istotną rolę mogą także odgrywać nie-adaptacyjne mechanizmy związane z ogólnymi sposobami funkcjonowania mózgu. W niniejszej pracy dużo miejsca poświęcono wewnątrz-i międzypopulacyjnej zmienności preferencji, związkowi pomiędzy atrakcyjnością twarzy a wartością partnerską, biologicznym i społecznym konsekwencjom atrakcyjności oraz wiarygodności adaptacyjnego rozumienia preferencji względem twarzy. Wyniki badań skłaniają do następujących wniosków: (1) Istnieje wiele czynników przyczyniających się do międzyosobniczej zmienności postrzegania atrakcyjności twarzy, np. wiek, płeć, jakość biologiczna, stan fizjologiczny, osobowość i sytuacja życiowa osoby oceniającej twarze, a także poprzednio oglądane twarze, podobieństwo pomiędzy ocenianą twarzą a twarzą sędziego, oraz znajomość właściciela twarzy i wiedza o nim. (2) Międzypopulacyjne podobieństwo w postrzeganiu atrakcyjności twarzy jest znaczne i ma podłoże zarówno biologiczne jak i kulturowe. (3) Osoby o atrakcyjnych twarzach mają więcej partnerów seksualnych, biorą ślub młodszym wieku i rzadziej pozostają starymi pannami / kawalerami. Z tych powodów mają oni większy sukces reprodukcyjny niż osoby nieatrakcyjne. (4) Atrakcyjność twarzy jest rzetelnym wskaźnikiem jakości biologicznej jej właściciela, np. odporności na pasożyty, sprawności fizycznej, sprawności reprodukcyjnej, długowieczności, inteligencji, zdrowia psychicznego, a także mniejszej liczby mutacji. (5) Całościowo, badania empiryczne potwierdzają tezę, że preferencje w odniesieniu do twarzy są biologicznymi adaptacjami, to znaczy, wykształciły się one na drodze ewolucji biologicznej, ponieważ pomagały w wyborze partnera o dobrych genach lub pożądanej osobowości. Słowa kluczowe: atrakcyjność twarzy, atrakcyjność fizyczna, preferencje estetyczne, twarz człowieka, piękno.
Two studies examined the effects of the experimenter on heart rate (HR), rating of perceived exertion (RPE), and time to voluntary exhaustion on a graded treadmill test in college students. The first study determined the effects of the gender and race of the tester on black and white subjects of both sexes. Four testers (black female—BFT, white female—WFT, black male—BMT, and white male—WMT) tested 5 subjects of each gender and race. Differences based on gender and race were determined by a 2 × 2 × 2 × 2 ANOVA. The second study dealt with the tester/subject relationship. One tester tested 20 subjects. Ten were his friends (5 males, 5 females) and 10 (5 males, 5 females) did not know him. Differences were determined by 2 × 2 ANOVA. In both studies, the female subjects had poorer performance than the males. HR during moderate and heavy exercise was not affected by the race and gender of the tester or the tester/subject relationship. For time to exhaustion, white female subjects (WFS) exercised longer when being tested by a female but black female subjects (BFS) had a longer total time with male testers. Significant interactions occurred for HR at rest and at various times during light work for both studies. There were also significant interactions for RPE at various stages of light, moderate and heavy exercise for both studies. For subjects unaccustomed to exercise testing, it appears that the effects of the race and gender of the tester and the tester/subject relationship predominate at rest and during light work. Fewer effects are observed during moderate and heavy work. Many of the results in these studies are consistent with societal roles and expectations for males and females, blacks and whites. A consistent testing environment can minimize the influence of extrinsic testing variables.
Previous research on the effect of hair color on people’s evaluation and behavior has revealed discrepant results and the real effect of both male and female hair color on their mating attractiveness has never been tested. In Study 1, female confederates wearing blond, brown, black or red colored wigs were observed while sitting in a nightclub. In Study 2, male confederates wearing different colored wigs asked women in a nightclub for a dance. It was found that blond women were more frequently approached by men whereas blond males did not receive more acceptances to their requests. However, in both conditions, red hair was associated with less attractiveness. Evolutionary theory and differences in mating preferences are used to explain the blond hair effect. Scarcity of red-haired individuals in the population and negative stereotypes associated with red hair are used to explain the negative effect of red hair.
The effect of employees’ hair color on wages was experimentally tested in a tipping context. Waitresses in several restaurants were instructed to wear blond, red, brown or dark colored wigs. The effect of hair color on tipping according to patron's gender was measured. It was found that waitresses wearing blond wigs received more tips but only with male's patrons. Waitresses’ hair color had no effect on females’ tipping behavior.
We assess the relationship between skin color and educational attainment for native-born non-Hispanic Black and White men and women, using data from the Coronary Artery Risk Development in Young Adults (CARDIA) Study. CARDIA is a medical cohort study with twenty years of social background data and a continuous measure of skin color, recorded as the percent of light reflected off skin. For Black men and women, we find a one-standard-deviation increase in skin lightness to be associated with a quarter-year increase in educational attainment. For White women, we find an association approximately equal in magnitude to that found for Black respondents, and the pattern of significance across educational transitions suggests that skin color for White women is not simply a proxy for family background. For White men, any relationship between skin color and attainment is not robust and, analyses suggest, might primarily reflect differences in family background. Findings suggest that discrimination on the basis of skin color may be less specific to race than previously thought.
Interviews were conducted with redheads, and labeling theory is used to analyze their stigmatization in society as well as their perceptions of having red hair. First, using the relativistic stance of labeling theory, red hair is described as a type of deviance. Second, the processes involved in the labeling of redheads are examined, especially in regard to how redheads have personally experienced stereotyping. The stereotypes that redheads perceive to be socially constructed are as follows: hot temper, clownish, weirdness, Irishness, not capable of being in the sun, wild women, wimpy men, and intellectual superiority. Finally, the impact of being negatively labeled and treated in society is considered. Redheads typically receive negative treatment as children, and, as a consequence, redheads experience a lowered self-esteem, feelings of differentness, and a sense of being the center of attention. Nevertheless, redheads typically transform a negative experience into a positive one by learning to appreciate their hair color and how it has shaped their sense of self. In essence, they become an example of tertiary deviants.
This study employed lonely hearts advertisements to investigate the effects of reported physical appearance on interpersonal attraction. The personal advertisements in a local Columbus magazine were coded in terms of the individuals gender, height, weight, hair color, eye color, and evaluative self-description of his or her own appearance. The magazine recorded the number of responses each ad received, and this constituted the dependent measure. Multiple linear regression analyses indicated that more responses were received by women and by individuals providing nonnegative, evaluative self-descriptions than by their counterparts. Also, tall male advertisers and light female advertisers received more responses than their shorter and heavier counterparts. Finally, advertisers with red or salt and pepper hair received more responses than blonde and brunette advertisers. Discussion focused on the relations between these findings and those of past research and on the utility of lonely hearts advertisements in psychological research.
Evidence suggests a disproportionately large percentage of advertisements with Black models possessing features more Caucasian than Negroid. However, psychological ramifications have previously held an almost taboo status among academic researchers as the issue is contentious in nature. This note addresses this issue with the goal of raising awareness and stimulating research into the psychological effects associated with current advertising practices. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Although the marketing literature alludes to the influence of interpersonal attraction in dyadic exchange, the composition of attraction, as well as its relationship to other elements in the exchange process, has not been given adequate attention. Since substantial empirical evidence supports the impact of attraction on a variety of human responses, this article examines how attraction impacts on marketing dyads and presents a model of interpersonal attraction as a framework for empirical testing. The implications of the model are discussed, and suggestions for further research are given.
Testing self-discrepancy theories of body image, this investigation examined self-perceived and idealized physical attributes among 66 men and 69 women, who were white, heterosexual college students. Physical attributes included body size, weight, height, muscularity, hair color and length, eye color, and female breast size. Physical ideals included personal ideals, assumptions about the other sex's ideals for one's own sex, and actual other-sex ideals. Both sexes expressed significant self-ideal discrepancies on most attributes, whether ideals were assessed from personal or perceived other-sex standpoints. The sexes' discrepancies were often comparable in magnitude if the direction of discrepancy was ignored. Both sexes frequently exaggerated their assumptions of what the other sex idealized in the subjects' own sex. Particular self-ideal discrepancies predicted subjects' global body image. The applied and empirical implications of these findings were considered for both social and clinical contexts.
This chapter discusses physical attractiveness in social interactions. Physical attractiveness is, in many ways, a homely variable. The physical attractiveness variable is unpretentious for at least two reasons. First, it is unlikely that it will be found to be orthogonal to other dimensions, primarily intelligence, socioeconomic status, and perhaps genetically determined behavioral predispositions associated with morphological characteristics. Second, it seems highly unlikely that physical attractiveness will ever form the core concept of a psychological theory, even a much needed social perceptual theory, which will illuminate the way to useful and interesting predictions about social relationships. The chapter focuses on recent social psychological evidence, which suggests that even esthetic attractiveness may be a useful dimension for understanding certain social phenomena, and, perhaps, for illuminating some personality and developmental puzzles as well. Perception of the physical attractiveness level of another appears to be influenceable by the affective and experiential relationship between the evaluator and the person whose physical attractiveness level is to be judged, as well as by factors unique to the evaluator and the setting in which evaluations are made, although none of these factors have been the subject of much study. The impact of physical attractiveness upon the individual has been highlighted in the chapter.
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This study was designed to examine and compare campus values in mate selection from 1939 to 1967. A replication of previous research done in 1939 by Hill and in 1956 by McGinnis was undertaken in 1967 by sending a questionnaire concerned with factors in mate selection to a random sample of students on four college campuses. From the findings it was concluded that the current college population has not departed significantly from values in mate selection held a generation ago. In fact, responses indicate a remarkable degree of consistency between the values voiced by the two generations.
The increasing extent of interracial marriage between three racial groups, White, Negro, and Other Races, and the variations from state to state, is examined by using sample marriage record data from the U.S. Marriage Registration Area for the years 1963-1970. The differential proclivity of males and females towards interracial marrage is established for the three racial groups. Although marriage records have deficiencies, they are nevertheless the most relevant source of data upon interracial unions. Unfortunately the social usefulness of such data is being greatly undermined by moves to delete the racial item from the marriage records in many states.
Preferences of 482 Caucasian female college students for males' beardedness were investigated through a questionnaire. Observed low levels of liking for beardedness contrast markedly with earlier research on other college populations. The influence of region and rurality on political and social conservatism was discussed as a possible explanation for variation among studies of reaction to male beardedness.
A reflectance spectrophotometer was used to record the skin color on the inner side of the upper arm on a series of 421 Japanese students of both sexes aged 15 through 19. All geographic regions in the country, and the upper, middle and lower socioeconomic classes were represented. It was found that, as among most peoples previously studied, males are darker than females. Boys from northern Japan are, on average, a bit lighter than are those from the southwest, but there are no geographically based differences among the girls. In both sexes and all areas, the mean reflectance values of the upper class group are higher than in the middle and lower class groups, but the difference is most pronounced among the males. It is therefore concluded that social selection for light skin color has had some genetic effect.
A pair comparison design was used to gather information concerning female preferences for male physiques. By independently varying the size of one of four body areas (the arms, upper trunk, lower trunk, or legs), 19 male silhouettes were constructed. Thurstone scale values indicating relative preferences among these silhouettes were generated for each of 64 female subjects. Correlations were calculated between subject variables, e.g., own physical appearance, personal habits, male and female sex-role attitudes, etc., and the underlying preference factors for male physiques. While the bulk of the significant correlations were low, accounting for approximately 5–10% of the variance, the general trend of the results suggest that women's preferences for male physiques can be summarized in terms of feminine and masculine sex-role stereotypes. Women who are traditionally feminine show a preference for traditionally masculine physiques, i.e., tapering V physiques, while less traditional women express more nonstereotyped preferences. It is also suggested that a female's preferences for male physiques may serve as an initial delimiter in narrowing the field of eligibles in heterosexual pairing.
Facial recognition ability was studied with 288 children from 4 grades--first, second, third, and sixth--who also varied by sex race, and school type, the last being segregated or integrated. Children judged whether each of 40 pictures of children's faces had been present in a set of 20 pictures viewed earlier. Facial recognition ability increased significantly with each grade but leveled off between ages 8 and 11. Blacks' performance is significantly better than whites', and blacks are better at recognizing faces of whites than whites are at recognizing blacks. Children from an integrated school show smaller differences recognizing black or white faces than children from segregated schools, but the effect appears only for children of the integrated school who also live in mixed-race neighborhoods.
It is widely believed that breasts, buttocks, and legs are important determinants of feminine attractiveness and that the emphasis men place upon these body parts typifies their heterosexual orientation and implicates certain personality characteristics. 95 male undergraduates made paired-comparison preference ratings of nude female silhouettes which varied in the 3 body parts. Personality and background data were collected in a separate session. For each S, Thurstone scale values were obtained for the nude silhouettes. The outside correlates of stimulus preference indicated that large breast preference was associated with a "Playboy" image; preference for large buttocks was related to an "anal character" syndrome; and preference for large legs and small legs was characterized by social inhibition and participation, respectively. (15 ref.)
The present study examined the hypothesis that a bearded man would be perceived less favorably than a non bearded man. Beardedness, sex, and geographic information (West Coast vs local vs no information) were varied in a 2 X 2 X 3 factorial design. Results did not support the hypothesis and indicated that the bearded man was perceived more favorably than his nonbearded counterpart on 7 of 27 adjective dimensions and less favorably on one. Subjects' written impressions were consistent with these results and showed a marked willingness to describe the other person in great detail. Results were discussed within the framework of the stereotype literature.
-The study was designed to investigate the connotative meanings of color signs and corresponding color significates among young adult Ss. Semantic differential ratings of 10 color names and 10 corresponding color hues revealed highly similar meanings along Evaluation, Potency, and Activity dimensions. It was concluded that color names and hues are virtually equivalent in terms of the connotative meanings which they evoke. In The Measurement of Meaning, Osgood, Suci, and Tannenbaum ( 1957) employ the term sigrtificdte to refer to a stimulus which reliably produces a predictable pattern of behavior and the term sign to designate another stimulus which evokes some fractional part of the same behavior due to the previous association of the two stimuli. A problem of interest regarding any given sign and significate is the degree of correspondence found in the behavioral response to the two stimuli. In an earlier investigation (Williams, 1964)Vt was delnonstrated chat 10 common color names differed markedly in connotative meanings as assessed by the semantic differential. Differences were found along all three meaning dimensions (evaluation, potency, and activity), with the meanings being quite stable across both regional and racial lines (e.g., the word white was found to be "good," "active," and "weak;" the word black was found to be "bad," "passive," and "strong;" the word red to be "good," "active," and "strong," etc.). Considering color names as signs, one can inquire as to what degree these distinctive connotative meanings are also characteristic of the related significates, i.e., the color hues themselves. A careful exploration of the relation of color names to color hues would be a complex and laborious task, due to the many variations in hue which can occur within any of the customary color groups, e.g., the number of different greens which would have to be considered. The study to be reported here was intended to provide a first approximation to the degree of relationship between sign and significate in the area of color meanings by comparing single "representative" color hues to the corresponding color names. Specifically, it was predicted that
Language custom designates racial groups by the color names white, black, red, yellow, and brown, a practice which may condition the connotative meanings of color names to concepts representing racial groups. This study compared the connotative meanings of triads of color-linked concepts consisting of: color names (e.g., black), color-person concepts (e.g., black person), and ethnic concepts (e.g., Negro). For Caucasian Ss from both South and Midwest, color-linked concepts were substantially more similar in meaning than were non-color-linked concepts. The evaluative (good-bad) connotations of ethnic concepts were predictable from their associated color names. Different results were obtained for Negro Ss. The findings were interpreted as indicating that the color-coding of racial groups is related to the perception of these groups and the favorability of attitudes toward them.
This investigation combines two approaches usually pursued separately: the study of stereotypes and the study of national character. Using survey interview data on ethnic groups under the impact of social change, an attempt is made to validate two popular stereotypes, to learn where and why they fall short of accuracy, and to use the stereotypes as a heuristic device for gaining insight into changes in ethnic character.
The purpose of this study was to ascertain possible relationships between somatic preference (preference for either large- or small-breasted females) and dependency as measured by the TAT. After writing stories to seven of the TAT cards, 169 male subjects were presented with 20 pairs of slides; 10 pairs consisted of a small-breasted and a large-breasted female, previously equated on attractiveness. On the basis of the subjects' selections, large breast preference, small breast preference, and no preference groups were elicited. The small breast preference group gave significantly more TAT dependency themes than either of the other two groups. Speculations for this result, which is contrary to a widely held Freudian hypothesis, are offered on the basis of a reinforcement theory of learning.
The survival value of the beard
- D Freedman
FREEDMAN, D. The survival value of the beard. Psychol. Today, 1969, 3(10), 36-39.