Content uploaded by Anthony Papa
Author content
All content in this area was uploaded by Anthony Papa on Aug 06, 2014
Content may be subject to copyright.
The Role of Loss in the Experience
of Grief: The Case of Job Loss
ANTHONY PAPA
Department of Psychology, University of Nevada, Reno, Nevada, USA
ROBYN MAITOZA
Interdisciplinary Program in Social Psychology,
University of Nevada, Reno, Nevada, USA
Grief has mainly been studied in the context of bereavement. This
research has long suggested that loss-related disruption may be
contingent upon the extent that loss has impacted individuals’ sense
of self. This article examines theassociationoflossofanother
important identity marker, one’s employment, and the experience
of grief symptoms. Results support the discriminant validity of grief
from depression and anxiety symptoms, the role of the self in
moderating the effect of job loss on the experience of grief, and the role
of avoidance as a potential link between the self and grief symptoms.
KEYWORDS avoidance, job loss, just-world beliefs, prolonged
grief, self-esteem
The vast majority of the research on grieving has focused upon
post-bereavement reactions. This research suggests that bereavement-related
disruption is related to the impact of loss of a loved one on individuals’ sense
of self-esteem and identity continuity. However, if grief reactions are a
response of disrupted sense of self, then other types of personally relevant
losses may also be associated with the experience of grief. In this article,
we examine whether a common type of loss associated with economic
recession, job loss, is related to the experience of grief symptoms, and
whether self-esteem and worldviews influence this relationship and account
for a key symptom in pathological grief responses, avoidant coping.
Received 28 September 2011; accepted 13 January 2012.
Address correspondence to Anthony Papa, University of Nevada, Reno, Department of
Psychology=298, Reno, NV 89557, USA. E-mail: apapa@unr.edu
Journal of Loss and Trauma, 18:152–169, 2013
Copyright #Taylor & Francis Group, LLC
ISSN: 1532-5024 print=1532-5032 online
DOI: 10.1080/15325024.2012.684580
152
Downloaded by [University of Nevada - Reno] at 15:32 01 July 2013
DOES GRIEF OCCUR IN NON-BEREAVEMENT LOSS?
Attachment theory posits that there is something unique about the loss of an
attachment figure that is fundamental to the experience of grief. However,
loss of attachment figures entails more than the disruption of attachment-
based regulatory systems, but also basic aspects of living such as daily
rhythms and diurnal sleep patterns (e.g., Brown et al., 1996), as well as loss
of the means to meaningfully engage one’s environment; that is,
‘‘disturbance in the pattern of daily activities could occur with bereavement
because of loss of cues and=or entraining behaviors provided by an attach-
ment figure’’ (Shear & Shair, 2005, pp. 259–260). Extending this, Harvey
and Miller (1998) have proposed that grief could result from any event that
causes chronic disruption in meaningful engagement with the environment.
They posit that this occurs when the event is perceived as both negative
and to cause broad, long-term changes in one’s social environment as well
as schemas related to self-worth and=or worldview (i.e., Hogan, Greenfield,
& Schmidt, 2001; Horowitz, 1990). Indeed, a number of studies in the bereave-
ment literature have linked the intensity of grief response to levels of
disruptions of individuals’ day-to-day life and access to regular, rewarding=
meaningful activities and interactions, reflected in loss of self-image, esteem,
and=or efficacy (e.g., Brown et al., 1996; Schulz, Boerner, Shear, Zhang, &
Gitlain, 2006), further suggesting that other losses essential for a sense of stab-
ility or continuity in one’s life may contribute to the experience of grief (i.e.,
Carlson, Johnston, Liiceanu, Vintila, & Harvey, 2000; Hobdy et al., 2007).
DO PEOPLE GRIEVE AFTER LOSING A JOB?
Loss of employment may entail multiple cascading losses. These include loss of
income, financial security, social status, role in the family, and access to other
potential reinforcements associated with employment, such as daily social con-
tact and maintenance of a daily routine. Unsurprisingly, research indicates that
job loss undermines well-being. Echoing Harvey and Miller’s proposed mechan-
isms linking loss to grief, McKee-Ryan, Song, Wanberg, and Kinicki (2005) found
in a meta-analysis of 104 studies that job loss was related to significant decreases
across multiple indices of well-being, andthesedecreaseswerehighlyrelatedto
work-role centrality (the extent to which work provides more or less meaning to
one’s life) and loss of self-image, esteem, and=or efficacy (e.g., Creed, Lehmann,
&Hood,2009).Similarly,researchsuggests that adjustment to retirement
appears to be contingent upon continuedengagementinrewarding,meaning-
ful, goal-directed activities that provide the experience of a continuous sense of
agency and worth after the event (e.g., van Solinge & Henkens, 2008).
Most researchers have looked at the impact of job loss on factors such as
life satisfaction and depression, with very few studies looking at specific
Job Loss and Grief 153
Downloaded by [University of Nevada - Reno] at 15:32 01 July 2013
symptoms of grief. Those few cases that examined grief symptoms have
tended to rely upon non-standardized grief assessments, such as simply
asking if the participant was experiencing feelings of grief (e.g., Wittmann
et al., 2010), or non-grief-specific measures, such as the Impact of Events
Scale (e.g., Davis & Schultz, 1998). There are two exceptions. Brewington,
Nassar-McMillan, Flowers, and Furr (2004) found that scores on the Grief
Experience Inventory, Loss Version, subscales (Sanders, Mauger, & Strong,
1985) measuring despair, anger-hostility, guilt, social isolation, loss of control,
rumination, depersonalization, somatization, and death anxiety were similar
in individuals who had experienced a recent involuntary job loss and a
bereaved reference group in all subscales except depersonalization. Archer
and Rhodes (1993) reported the use of a semistructured interview that con-
tained many of the elements of the current conceptualization of prolonged
or complicated grief (i.e., Prigerson et al., 2009) but did not assess a number
of key aspects of the current conceptualization (i.e., symptoms of avoidance
of reminders of the loss; continued feelings of being stunned, shocked, or
dazed by the loss; emotional numbness since the loss; and feeling that life
is unfulfilling, empty, or meaningless since the loss). Nonetheless, they found
that the intensity of grief symptoms was associated with loss of important
aspects of the self, reflected in strength of beliefs about the value of work
in one’s life and perceived importance of the former occupation; these
findings were replicated in a follow-up (Archer & Rhodes, 1995).
GRIEF SEVERITY IS TIED TO ACCOMMODATION
WITHIN SELF-SCHEMAS
Bereavement research suggests that the experience and severity of grief may
be contingent upon individuals’ ability to accommodate loss-related changes
within their self-schemas in a meaningful way. If a loss cannot be easily
integrated into one’s existing sense of self, it represents a significant threat
to one’s self-worth and sense of self in the world (e.g., Gillies & Neimeyer,
2006; Neimeyer, Prigerson, & Davies, 2002; Park, 2010). A significant amount
of bereavement research has found associations between changes in sense of
agency, self-esteem, and beliefs about the world and the experience of grief
after loss of a loved one (Bauer & Bonanno, 2001; Currier, Holland, &
Neimeyer, 2009; Matthews & Marwit, 2004; Montpetit, Bergeman, Bisconti,
& Rausch, 2006; Schwartzberg & Janoff-Bulman, 1991). For example,
following 57 widows for the first 2 years after the death of their spouse,
Montpetit, Bergeman, and Bisconti (2010) found that self-esteem appears
to contribute most to individuals’ sense of self immediately after the loss
as compared to optimism and environmental mastery, but over time, as
self-concept appeared to reorganize, environmental mastery became more
salient.
154 A. Papa and R. Maitoza
Downloaded by [University of Nevada - Reno] at 15:32 01 July 2013
Self-esteem is particularly salient to the experience of both
bereavement-related and non-bereavement-related loss, as it is the affective
experience of self contingent upon attributions of agency, mastery, or
efficacy as well as one’s perceived status and perceptions of the judgment
of others (Crocker & Park, 2004; Vignoles, Regalia, Manzi, Golledge, & Scabini,
2006). Efforts to maintain self-esteem motivate self-regulatory responding in
response to any change in life context (e.g., Stinson et al., 2010), and when
efforts to respond are not successful, individuals may be at risk of developing
psychopathology (e.g., Hayes, Harris, & Carver, 2004). Levels of self-esteem
appear to be particularly sensitive to changes in specific domains most central
to individuals’ self-concept (Crocker, Luhtanen, Cooper, & Bouvrette, 2003;
Crocker, Sommers, & Luhtanen, 2002; Crocker & Wolfe, 2001). Self-esteem
may even buffer individuals from existential crisis when confronted by death
(Greenberg et al., 1993; Routledge & Juhl, 2010). In bereavement research,
self-esteem has been linked to resilience and positive resolution of grief in a
number of studies (e.g., Johnson, Lund, & Dimond, 1986; Ott, Lueger, Kelber,
& Prigerson, 2007), as it is in other types of losses (e.g., Lerner & Somers, 1992).
While hypothesizing that accommodation of the changes after a loss in a
way that promotes self-worth is the critical element in determining how one
responds to loss, Harvey and Miller (1998) also hypothesized that this process
may entail questions of fairness and justice of the loss (i.e., Lerner, 1980).
Issues of fairness and justice have often been theorized as important issues
in bereavement as individuals try to make meaning of loss (Janoff-Bulman,
1992), and they have been linked to self-esteem while coping with stress
(Dalbert, 1999). The small body of literature addressing the connection
between bereavement and justice beliefs indicates that belief in a just world
may buffer individuals against the impact of bereavement (Currier et al.,
2009; Mancini, Prati, & Bonanno, 2011; Matthews & Marwit, 2004) and other
types of losses such as job loss (Dalbert, 1997), though not always (see
Boelen, Kip, Voorsluijs, & van den Bout, 2004; Mancini, Pratt, & Black, 2011).
THE PRESENT STUDY
In the last two decades, there has been a concerted effort to determine if there is
something unique to grief-related disruption that is not captured by DSM
depression and anxiety criteria. The results of this research have been the delin-
eation of a post-bereavement symptom profile variously called complicated or
prolonged grief (e.g., Prigerson et al., 2009). In a number of community samples,
prolonged grief (PG) symptoms independently predict level of functional
impairment and response to psychosocial and antidepressant interventions
beyond both depression and anxiety symptoms (Bonanno et al., 2007; Golden
&Dalgliesh,2010).However,todate,measurementofgriefresponses,inparti-
cular PG-like responses, in losses other than bereavement has been sparse,
Job Loss and Grief 155
Downloaded by [University of Nevada - Reno] at 15:32 01 July 2013
making it difficult to draw conclusions about the similarity of experiences across
types of loss. In the current inquiry, we assessed the validity of PG after the loss
of a potentially important self-defining role, one’s employment.
A secondary goal of this study was to examine if changes in self-worth
and sense of self in the world, measured in terms of a sense that the world is
just, predictable, and controllable, will moderate the impact of job loss and
specific job loss characteristics on overall grief symptoms, in particular
engagement in the key symptom associated with functional impairment after
loss, post-loss avoidance or environmental disengagement.
Specifically, we hypothesized that job loss would be associated with grief-
specific symptoms distinguishable fromdepressionandanxietysymptoms,and
thus different characteristics of the loss (i.e., financial difficulties, loss of primary
wage earner role, and involuntary loss) would be associated with exacerbation of
grief symptoms. In addition, we predicted that self-esteem and just world beliefs
would moderate the impact of specific joblosscharacteristicsonoverallgrief
symptoms, specifically the primary symptom of pathological grief, avoidance.
METHODS
Recruitment
Participants were recruited via ads on Craigslist.com, in local newspapers,
local radio stations, and fliers posted at community career centers. The ads
stated that researchers were looking for people over the age of 18 who recently
lost their job to complete a 30–40-minute Internet survey to see how they have
coped with the loss, and gave the address for the study Web site. Compen-
sation consisted of the option to enter a drawing to win $50. Once logged into
the study Web site, participants were provided informed consent information.
Those who chose to participate clicked on a button indicating consent and
were directed to the survey to begin participation. Those indicating they did
not wish to participate after reading the consent information were directed
to a page thanking them for their consideration.
Participants
One person did not choose to participate after reading the consent information,
and 15 people directed to the first page of the survey did not fill it out. Of the 88
participants who began the survey, 76 completed the survey. Three people who
completed the survey were not included in the analysis because they had not
lost their job yet or reported losing their last job many years prior to completing
the survey. The remaining 73 participants (33 female) were included in our
analyses. They reported a mean age of 48.31 (SD ¼11.29) and 0.87 dependents
(ranging from 0 [46.1%]to5[3.4%]); 49.4%were married or living with a partner,
12.4%were divorced, 19.1%were single, and 1.1%were widowed. Participants
156 A. Papa and R. Maitoza
Downloaded by [University of Nevada - Reno] at 15:32 01 July 2013
tended to be educated, with 37 bachelor’s degrees and 15 graduate degrees;
tended to have lost professional, technical, or managerial jobs; and went down
2.38 income brackets on average (SD ¼1.52).
Study Design and Measures
This cross-sectional, Internet-based survey consisted of questions regarding
demographics, depression, anxiety, and grief symptoms, self-esteem, just
world beliefs, and general coping behaviors. Demographic questions asked
about age, gender, ethnicity, current relationship status, number of depen-
dents, and education. Questions about job loss included date of job loss,
reason for loss, type of job lost, length of employment, length of unemploy-
ment, primary wage earner status, and change in income.
Grief symptoms were measured using the Prolonged Grief-13 scale
(PG-13; Prigerson, Vanderwerker, & Maciejewski, 2007), which has demon-
strated good internal consistency (.89 in this study) and discriminant validity
in predicting a variety of future grief-related functional impairments
(e.g., Boelen & van den Bout, 2005). For this study, questions were changed
to read ‘‘job you lost’’ instead of ‘‘person you lost.’’ We chose the PG-13 as
our main outcome measure because we were interested in the prevalence
of symptoms of grief differentiated from symptoms of depression and anxiety
in other studies. Depression and anxiety symptoms were measured using the
relevant Depression Anxiety Stress Scales subscales (DASS-21; Lovibond &
Lovibond, 1995). In this study, Cronbach’s alphas for depression and anxiety
were .71 and .92, respectively. Self-esteem was measured using the widely
used Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale (Rosenberg, 1965; alpha ¼.75). Just world
beliefs were assessed by combining the 6-item General Just World Scale and
the 4-item Unjust World Scale (Dalbert, Montada, & Schmitt, 1987) measuring
the extent that people experience the world as just and therefore predictable
and controllable (Hafer & Begue, 2005; Lerner, 1980; Park & Folkman, 1997).
In this study, Cronbach’s alpha was .81. Finally, coping behaviors were mea-
sured using the Brief COPE (Carver, 1997). Questions were framed to refer to
job loss. We collapsed the measure into two high-order subscales that
indexed approach and avoidance behaviors (Carver & Connor-Smith,
2010). Approach coping was constructed from the planning, seeking instru-
mental support, active coping, positive reframing, acceptance, religion, and
seeking emotional support subscales. Avoidant coping was constructed from
the behavioral disengagement, substance use, self-blame, and denial
subscales. In this study, alphas were .87 and .79, respectively.
RESULTS
Overall, it appears that job loss was associated with a moderately high level
of mental health difficulties. The mean PG-13 score was 29.26 (SD ¼10.38).
Job Loss and Grief 157
Downloaded by [University of Nevada - Reno] at 15:32 01 July 2013
Twenty-four is the minimum score on the PG-13 for which an individual
could meet the proposed prolonged grief disorder (PGD) diagnosis on this
scale. However, only 4 (5.41%) of the participants met the full diagnostic
criteria for PGD. Overall, the sample demonstrated moderately high levels
of distress on the DASS subscales based on percentile scores derived from
a non-clinical normative sample (Henry & Crawford, 2005), with scores on
anxiety (M¼4.91, SD ¼3.69) and depression (M¼8.89, SD ¼5.63) ranging
from the 86th to 92nd percentile, respectively. Using the mean scores and
standard deviations of the normative population reported in Henry and
Crawford (2005) as our comparison group, the effect size of the impact of
job loss in our sample was large (d¼1.25).
Is Grief Distinguishable from Depression and Anxiety in Job Loss?
Establishment of PG as a divergent clinical phenomenon distinguishable
from anxiety and depression after bereavement has been the focus of a sig-
nificant empirical effort. However, whether the concept of PG is applicable
for other types of losses is unknown. In order to assess this, we completed
an exploratory principal component analysis (PCA) with Varimax rotation
to assess if PG symptoms measured by the PG-13 differed from depression
and anxiety symptoms measured by the DASS.
Our PCA indicated that seven factors had eigenvalues greater than 1.00
after rotation, as determined by the Kaiser criterion, which cumulatively
explained 74.33%of the total variance (Table 1). Examination of the scree
plot using the more conservative Cattell criteria showed a break after four
factors, explaining 55.5%of the variance. Looking at the four factors, the first
factor explained 23%of the variance, with factor loadings ranging from .54 to
.84. It contained all of the items from the DASS depression subscale plus two
items that displayed cross-factor loadings from the DASS anxiety scale (feel-
ing close to panic), which loaded on two other factors, and one from the
PG-13 (factor loading of .56; confusion in role or diminished sense of self),
which also loaded on the second factor containing items from the PG-13.
This second factor accounted for an additional 16%of the explained variance
and was comprised of the bulk of the items from the PG-13. These items
describe core grief symptoms, emotional pain, avoidance of reminders of
the loss, feeling stunned, shocked, or dazed by the loss, and trouble accept-
ing the loss. As noted, role confusion=diminished sense of self cross-loaded
with the depression factor. The PG-13 item assessing difficulty trusting others
cross-loaded on a factor that contained items from the DASS anxiety subscale
that appeared to be composed of anxiety items most consistent with panic=
fear. The item assessing bitterness about the loss cross-loaded on the third
factor that contained the rest of the PG-13 items relating to feeling over-
whelmed by the loss (trouble moving on, emotional numbness, and feeling
that life is unfulfilling, empty, or meaningless since the loss). Finally, the
158 A. Papa and R. Maitoza
Downloaded by [University of Nevada - Reno] at 15:32 01 July 2013
TABLE 1 Principal Component Analysis with Varimax Rotation of DASS Anxiety and
Depression Subscales and the PG-13 Scale.
Depression
Grief
1
Grief
2
Panic=
fear
Repetitive
thoughts
Anxiety
1
Anxiety
2
DASS anxiety scale
Dry mouth .25 .09 .05 .23 .25 .15 .67
Breathing difficulty ".05 .00 .24 .22 .08 .75 .29
Trembling .12 .05 ".18 ".05 ".07 .78 ".09
Worried about panic .26 .13 ".14 .35 .63 ".02 .11
Feeling close to panic .54 .40 ".13 .44 ".02 .04 .32
Awareness of heart
beating
".02 .03 .16 .84 .17 .08 .13
Feeling scared .61 .16 ".34 .44 .16 .13 .09
DASS depression scale
Couldn’t experience
positive feelings
.82 .20 .14 .04 .14 .08 .15
Difficult to do things .73 ".16 .12 ".06 .33 .26 ".03
Nothing to look
forward to
.78 .18 .24 .01 .03 ".17 .29
Down-hearted and
blue
.80 .25 .03 ".08 .02 .03 .05
Unable to become
enthusiastic about
things
.74 .15 .22 .10 .23 .14 .17
Worthlessness .84 .22 .10 .14 .07 ".13 ".06
Meaninglessness .58 .26 .34 .20 ".04 ".27 .37
Prolonged Grief-13 scale
Longing or yearning .15 .21 .19 .02 .81 ".02 .12
Intense feelings
of emotional pain,
sorrow, or pangs
of grief
.36 .69 .17 .06 .36 .05 .17
Tried to avoid
reminders of loss
.23 .70 ".04 ".06 .17 ".05 .44
Felt stunned, shocked,
or dazed
.28 .75 .20 .02 ".05 ".04 .04
Confusion about your
role in life or a
diminished sense
of self
.56 .46 .26 .15 .18 ".07 ".25
Trouble accepting loss .17 .81 .14 .23 .23 .02 ".04
Hard for you to
trust others
.17 .63 .30 .50 ".01 ".03 ".04
Feeling bitter ".08 .59 .45 ".17 .05 .28 .00
Cannot move on .23 .23 .71 .24 .17 .05 ".24
Feel emotionally
numb
.26 .30 .72 .05 ".02 ".04 .21
Feel that life is
unfulfilling, empty,
or meaningless
.39 .36 .53 .02 .11 ".31 .28
Note. Items cross-loading on more than one factor are shown in italics. Items loading on factor above .40
are shown in bold.
Job Loss and Grief 159
Downloaded by [University of Nevada - Reno] at 15:32 01 July 2013
fourth factor contained DASS anxiety subscale items that appear to overlap
with panic=fear reactions and accounted for 7%of the explained variance.
The remaining three factors, which met the cutoff indicated by the more
liberal Kaiser criteria but not the Cattell test, describe repetitive thoughts (i.e.,
Watkins, 2008; ‘‘In the past month, how often have you felt yourself longing
or yearning for the job you lost?’’ from the PG-13 and ‘‘I was worried about
situations in which I might panic and make a fool of myself’’ from the DASS
anxiety subscale) and physical arousal associated with anxiety (Factors 6 and
7). Together, these results suggest that the current PG symptom profile, with
two exceptions, does appear to describe a unique reaction to job loss differ-
ent from that of depression and anxiety responses in this sample.
To examine if grief, depression, and anxiety symptoms respond differen-
tially to different stressors associatedwithjobloss,weexaminedtheimpactof
whether the job loss was involuntary or not, entailed loss of primary wage earner
status, and resulted in financial difficulties as a consequence of unemployment
or not. Examining if there was a differencebetweeninvoluntaryjobloss(laidoff
and fired) versus voluntary job loss (resigned) in symptom levels, results indi-
cated that there was a difference between groups in grief symptoms,
t(65) ¼3.13, p<.05 (mean involuntary¼29.75, mean voluntary ¼19.25), but
not depression, t(65) ¼1.81, p>.05 (mean involuntary ¼8.76, mean
voluntary ¼5.33), or anxiety, t(65) ¼".19, p>.05 (mean involuntary ¼4.64,
mean voluntary ¼5.00). Correspondingly, we found that primary wage earners
displayed more grief symptoms, t(72) ¼2.17, p<.05 (mean 30.51 vs. 25.39), but
similar levels of depression, t(72) ¼".34, p>.05 (mean 4.82 vs. 5.16), and anxi-
ety, t(72) ¼0.68, p>.05 (mean 9.04 vs. 8.39). In contrast, current financial diffi-
culties (assessed as yes=no) produced significant differences in depression
symptoms, t(72) ¼3.57, p<.01 (mean financial problems¼9.67, no
problems ¼5.50), and anxiety symptoms, t(72) ¼2.45, p<.05 (mean financial
problems ¼5.29, no problems ¼3.25), but no differences in grief symptoms,
t(72) ¼0.71, p>.05 (mean financial problems ¼29.66, no problems ¼27.57).
These results indicate that difficulties adjusting to loss of employment were com-
pounded by involuntary job loss, having financial difficulties due to loss, and
having been the primary wage earner prior to the loss. Levels of PG symptoms
were particularly affected by changes in social role=status such as primary wage
earner role and involuntary job loss, whereas depression and anxiety were
related to the experience of a chronic stressor, financial difficulties.
Do Self-Esteem and Just World Beliefs Mediate the Impact of Job
Loss on Grief via Engagement in Avoidant Coping?
To examine our secondary hypothesis that the impact of job loss on grief
symptoms would be through its effect on self-esteem=worldviews and avoi-
dant coping, we examined separate sequential mediation models in which
we assessed whether different aspects of the loss affected self-esteem and
160 A. Papa and R. Maitoza
Downloaded by [University of Nevada - Reno] at 15:32 01 July 2013
worldviews, which in turn affected engagement in avoidant coping, control-
ling for approach coping. Thus, in the first mediational path we assessed
extent of loss related to income change (X) followed by self-esteem (M1),
avoidant coping (M2), and grief symptoms (Y; Figure 1). We tested this
model using an SPSS macro from Hayes, Preacher, and Myers (2010;
MOD3C), which is an extension of their more widely used procedure
reported in Preacher and Hayes (2008).
Examining our results, we found that the direct effect of change in
income was significant when regressing income change on grief symptoms
alone (c¼1.64, p<.05), but when controlling for the other variables in
our sequential mediation model change of income was no longer significant
(c0¼.51, p>.05). This type of analysis allows tests of all three possible
indirect effects to explain this reduction in the direct effect: via M1 alone,
via M2 alone, and via M1 and M2. In this analysis, only the indirect path
via both M1 and M2 was significant, 95%CI ¼".91, ".07 (the 95%CIs for
the paths via M1 alone and via M2 alone were ".89, .02 and "1.07, .45,
respectively). This indicates that greater loss of income was associated with
decreased self-esteem, increased avoidant coping, and high grief symptoms
in our sample.
Similarly looking at the indirect effect of income change on grief symp-
toms via just world beliefs and avoidance, the direct effect of change in
income was significant when regressing income change on grief symptoms
alone (c¼2.15, p<.05; Figure 2), and in our sequential mediation model
controlling for the other variables, change of income was still significant
FIGURE 1 Sequential mediator model examining the indirect effect of income change
related to job loss on grief symptoms via self-esteem and avoidance coping.
Job Loss and Grief 161
Downloaded by [University of Nevada - Reno] at 15:32 01 July 2013
(c0¼1.42, p<.05). Tests of the M1 alone, M2 alone, and M1 and M2 paths
were all nonsignificant (95%CIs ¼".49, .38, "1.60, .19, and ".30, .28,
respectively). Examining Figure 2, it appears that while increases in just
world beliefs were associated with decreases in grief symptoms (b1 ¼
"3.11, p<.01), they might have had an indirect effect on grief symptoms
via avoidant coping as hypothesized. Post-hoc analysis using a simple
mediation model—from just world beliefs (X) to avoidant coping (M) and
grief symptoms (Y)—again controlling for approach coping (using Preacher
& Hayes’s, 2008, INDIRECT SPSS macro), indicated that this was not the case,
with a 95%CI for the indirect effect of "3.78, ".14. Similar to the sequential
model, increases in just world beliefs were associated with decreases in
avoidance (a¼".16, p<.05), and increased avoidance was related to
increased grief (b¼12.31, p<.001); however, controlling for avoidance did
little to change the direct effect of just world beliefs on grief symptoms
(c¼"5.68, p<.001; c0¼"3.66, p<.01).
Replicating the sequential mediation analyses with length of employ-
ment at job loss as another index of magnitude of the loss resulted in a nearly
identical pattern of results, with length of previous employment showing an
indirect effect on grief symptoms only via self-esteem and avoidant coping
(95%CI ¼".02, ".01); the exception was that length of previous employ-
ment did not have a direct effect on grief symptoms independent of
self-esteem and avoidance (c¼".01, p>.05; see Hayes, 2009, for a dis-
cussion on the necessity of direct effects in indirect effects analysis). Similar
to previous analyses, there was no indirect effect in the model testing just
FIGURE 2 Sequential mediator model examining the indirect effect of income change
related to job loss on grief symptoms via just world beliefs and avoidance coping.
162 A. Papa and R. Maitoza
Downloaded by [University of Nevada - Reno] at 15:32 01 July 2013
world beliefs (95%CI ¼".01, .01), though increases in just world beliefs
were associated with decreases in avoidance (a3¼".15, p<.05) and grief
symptoms (b1 ¼"2.74, p<.05).
DISCUSSION
In this article, we examined if the construct of complicated or prolonged
grief, developed in the context of death of a significant other, is a valid
descriptor of reactions to job loss. We also examined if the impact of these
aspects of job loss on PG symptoms was contingent upon levels of
self-esteem and just world beliefs, and if the effects of just world beliefs
and self-esteem on PG symptoms were further mediated by engagement in
avoidance behavior. On the whole, the results from this study appear to
support our hypotheses.
Investigating if PG symptoms are a valid conceptualization of reactions
to job loss, we found that the construct of prolonged grief does appear to
describe a unique pattern of reaction to job loss that differs from that of
depression and anxiety responses. The PCA of grief, depression, and anxiety
symptoms displayed by our sample found that depression symptoms and
anxiety-related stress symptoms load on separate factors than two grief fac-
tors that we have interpreted as capturing grief-related functional disruptions
(Grief 1 factor) and grief-related passive disengagement (Grief 2 factor).
Exceptions to these clean delineations between grief, depression, and anxi-
ety were the PG-13 items regarding confusion about role=diminished sense
of self, which may overlap with depressive symptoms of worthlessness
and loss of interesting things one used to enjoy, and the PG-13 item measur-
ing lack of trust, which is an oft-discussed outcome after the experience of a
traumatic event (e.g., Janoff-Bulman, 1992) and may overlap with the
posttraumatic stress disorder diagnostic criterion regarding estrangement
from others. What’s more, grief symptoms were differentially related to
involuntary job loss and role as primary wage earner.
This study also supports the hypotheses that the impact of job loss on
PG symptoms may be related to self-esteem and just world beliefs. Overall,
increases in self-esteem and just world beliefs were associated with decreases
in PG symptoms. For self-esteem, this effect was mediated by reported
avoidant coping. Moreover, self-esteem was affected by specific contextual
factors (change in income, length of previous employment) tested in this
study. Increases in just world beliefs, while associated with decreases in
avoidant coping, were not mediated by avoidance, and instead had a direct
effect on grief symptoms in this sample. Moreover, the direct effect of just
world beliefs on grief was independent of the contextual factors tested in this
study, suggesting that belief that the world is just and predictable may buffer
the effects of job loss.
Job Loss and Grief 163
Downloaded by [University of Nevada - Reno] at 15:32 01 July 2013
One might hypothesize that losses that impact critical aspects of one’s
life essential for maintaining continuity of the self block one’s ability to work
towards self-defining goals by removing the resources and roles associated
with goal fulfillment and thus undermining critical aspects of the self that
promote environmental engagement (i.e., self-esteem, sense that the world
is controllable and predictable), resulting in pervasive avoidant behavior
reinforced by escape from direct contact with loss-related stressors. This con-
ceptualization of grief is not entirely consistent with widely accepted theories
of loss based on attachment theory, which suggests that grief is the result of
separation from an attachment figure (see Shear & Shair, 2005; Shear et al.,
2007; Stroebe, Schut, & Stroebe, 2005). However, it does overlap significantly
with the attachment perspective when explaining the mechanism of how loss
of an attachment figure causes grief.
Attachment theory describes how we use others to self-regulate, using
biologically driven, learning-based, other-focused sets of if-then behavioral
repertoires that exist to facilitate coping with threat (Bowlby, 1980). Thus,
attachment is proposed to involve the maintenance of working models of
others and the self (see Mikulincer & Shaver, 2007; Nerken, 1993), and goal
activation during attachment priming focuses mainly on self-regulation via
individual proximity maintenance goals. Broadening this perspective, rela-
tional self theories (Andersen & Chen, 2002) suggest that, in addition to prox-
imity maintenance goals, broader self goals are associated with relational self
activation that includes any goal formed or associated with the relational self
construct activated and=or the person(s) it is associated with, suggesting that
reinforcement from satisfying these goals is likely only to be achieved within
the context of these relationships and roles. People whose learning history
has precluded formation of adaptive other-focused regulatory strategies
(i.e., excessive dependency) and narrowed their self-regulatory capacity
can find that loss interferes with their ability to develop or implement adapt-
ive functional repertoires and maintain their sense of efficacy and self (e.g.,
Gailliot, Schmeichel, & Baumeister, 2006; Hogan et al., 2001; Schmeichel,
Volokhov, & Demaree, 2008). We suggest that grief can be a result of the loss
of a significant other or a significant social role inasmuch as that person or
role was essential for a primary relational self. Rather than narrowly disrupt-
ing proximity maintenance goals, the loss of a self-defining other or social
role broadly disrupts any goal formed or associated with the relational
self-construct based on the deceased or the lost role and blocks the person’s
ability to maintain or achieve self-defining goals by undermining critical
aspects of the self that promote environmental engagement.
Limitations
A number of limitations diminish the strength of our conclusions. One limi-
tation is that we only looked at the loss of one potentially self-defining role=
164 A. Papa and R. Maitoza
Downloaded by [University of Nevada - Reno] at 15:32 01 July 2013
relational self. Another limitation is the potential for sampling bias in survey
research. Specifically, there may have been an overrepresentation of parti-
cipants who chose to participate in the survey because of their higher levels
of disruption related to job loss. This is a particular concern as the current
sample does differ from the average unemployed person in the U.S. in terms
of the average length of unemployment and type of job lost. The average
length of unemployment for participants in the current study (281 days)
was longer than the national mean of 175 days (http://www.bls.gov). This
is salient as longer unemployment duration is typically associated with lower
well-being (McKee-Ryan et al., 2005). In addition, our sample was highly
educated and held disproportionately more professional jobs (85%) than
the average unemployed American (18%; http://www.bls.gov). However,
in examining if these factors were related to level of mental health difficulties,
we compared our sample to the results from McKee-Ryan and colleagues’
(2005) meta-analysis. In their meta-analysis, they found that the overall effect
size (d) of unemployment longer than 6 months on mental health status
(compared to those who were employed) was .97, which suggests that our
sample was not overly biased in terms of severity of symptoms.
Conclusion
There is much to be learned about the psychology of loss. This article is one
of the first to link a loss other than the loss of a loved one to the recently
developed PG symptom profile. It is also the first article that we are aware
of to examine the factor structure and validity of grief as an independent
predictor of loss-related disruption outside of bereavement loss. Finally, this
article is the first step in a series of studies to examine relational selves versus
attachment relationships as the critical level of analysis in grief. Our results
show initial support for our hypothesis that grief disruption is contingent
upon loss of a self-defining role as opposed to loss of self-defining relation-
ships exclusively. In terms of next steps, prospective analysis of the link
between identity continuity, daily routines, and grief remains an important
area for further research, as is examination of how the loss of one
self-defining social domain impacts functioning in other social domains
and contributes to the stability or lack of stability in individuals’ sense of self
and well-being.
REFERENCES
Andersen, S. M., & Chen, S. (2002). The relational self: An interpersonal social-
cognitive theory. Psychological Review,109, 619–644.
Archer, J., & Rhodes, V. (1993). The grief process and job loss: A cross-sectional
study. British Journal of Psychology,84, 395–410.
Job Loss and Grief 165
Downloaded by [University of Nevada - Reno] at 15:32 01 July 2013
Archer, J., & Rhodes, V. (1995). A longitudinal study of job loss in relation to the grief
process. Journal of Community and Applied Social Psychology,5, 183–188.
Bauer, J. J., & Bonanno, G. A. (2001). I can, I do, I am: The narrative differentiation of
self-efficacy and other self-evaluations while adapting to bereavement. Journal
of Research in Personality,35, 424–448.
Boelen, P. A., Kip, H. J., Voorsluijs, J. J., & van den Bout, J. (2004). Irrational beliefs
and basic assumptions in bereaved university students: A comparison study.
Journal of Rational-Emotive and Cognitive Behavior Therapy,22, 111–129.
Boelen, P. A., & van den Bout, J. (2005). Complicated grief, depression, and anxiety
as distinct postloss syndromes: A confirmatory factor analysis study. American
Journal of Psychiatry,162, 2175–2177.
Bonanno, G. A., Neria, Y., Mancini, A., Coifman, K. G., Litz, B., & Insel, B. (2007). Is
there more to complicated grief than depression and posttraumatic stress dis-
order? A test of incremental validity. Journal of Abnormal Psychology,116,
342–351.
Bowlby, J. (1980). Loss. New York, NY: Basic Books.
Brewington, J. O., Nassar-McMillan, S. C., Flowers, C. P., & Furr, S. R. (2004). A
preliminary investigation of factors associated with job loss grief. Career Devel-
opment Quarterly,53, 78–83.
Brown, L. F., Reynolds, C. F., Monk, T. H., Prigerson, H. G., Dew, M. A., Houch, P. R.,
... Kupfer, D. J. (1996). Social rhythm stability following late-life spousal
bereavement: Associations with depression and sleep impairment. Psychiatry
Research,62, 161–169.
Carlson, H., Johnston, A., Liiceanu, A., Vintila, C., & Harvey, J. (2000). Lessons in the
psychology of loss: Accounts of middle-aged Romanian women. Journal of Loss
& Trauma,5, 183–200.
Carver, C. S. (1997). You want to measure coping but your protocol’s too long: Con-
sider the Brief COPE. International Journal of Behavioral Medicine,4, 92–100.
Carver, C. S., & Connor-Smith, J. (2010). Personality and coping. Annual Review of
Psychology,61, 679–704.
Creed, P. A., Lehmann, K., & Hood, M. (2009). The relationship between core self-
evaluations, employment commitment and well-being in the unemployed.
Personality and Individual Differences,47, 310–315.
Crocker, J., Luhtanen, R. K., Cooper, M. L., & Bouvrette, S. (2003). Contingencies of
self-worth in college students: Theory and measurement. Journal of Personality
and Social Psychology,85, 894–908.
Crocker, J., & Park, L. E. (2004). The costly pursuit of self-esteem. Psychological
Bulletin,130, 392–414.
Crocker, J., Sommers, S., & Luhtanen, R. (2002). Hopes dashed and dreams fulfilled:
Contingencies of self-worth in the graduate school admissions process.
Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin,28, 1275–1286.
Crocker, J., & Wolfe, C. T. (2001). Contingencies of self-worth. Psychological Review,
108, 593–623.
Currier, J. M., Holland, J. M., & Neimeyer, R. A. (2009). Assumptive worldviews and
problematic reactions to bereavement. Journal of Loss & Trauma,14, 181–195.
Dalbert, C. (1997). Coping with an unjust fate: The case of structural unemployment.
Social Justice Research,10, 175–189.
166 A. Papa and R. Maitoza
Downloaded by [University of Nevada - Reno] at 15:32 01 July 2013
Dalbert, C. (1999). The world is more just for me than generally: About the Personal
Belief in a Just World Scale’s validity. Social Justice Research,12, 79–98.
Dalbert, C., Montada, L., & Schmitt, M. (1987). Glaube an die gerechte Welt als Motiv:
Validnering Zweier Skalen. Psychologische Beitrage,29, 596–615.
Davis, D. J., & Schultz, C. L. (1998). Grief, parenting, and schizophrenia. Social
Science and Medicine,46, 369–379.
Gailliot, M. T., Schmeichel, B. J., & Baumeister, R. F. (2006). Self-regulatory processes
defend against the threat of death: Effects of self-control depletion and trait
self-control on thoughts and fears of dying. Journal of Personality and Social
Psychology,91, 49–62.
Gillies, J., & Neimeyer, R. A. (2006). Loss, grief, and the search for significance:
Toward a model of meaning reconstruction in bereavement. Journal of
Constructivist Psychology,19, 31–65.
Golden, A. J., & Dalgleish, T. (2010). Is prolonged grief distinct from bereavement-
related posttraumatic stress? Psychiatry Research,178, 336–341.
Greenberg, J., Pyszczynski, T., Solomon, S., Pinel, E., Simon, L., & Jordan, K. (1993).
Effects of self-esteem on vulnerability-denying defensive distortions: Further
evidence of an anxiety-buffering function of self-esteem. Journal of Experi-
mental Social Psychology,29, 229–251.
Hafer, C. L., & Begue, L. (2005). Experimental research on just-world theory: Prob-
lems, developments, and future challenges. Psychological Bulletin,131, 128–167.
Harvey, J. H., & Miller, E. (1998). Toward a psychology of loss. Psychological
Science,9, 429.
Hayes, A. F. (2009). Beyond Baron and Kenny: Statistical mediation analysis in the
new millennium. Communication Monographs,76, 408–420.
Hayes, A. M., Harris, M. S., & Carver, C. S. (2004). Predictors of self-esteem varia-
bility. Cognitive Therapy and Research,28, 369–385.
Hayes, A. F., Preacher, K. J., & Myers, T. A. (2010). Mediation and the estimation of
indirect effects in political communication research. In E. P. Bucy & R. L.
Holbert (Eds.), Sourcebook for political communication research: Methods,
measures, and analytical techniques (pp. 434–465). New York, NY: Routledge.
Henry, J. D., & Crawford, J. R. (2005). The short-form version of the Depression
Anxiety Stress Scales (DASS-21): Construct validity and normative data in a large
non-clinical sample. British Journal of Clinical Psychology,44, 227–239.
Hobdy, J., Hayslip, B., Kaminski, P., Crowley, B., Riggs, S., & York, C. (2007). The
role of attachment style in coping with job loss and the empty nest in adulthood.
International Journal of Aging and Human Development,65, 335–371.
Hogan, N. S., Greenfield, D. B., & Schmidt, L. A. (2001). Development and validation
of the Hogan Grief Reaction Checklist. Death Studies,25, 1–32.
Horowitz, M. J. (1990). A model of mourning: Change in schemas of self and other.
Journal of the American Psychoanalytic Association,38, 297–324.
Janoff-Bulman, R. (1992). Shattered assumptions: Towards a new psychology of
trauma. New York, NY: Free Press.
Johnson, R. L., Lund, D. A., & Dimond, M. F. (1986). Stress, self-esteem, and coping
during bereavement among the elderly. Social Psychology Quarterly,49, 273–279.
Lerner, M. J. (1980). The belief in a just world: A fundamental delusion. New York,
NY: Plenum Press.
Job Loss and Grief 167
Downloaded by [University of Nevada - Reno] at 15:32 01 July 2013
Lerner, M. J., & Somers, D. G. (1992). Employees’ reactions to an anticipated plant
closure: The influence of positive illusions. In L. Montada, S. Filipp, & M. J.
Lerner (Eds.), Life crises and experiences of loss in adulthood (pp. 229–253).
Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
Lovibond, S. H., & Lovibond, P. F. (1995). Manual for the depression anxiety stress
scales. Sydney, Australia: Psychology Foundation.
Mancini, A. D., Prati, G., & Black, S. (2011). Self-worth mediates the effects of violent
loss on PTSD symptoms. Journal of Traumatic Stress,24, 116–120.
Mancini, A. D., Prati, G., & Bonanno, G. A. (2011). Do shattered worldviews lead to
complicated grief? Prospective and longitudinal analyses. Journal of Social and
Clinical Psychology,30, 184–215.
Matthews, L., & Marwit, S. J. (2004). Examining the assumptive world views of
parents bereaved by accident, homicide, and illness. Omega: Journal of Death
and Dying,48, 141–162.
McKee-Ryan, F. M., Song, A., Wanberg, C. R., & Kinicki, A. J. (2005). Psychological
and physical well-being during unemployment: A meta-analytic study. Journal
of Applied Psychology,90, 53–76.
Mikulincer, M., & Shaver, P. R. (2007). Attachment in adulthood: Structure, dynam-
ics, and change. New York: The Guilford Press.
Montpetit, M. A., Bergeman, C. S., & Bisconti, T. L. (2010). The self-concept and
conjugal loss: Evidence for structural change. Death Studies,34(7), 606–624.
Montpetit, M. A., Bergeman, C. S., Bisconti, T., & Rausch, J. (2006). Adaptive change
in self- concept and well-being during conjugal loss in later life. International
Journal of Aging and Human Development,63, 217–239.
Neimeyer, R. A., Prigerson, H. G., & Davies, B. (2002). Mourning and meaning.
American Behavioral Scientist,46, 235–251.
Nerken, I. R. (1993). Grief and the reflective self: Toward a clearer model of loss
resolution and growth. Death Studies,17, 1–26.
Ott, C. H., Lueger, R. J., Kelber, S. T., & Prigerson, H. G. (2007). Spousal bereavement
in older adults: Common, resilient, and chronic grief with defining characteris-
tics. Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease,195, 332–341.
Park, C. L. (2010). Making sense of the meaning literature: An integrative review of
meaning making and its effects on adjustment to stressful life events. Psycho-
logical Bulletin,136, 257–301.
Park, C. L., & Folkman, S. (1997). Meaning in the context of stress and coping.
Review of General Psychology,1, 115–144.
Preacher, K. J., & Hayes, A. F. (2008). Asymptotic and resampling strategies for asses-
sing and comparing indirect effects in multiple mediator models. Behavior
Research Methods,40, 879–891.
Prigerson, H. G., Horowitz, M. J., Jacobs, S. C., Parkes, C. M., Aslan, M., Goodkin, K.,
... Maciejewski, P. K. (2009). Prolonged grief disorder: Psychometric validation
of criteria proposed for DSM-V and ICD-11. PLoS Medicine,6, e1000121.
Prigerson, H., Vanderwerker, L. C., & Maciejewski, P. K. (2007). Prolonged grief
disorder: A case for inclusion in DSM-V. In M. Stroebe, R. Hansson, H. Schut,
& W. Stroebe (Eds.), Handbook of bereavement research and practice: 21st
century perspectives (pp. 165–186). Washington, DC: American Psychological
Association.
168 A. Papa and R. Maitoza
Downloaded by [University of Nevada - Reno] at 15:32 01 July 2013
Rosenberg, M. (1965). Society and the adolescent self-image. Princeton, NJ: Princeton
University Press.
Routledge, C., & Juhl, J. (2010). When death thoughts turn into death fears: Purpose
in life moderates the effects of mortality salience on death anxiety. Cognition
and Emotion,24, 848–854.
Sanders, C. M., Manger, P. A., & Strong, P. N. (1985). A manual for the Grief Experi-
ence Inventory. Palo Alto, CA: Consulting Psychologists Press.
Schmeichel, B. J., Volokhov, R. N., & Demaree, H. A. (2008). Working memory
capacity and the self-regulation of emotional expression and experience.
Journal of Personality and Social Psychology,95, 1526–1540.
Schulz, R., Boerner, K., Shear, K., Zhang, S., & Gitlin, L. N. (2006). Predictors of com-
plicated grief among dementia caregivers: A prospective study of bereavement.
American Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry,14, 650–658.
Schwartzberg, S. S., & Janoff-Bulman, R. (1991). Grief and the search for meaning:
Exploring the assumptive worlds of bereaved college students. Journal of Social
and Clinical Psychology,10, 270–288.
Shear, K., Monk, T., Houck, P., Melhem, N., Frank, E., Reynolds, C., & Sillowash, R.
(2007). An attachment-based model of complicated grief including the role of avoid-
ance. European Archives of Psychiatry and Clinical Neuroscience,257,453–461.
Shear, K., & Shair, H. (2005). Attachment, loss, and complicated grief. Developmental
Psychobiology,47, 253–267.
Stinson, D. A., Logel, C., Holmes, J. G., Wood, J. V., Forest, A. L., Gaucher, D., ...
Kath, L. (2010). The regulatory function of self-esteem: Testing the epistemic
and acceptance signaling systems. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology,
99, 993–1013.
Stroebe, M., Schut, H., & Stroebe, W. (2005). Attachment in coping with bereave-
ment: A theoretical integration. Review of General Psychology,9, 48–66.
van Solinge, H., & Henkens, K. (2008). Adjustment to and satisfaction with
retirement: Two of a kind? Psychology and Aging,23, 422–434.
Vignoles, V. L., Regalia, C., Manzi, C., Golledge, J., & Scabini, E. (2006). Beyond
self-esteem: Influence of multiple motives on identity construction. Journal of
Personality and Social Psychology,90, 308–333.
Watkins, E. R. (2008). Constructive and unconstructive repetitive thought. Psycho-
logical Bulletin,134, 163–206.
Wittmann, D., Smith, P., Rajarethinam, R. P., Foley, S., VanBrussel, A., Phillip, B., &
Keshavan, M. (2010). Do patients with psychosis experience loss and grief as a
result of their illness? Psychoanalytic Social Work,17, J30–J39.
Anthony Papa is an assistant professor of psychology at the University of Nevada,
Reno. His research interests include the interaction of emotional expression and social
contexts and the role of identity stability during adaptation to adverse events, as well as
related translational research.
Robyn Maitoza is a PhD student in the Interdisciplinary Program in Social Psy-
chology at the University of Nevada, Reno. She specializes in families and health, coping
with transitions, and work-family issues.
Job Loss and Grief 169
Downloaded by [University of Nevada - Reno] at 15:32 01 July 2013
