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White-tailed eagle (haliaeetus albicilla) in Lithuania: population numbers and trends 1900-2007
Abstract
According to literature sources, the White-tailed Eagle was a common bird in Lithuania in the middle of the 19 century; however, the species became rare and ceased to breed in the first half of the 20 century. Today, the White-tailed Eagle is listed in the Red Data Book of Lithuania, category 3 (R). Estimation of species abundance is based on literature published sources (1900-2002) and field work data (2003-2007). The first breeding pairs of the White-tailed Eagle were noticed in different parts of Lithuania in 1987. During the field work period, I checked all White-tailed Eagle breeding territories recorded in Lithuania in 1987-2002 and identified 41 breeding pairs. White-tailed Eagle population abundance increased twofold in 1993-2002. In the period 2003-2007, 24 new breeding territories were recorded and adult eagles were noticed in 25 places during the breeding period, but their nests were not found. Throughout the recent 5-year period, the number of breeding territories registered increased by 50%. The reasons for such increase could be related with better investigation of the species and formation of new pairs. The present White-tailed Eagle population consists of about 90 territorial pairs. I assume that White-tailed Eagles were breeding in Lithuania in the beginning and middle of the 20 century, but their numbers significantly declined like all over Europe, and only in the 1990s the White-tailed Eagle population began to increase distinctly.
... Moreover, natural population recovery in this species following Europe-wide DDT suppression (Helander and Stjernberg 2003;Stjernberg et al. 2005) offer the possibility to assume the free movement of individuals between sites is less affected and individuals can choose habitat patches according to quality. In Lithuania, Central Europe, the white-tailed eagle was considered a common breeder in the mid-nineteenth century, but heavy reduction and subsequent extinction occurred in the mid-twentieth century (Dementavičius 2007). ...
... We searched for occupied white-tailed eagle nesting territories (term according to Oehme 2003) in the period 1995-2011 in Lithuania (65,200 km 2 , central coordinate 55°10 0 N, 23°39 0 E). White-tailed eagles prey mainly on fish and waterfowl (Cramp and Simmons 1980), thus surveys were conducted in areas supporting different types of water bodies and wetlands using methods described in detail elsewhere (Dementavičius 2007). Search efforts were similar regardless of the many differing types of water bodies and wetlands. ...
... Second, winter-feeding during conservation projects essentially contributed to increased survival among yearlings and sub-adult birds (Stjernberg et al. 2005). The initial and subsequent sharp increase of Lithuanian breeding white-tailed eagle population may be attributed to immigrant settlers, just as in other recovered populations (e.g., Literák et al. 2007), as no evidence of breeding white-tailed eagles in Lithuania was found since the middle of the twentieth century, and starting from the 1970s, only solitary or small groups of immature birds were observed regularly (Dementavičius 2007). Later, birds of local origin complemented the breeding population (observation of ringed birds; D. Dementavičius unpublished data) as white-tailed eagles do not usually settle far from the natal area after maturation (Struwe-Juhl and Grünkorn 2007; Bȇlka and Horal 2009). ...
The recovering population of white-tailed eagles Haliaeetus albicilla was studied in Lithuania, Central Europe. In the present study, we focused on (1) clarifying which theoretical distribution model better fits and describes the observed pattern of eagle settlement, (2) examining habitat preference at the level of nesting territory and its relationship with reproduction, (3) ascertaining the genetic diversity profile of the population using D-loop mtDNA. Between 1985 and 2011, the white-tailed eagle population recovered from 0 to 120 pairs and by the end of the period occupied a range of 34,000 km2. As indicated by a mean annual breeding success of 0.67, productivity 1.15, and brood size 1.73, the population reproduced well. The pattern of habitat settlement during the period of population expansion was not random as high-quality habitats were occupied first. Supporting the ideal free distribution model, reproduction was similar across nesting territories in three different habitat types, as well as between territories established in different years. The eagles preferred aquatic habitats, but these preferences were not adaptive in terms of breeding performance. Increased brood failures in later years possibly indicated the growing effect of density-dependent regulation. In total, six different haplotypes were identified in the sample of 45 individual birds. Haplotype diversity was 0.711. Phylogenetically, the Lithuanian population is most closely related to the populations of Sweden, Poland, and Germany, while similarity with Lapland, Kola, and Estonian populations was evident too. These findings indicate possible source populations directly or indirectly participating in the process of recovery of the formerly extinct Lithuanian population. Haplotypes distribution across the three habitat types in Lithuania was uneven.
... However, there are no recent studies on the extent of Sea Eagle nest-site attendance activity outside the breeding period. Due to a dramatic population decline in Europe, most recent studies deal with the population state and feeding ecology of the species (Sulkava et al. 1997;Stjernberg et al. 2005;Dementavičius 2004Dementavičius , 2007Ivanov 2007;Zawadzka et al. 2006;Struwe-Juhl 1996;Gavrilyuk & Grishchenko 2003;Helander 2003;Selva et al. 2005;Hauff & Mizera 2006). Contemporary nesting-related studies are rare and focus mainly on nest-tree and nestsite characteristics (Shiraki 1994;Wollscheid 2001;Horvath & Pinter 2005;Zawadzka et al. 2006) or nestsite selection in relation to anthropogenic activity and its consequences for the breeding output (Folkestad 2003;Wallgren 2003;Rosenvald & Lõhmus 2003). ...
... It is known that Aquila eagles during the season can attend other nest-sites a large distance away from their own territories (Meyburg et al. 2007). However, having in mind a strong territoriality (Struwe-Juhl 2000) and a relatively low breeding density (Zawadzka et al. 2006;Dementavičius 2007) of Sea Eagles we assumed that the checked nest-sites were attended by territory holders. Individual plumage characteristics of territory holders of adult birds (see Forsman 1999), were also taken into account. ...
... The frequency of nest-site attendance in three out of four investigation years was almost identical and only in 2005/2006 it was significantly lower. The reasons for this are not clear, but in 2005 the breeding success was highest over the investigation period (Dementavičius et al. 2007). The weak bonds of adult eagles with their nest-sites can be related to the beginning of the offspring independence period, when adults switch the investment effort from offspring to their own body resources at a certain time in autumn (Nygård et al. 2003). ...
The territorial pairs of White-tailed Sea Eagle are mainly sedentary and highly faithful to breeding territories and nest-sites. Due to a dramatic population decrease, many recent studies deal with the population status and habitat requirements of the species, but contemporary data on the nest-site attendance activity of the recovered population outside the breeding season are scarce. In the present study, we analysed the bonds of resident adult Sea Eagles with their nest-sites outside the breeding season (20 September – 20 February). We found that Sea Eagles actively attend their nest-sites during the non-breeding season, however, nest-site attendance varied between months, but not between years. Besides, almost half of the checked pairs repaired old or built new nests long before incubation, during September–December. We discuss the obtained results in the light of nest-site protection from forestry-related disturbance and propose to extend the protection of Sea Eagle nest-sites from above mentioned disturbance both during the breeding and non-breeding season.
... Following a continued population increase across Europe during 1990-2000, the European breeding population currently comprises 5,000-6,600 pairs (BirdLife International 2004). The first breeding pairs in Lithuania were found in 1987, and latest figures suggest the breeding population to be ∼90 pairs (Dementavičius 2007). White-tailed Eagles prey mainly on fish and waterfowl (Cramp and Simmons 1980), but is known to kill other raptors (Dementavičius 2004;Helander 1983;Mikkola 1983). ...
... The study was carried out over the period 1997-2008 in Lithuania (65,200 km 2 , 55°10′N, 23°39′E). We searched for occupied territories and nest trees for the four bird species in various parts of the country ( Fig. 1) using methods described in detail elsewhere (Dementavičius 2007;Treinys et al. 2008). The nest search efforts for each species were not intentionally concentrated around nest sites of whatever other species or within potential habitat of particular species to avoid bias in habitat preference. ...
... 2. It is thought that habitat selection and segregation in raptor communities could be shaped by interspecific competition avoidance mechanism (Kostrzewa 1996;Krüger 2002a). Though solitary pairs probably bred, White-tailed Eagle was essentially absent as a breeding species in Lithuania for almost 50 years (Dementavičius 2007), a situation contrary to that of Lesser Spotted Eagle, Black Stork, and Osprey. The present distribution of White-tailed Eagle across the country has a clumped pattern with the lowest densities occurring in northern and central Lithuania (Dementavičius 2007), regions that also hold the highest densities of Lesser Spotted Eagle and Black Stork (Kurlavičius 2006). ...
The processes of competition and predation determine the degree to which species can coexist; the importance of competition
in particular has been emphasized at high trophic levels. Competition exclusion will occur when habitat overlap between sympatric
species is high. In this study, we investigated nesting habitat overlap between internationally protected diurnal tree-nesting
avian predators of central Europe, namely, White-tailed Eagle (Haliaeetus albicilla), Lesser Spotted Eagle (Aquila pomarina), Black Stork (Ciconia nigra), and Osprey (Pandion haliaetus). We found significantly different nesting habitats among the study species and suggest that this could be a consequence
of the resource-based segregation, but not a consequence of asymmetrical interspecific competition. The results also show
that habitat of the recovering populations of White-tailed Eagle overlapped with the habitat used by the Lesser Spotted Eagle,
Black Stork, and Osprey to varying extents with a niche overlap values being below the competition exclusion threshold. Nevertheless,
we suggest that competition by White-tailed Eagle at a population level may limit Osprey, though not Lesser Spotted Eagle
or Black Stork.
... The most important waterbodies are the Nemunas River, its tributaries, two large water reservoirs and several fishpond systems, mainly for carp production. After the local extinction of White-tailed Eagles, the first pairs reappeared in the coastal area in the mid-1980s, while in the inland area they arrived in the mid-1990s (Dementavičius 2007, Kamarauskaitė et al. 2020). Since then, their known nesting territories have been monitored, and observations have been made of their behaviour (hunting, territoriality and food delivery), alongside which searches for the new nests of both known and new pairs have been carried out (the field procedure is described in Treinys et al. 2016, Dementavičius et al. 2019). ...
... The nestlings with the best body condition were raised around the Curonian Lagoon, while the poorest were raised in natural inland habitats. This corresponds to the sequential habitat settlement suggested for the Lithuanian White-tailed Eagle population since its recovery in the mid-1980s, when the first pairs settled to breed in the food-abundant areas close to the Curonian Lagoon and the fishponds, only later spreading into habitats characterized by natural waterbodies inland (Dementavičius 2007, Treinys et al. 2016. The Curonian Lagoon is a shallow waterbody (mean depth 3.8 m), characterized by large amounts of fish (Zolubas et al. 2014) and birds during the spring and summer months (Morkūnė et al. 2020). ...
Capsule
We found no evidence of decreased reproductive performance of the White-tailed Eagle Haliaeetus albicilla, despite ongoing population increases in an environment characterized by different types of utilized habitats.
Aim
To characterize temporal and spatial variations in several components of breeding performance in an increasing White-tailed Eagle population.
Methods
The breeding performance and number of pairs located in the region east of the Baltic Sea was monitored between 2005 and 2020. We analysed the trends in the numbers of pairs and several reproduction parameters for 16 years, and compared variation in breeding performance in four different habitats through application of generalized linear (mixed) models.
Results
The number of White-tailed Eagle pairs increased three-fold locally between 2005 and 2020, but we found no evidence for a deterioration in breeding performance parameters (nesting success, brood size, proportion of females among nestlings, body condition of nestlings). The probability of successful nesting, nestling sex and number of nestlings in a brood were found to be similar between pairs associated with different habitats, ranging from coastal lagoons to natural waterbodies within an inland landscape. The body condition of the nestlings, however, was habitat-dependent, with the best body condition evident in nestlings reared near the Curonian Lagoon.
Conclusion
Results indicate that the abundance of this predator population will continue to grow in the region east of the Baltic Sea.
... L'adulte chanteur de St-Prex VD n'a pas émis le cri prolongé bien connu de l'espèce mais de petits gloussements s'apparentant plutôt à une marque d'inquiétude due à l'approche du bateau des observateurs. tions (1981-2007LIGER et al. 2008). Le déséquilibre observé en France s'explique par le fait qu'une partie des Busards pâles effectue une migration en boucle (migration printanière par l'ouest et migration automnale par l'est). ...
... Nouveau site de reproduction possible de l'espèce. Les dernières mentions de chanteurs datent de 2001, 2006et 2007au Neeracherried ZH (MAUMARY et al. 2007SCHWEIZER & VALLOTTON 2007 ;VALLOTTON & PIOT 2008). Chevalier aboyeur Tringa nebularia (décembre à février) VD -Chablais de Cudrefin, 3 et 8-9 décembre, phot. ...
In 2009 the Swiss Rarities Committee examined 279 reports of a total of 98 species, 201 (72 %) of which were accepted and 38 of which refer to past years. New for Switzerland in 2009 was a Semi-collared Flycatcher Ficedula semitorquata, with the exceptional record of a singing male in the canton of Vaud. Other remarkable observations in 2009 include an adult Lesser Crested Tern Sterna bengalensis (4th record), a Common Redpoll Carduelis flammea (5th record, and first of a live bird), the 6th and 7th Black-shouldered Kites Elanus caeruleus, the 12th Richard's Pipit Anthus richardi, the 14th Yellow-browed Warbler Phylloscopus inornatus as well as the 6th record of a Pallid Swift Apus pallidus outside the breeding area of Ticino (a bird that stayed for more than a month and a half in the canton of Berne). A Baillon's Crake Porzana pusilla was singing at a new site. The year 2009 saw a record number of Red-rumped Swallows Hirundo daurica (9 birds) as well as relatively numerous European Rollers Coracias garrulus (5 birds), Citrine Wagtails Motacilla citreola (8) and Arctic Terns Sterna paradisaea (7). During winter 2008/09, which was a little colder than average, 6 Roughlegs Buteo lagopus were seen, and 5 Snow Buntings Plectrophenax nivalis appeared during November and December 2009. Good numbers of Short-toed Snake Eagles Circaetus gallicus were recorded outside the canton of Valais, with 15 observations of 16 individuals. Finally, a complement from 2008 is to be mentioned here, as it concerns the 3rd observation of a Macqueen's Bustard Chlamydotis macqueenii, though its wild origin still remains doubtful. The new recommendations of the European taxonomic committee (AERC TAC) were accepted by the Swiss Rarities Committee and will be applied from the beginning of 2011. At the end of 2009, the Swiss list comprised 399 species in categories A, B (birds of wild origin) and C (introduced species), 391 of which have been recorded since 1900. Nine species of uncertain origin remain in category D (doubtful origin). In the text, the three figures after the French and scientific names refer to the number of records/individuals, 1900-1991, 1992-2008 and in 2009, respectively. The species are listed systematically, and within species records are listed in alphabetic order of cantons and by date. Detailed information is given as follows: location, date(s), number of individuals (one individual if not specified), age and sex if known, available documen tation (photographs, video, skins) and in brackets the name(s) of the observer(s).
... Aus den Sudeten wurden nur zwei Paare gemeldet, doch ist dies sicherlich eine Unterschätzung, da 2005 allein im Izerskie-Gebirge drei Brutpaare festgestellt wurden (Bobrowicz et al. 2007). Besonders häufig ist der Kranich im Barycz-Tal (2004-2007 Paare, nach nur ca. 15 Paaren in den 1950er Jahren), in Zu Beginn des 21. Jahrhunderts wurde der gesamte Brutbestand Polens auf 10.000-12.000 ...
... ca. 90 Paare (2007 anzuwachsen(Dementavičius 2007). Über ähnliche Entwicklungen wird ausLettland (1991 5-8 Paare, 2007 Paare) und der russischen RegionKaliningrad (1991 1-4 Paare, 2007 Paare) berichtet(Hauff et al. 2007).Auch der Schwarzstorch hat in Teilen des östlichen Mitteleuropa in den letzten beiden Jahrzehnten stark zugenommen, um 30-49 % in der Tschechischen Republik und 20-29 % in der Slowakei, mit ca. ...
... L'adulte chanteur de St-Prex VD n'a pas émis le cri prolongé bien connu de l'espèce mais de petits gloussements s'apparentant plutôt à une marque d'inquiétude due à l'approche du bateau des observateurs. tions (1981-2007LIGER et al. 2008). Le déséquilibre observé en France s'explique par le fait qu'une partie des Busards pâles effectue une migration en boucle (migration printanière par l'ouest et migration automnale par l'est). ...
... Nouveau site de reproduction possible de l'espèce. Les dernières mentions de chanteurs datent de 2001, 2006et 2007au Neeracherried ZH (MAUMARY et al. 2007SCHWEIZER & VALLOTTON 2007 ;VALLOTTON & PIOT 2008). Chevalier aboyeur Tringa nebularia (décembre à février) VD -Chablais de Cudrefin, 3 et 8-9 décembre, phot. ...
Le Gobemouche à demi-collier vient s'ajouter à la liste des oiseaux de Suisse, avec l'observation exceptionnelle d'un mâle chanteur. Parmi les autres mentions remarquables de 2009, citons une Sterne voya-geuse (4 e observation), un Sizerin flammé (5 e et 1 re d'un oiseau vivant), les 6 e et 7 e Elanions blancs, le 12 e Pipit de Richard, le 14 e Pouillot à grands sourcils, ainsi que la 6 e mention d'un Martinet pâle en dehors du Tessin. Une Marouette de Baillon a chanté dans un nouveau site. L'année 2009 a aussi été marquée par un afflux record d'Hirondelles rousselines (9 ind.) de même que par des données relativement abon-dantes de Rolliers d'Europe (5 ind.), Bergeronnettes citrines (8 ind.) et Sternes arctiques (7 ind.). L'hiver 2008-2009, qui a été un peu plus froid que la moyenne, a vu un afflux de Buses pattues (6 ind.) et des Bruants des neiges (5 ind.) sont apparus en novembre-décembre 2009. La mois-son d'observations a aussi été bonne pour le Circaète Jean-le-Blanc. A relever également un complément issu de l'année 2008 concernant la 3 e mention helvétique d'une Outarde de Macqueen, dont l'origine sauvage reste toutefois douteuse.
... The White-tailed eagle, Haliaeetus albicilla, has recovered in Europe in many countries [1,2]. Locally, its numbers increased threefold in the beginning of the XXI century and are still growing [3]. ...
The White-tailed eagle, an apex predator, is currently recovering its populations across
Europe and has already reached high numbers in many countries. This led to the saturation of eagles
in optimal habitats and their encroachment on suboptimal ones. We aimed to compare the diet of
White-tailed eagles in optimal and suboptimal conditions in northeastern Poland to investigate how
population development affected prey composition, which is expected to be lacking in suboptimal
eagle territories. We have monitored eagle nests with trail cameras to investigate their diet objectively
and precisely. In order to compare territories of different quality, we have conducted modeling of
habitat suitability using data on nest locations prior to their saturation. Using recorded photos of
the prey, we measured their size and estimated their weight to check if the size and biomass of the
prey are comparable between optimal and suboptimal territories. We found that eagles in the latter
conditions were not limited by prey biomass but turned to alternative prey and brought larger prey.
The alternative prey were large birds such as White storks and Common cranes, but also chicks of
other avian predators that were robbed from their nests. Most probably, eagles cope with a lack of
optimal prey by ranging farther and exploring non-optimal foraging habitats. We conclude that the
diet flexibility of White-tailed eagle enables him to still increase its numbers despite already high
densities. Our study also shows that this species might possibly impact the White stork population,
as seen in the case of the Black stork and some seabird species.
... A search for White-tailed Eagle nesting territories was conducted in coastal and inland areas of Lithuania, located in Eastern Europe (Figure 1), with observations being made of White-tailed Eagle behaviour (hunting, territoriality, food delivery), followed by searching for new, or monitoring already known, nest sites (field procedure previously described in more detail in Dementavičius 2007, Treinys et al. 2016, Dementavičius et al. 2019. Prey and their remains found in the nests were collected once per season during the ringing of nestlings in May-June between 1997 and 2018. ...
Capsule: Despite its population increase, the White-tailed Eagle Haliaeetus albicilla has not become food-limited, and does not pose a serious threat to birds of conservation concern in the region east of the Baltic Sea.
Aims: We aimed to test variations in the main prey groups and dietary niche breadth of White-tailed Eagles through the years and along an environmental gradient as well as to evaluate the extent of predation on bird species of conservation concern.
Methods: Prey remains were collected during nestling ringing from successful nests located in Lithuania.
Results: The frequency of the prey groups varied along an environmental gradient, with a general pattern of increasing avian prey consumed by pairs breeding in areas with less abundant aquatic habitats. The frequency of alternative prey (i.e. terrestrial birds, mammals) and dietary niche breadth did not increase between 2005 and 2018 and during which time the White-tailed Eagle population nearly doubled. Instead, the occurrence of Northern Pike Esox lucius remains, which was the most frequent single prey species, increased throughout the study period. Bird species of conservation concern constituted only a small fraction of all the prey identified.
Conclusions: The White-tailed Eagle has not become more dependent on alternative prey despite its population increase.
... The Odra lagoon area, for example, has been known as one of the last density centres during the fi rst half of the 20th century (Mizera 2002), and currently still shows the highest density of breeding pairs in Central Europe (Hauff et al. 2007). In Lithuania, a concentration of breeding sites in the Nemunas delta and around the Curonian Lagoon is obvious (Dementavičius 2007). In Sweden also, the major part of the population is found along the coast (Tjernberg & Svensson 2007). ...
In 2009 the Swiss Rarities Committee examined 279 reports of a total of 98 species, 201 (72 %) of which were accepted and 38 of which refer to past years. New for Switzerland in 2009 was a Semi-collared Flycatcher Ficedula semitorquata, with the exceptional record of a singing male in the canton of Vaud. Other remarkable observations in 2009 include an adult Lesser Crested Tern Sterna bengalensis (4th record), a Common Redpoll Carduelis flammea (5th record, and first of a live bird), the 6th and 7th Black-shouldered Kites Elanus caeruleus, the 12th Richard’s Pipit Anthus richardi, the 14th Yellow-browed Warbler Phylloscopus inornatus as well as the 6th record of a Pallid Swift Apus pallidus outside the breeding area of Ticino (a bird that stayed for more than a month and a half in the canton of Berne). A Baillon’s Crake Porzana pusilla was singing at a new site. The year 2009 saw a record number of Red-rumped Swallows Hirundo daurica (9 birds) as well as relatively numerous European Rollers Coracias garrulus (5 birds), Citrine Wagtails Motacilla citreola (8) and Arctic Terns Sterna paradisaea (7). During winter 2008 / 09, which was a little colder than average, 6 Roughlegs Buteo lagopus were seen, and 5 Snow Buntings Plectrophenax nivalis appeared during November and December 2009. Good numbers of Short-toed Snake Eagles Circaetus gallicus were recorded outside the canton of Valais, with 15 observations of 16 individuals. Finally, a complement from 2008 is to be mentioned here, as it concerns the 3rd observa-tion of a Macqueen’s Bustard Chlamydotis macqueenii, though its wild origin still remains doubtful. The new recommendations of the European taxonomic committee (AERC TAC) were accepted by the Swiss Rarities Committee and will be applied from the beginning of 2011. At the end of 2009, the Swiss list comprised 399 species in categories A, B (birds of wild origin) and C (introduced species), 391 of which have been recorded since 1900. Nine species of uncertain origin remain in category D (doubtful origin).
At present the White-tailed Sea Eagle is one of the endangered species of the Caucasian avifauna. A great number of works in the ornithological literature of the 19th to early 20th centuries affirm that the species was common and widespread at that time throughout the region, occurring all along the coasts of the Black and Caspian Seas, on large lakes, marshes and rivers. Hie total number was unknown, but we can presume that in Transcaucasus between 1900 and the 1920s it could be estimated at perhaps several hundred pairs (see Map 1). The decline of the White-tailed Sea Eagle's Transcaucasian populations has been marked everywhere in the region since the 1930s. This process is typical also for other European populations. The coastal population decreased between 1930 and the 1950s, the inland population from 1940 to the 1960s. The main causes of their decline and extinction in the region at that time were: -habitat loss (reduction of flood-lands and forested areas); -disappearance of nest trees; -direct extermination by man; -drainage and reclamation of lakes, marshes and swamps; -management of rivers; -lack of food, mostly in winter (carrion); -increased mortality due to death in traps near animal carcasses and from poisoned baits; -human exploitation of the environment. After the 1950s the main causes of decline became habitat loss (creation of reservoirs), human persecution (1950-70s), pesticides (1950-75) and recreational pressure (since the 1960s).
During the long-term research on White-tailed Eagles (Haliaeetus albicilla) conducted in the continental part of Lithuania since 1995, live Common Buzzard's (Buteo buteo) nestlings were found in nests of two pairs of eagles in 2002. On the one hand, this could have been atypical feeding behaviour of eagles: adult birds used to bring buzzard.s nestlings to their nests, keep them alive there and feed them up to their own nestlings later. On the other hand, this could have been breeding parasitism of Common Buzzard on White-tailed Eagle.
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