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The Verbalization of Emotions in the Therapeutic Dialogue–A Correlate of Therapeutic Outcome?
Abstract and Figures
An English version of the "Affective Dictionary Ulm" was constructed based on Dahl's emotion theory for the computerized investigation of affective vocabularies of transcripts stemming from the Penn Psychotherapy Project. Therapist and patient vocabularies from "most successful" and "least successful" psychodynamic therapies were investigated at the beginning and at the end of treatment. Two hypotheses were partially confirmed: (1) therapists verbalize more emotions than their patients, and (2) "most successful" therapists will name more emotion words than their "least successful" colleagues. Furthermore, we found that - in comparison with their initial levels - at the end of treatment "most successful" therapists tended to verbalize emotions of the subcategory "anger." These represent affective states where according to Dahl's (1978) emotion theory a subject attributes the "focus of control" of a situation towards the self.
... Über alle Studien hinweg wurden insgesamt 213 Patient*innen (n = 96 weiblich, n = 41 männlich; k = 3 fehlende Angabe zur Geschlechterverteilung [Anderson et al. 1999;Hölzer et al. 1997Hölzer et al. , 1996) eingeschlossen, wobei der Range von 6 (Czogalik und Russell 1995) bis 40 Patient*innen (Negri et al. 2019) reichte. Die Proband*innen wiesen ein durchschnittliches Alter von 36,6 Jahren auf (k = 1 fehlende Angabe zum Alter [Anderson et al. 1999]). ...
... Die Proband*innen wiesen ein durchschnittliches Alter von 36,6 Jahren auf (k = 1 fehlende Angabe zum Alter [Anderson et al. 1999]). Die Patient*innen wurden von insgesamt 115 Therapeut*innen behandelt (n = 40 weib-lich, n = 51 männlich; k = 3 fehlende Angabe [Anderson et al. 1999;Hölzer et al. 1997;Negri et al. 2019]). ...
... Anderson et al. (1999) stellten fest, dass Therapeut*innen durch eine affektiv konnotierte Sprache, angepasst an eine hohe Affektlage der Patient*innen, erfolgreiche Therapieergebnisse erzielten. Christian et al. (2021) Hölzer et al. (1997) fanden insgesamt heraus, dass bei einer erfolgreichen Therapie ein höherer emotionaler, regulativer Sprachcode genutzt wurde als ein vornehmlich rationaler. Laut den Forscher*innen steht dieses Ergebnis für ein höheres Maß der Arbeit an den Emotionen. ...
Background
Psychotherapy is based on conversations between patients and therapists. Today, there is a wide range of observer-based and computer-automated instruments available to study the language of therapists.Objective
This article provides a systematic overview of empirical studies on the association between semantic characteristics of the language of therapists and the therapeutic relationship as well as the therapy outcome.Material and methodThe databases PubMed, PsycINFO and PSYNDEX were used to search for studies that examined the language of therapists in individual therapy settings with adult patients. Two authors screened titles, abstracts and full texts independently. From these studies relevant data, such as the measurement of dependent and independent variables and the key outcomes were extracted. A quality analysis was performed using the „Quality in Prognosis Studies tool“.ResultsBased on 3524 search results, 10 studies were finally included. The results of the lexical semantic studies related to therapeutic relationship and therapy outcome showed a) a negative association between words with cognitive connotation and the therapeutic relationship and therapy outcome, b) a negative association between neutral affective words and the therapeutic relationship, c) a positive association between words with affective connotation and therapy outcome and d) a positive association between words with emotional connotation and therapy outcome. The results of the discourse semantic studies showed that a reserved behavior of the therapist, opening up space to the patient while staying engaged, is more favorable for the therapeutic relationship and therapy outcome.DiscussionWith 10 included studies, the evidence base remains small. All studies show an association between the language of therapists and the therapeutic relationship and therapy outcome. In order to strengthen the evidence in this promising interdisciplinary field of research, it is recommended to consider further therapist, patient and process factors as potential influencing variables in future studies.
... These colleagues met together Orlinsky and K. Howard, hosts 1969 Highland Park, IL (SPR founded) K. Howard and D. Orlinsky, hosts 1970 Chicago, IL (SPR constitution adopted) D. Orlinsky and K. Howard, hosts 1971Saddle Brook, NJ Kenneth Howard 1970-19711972 Nashville, TN David Orlinsky 1971-19721973 Philadelphia, PA Hans Strupp 1972-19731974 Denver, CO Lester Luborsky 1973-19741975Boston, MA and London, England Allen Bergin 1974-19751976Coronado Beach, San Diego, CA Sol Garfield 1975-19761977 Madison, WI Aaron T. Beck 1976-19771978Toronto, Canada Morris Parloff 1977-19781979Oxford, England Irene Elkin Waskow 1978-19791980 Asilomar State Park, Pacific Grove, CA Edward Bordin 1979-19801981 Aspen, CO Mardi Horowitz 1980-19811982 Smugglers ' Notch, Vermont Stanley Imber 1981-19821983 Sheffield, England Alan Gurman 1982-1983 1984 Lake Louise, Canada Arthur Auerbach 1983-1984 1985 Evanston, IL A. John Rush 1984Rush -1985Rush 1986 Wellesley, MA Jim Mintz 1985-19861987Ulm, Germany Larry Beutler 1986-19871988 Santa Fe, NM Larry Beutler 1987-19881989Toronto, Canada Charles Marmar 1988-19891990 Wintergreen, VA Leslie Greenberg 1989-1990 Lyon, France Horst Kächele 1990Kächele -1991Kächele 1992 Berkeley, CA Lorna Benjamin 1991-19921993 Pittsburgh, PA Leonard Horowitz 1992-19931994 York, England David A. Shapiro 1993-19941995Vancouver, Canada Clara Hill 1994-1995 Amelia Island, FL Klaus Grawe 19951997Geilo, Norway Paul Crits-Christoph 1996-19971998 Snowbird, UT William Stiles 1997-1998Braga, Portugal Marvin Goldfried 19982000 Bloomingdale Psychotherapy Research 3 over lunch and resolved to establish a UK SPR group with its own regular meetings. There were several compelling reasons to pursue this approach. ...
... These colleagues met together Orlinsky and K. Howard, hosts 1969 Highland Park, IL (SPR founded) K. Howard and D. Orlinsky, hosts 1970 Chicago, IL (SPR constitution adopted) D. Orlinsky and K. Howard, hosts 1971Saddle Brook, NJ Kenneth Howard 1970-19711972 Nashville, TN David Orlinsky 1971-19721973 Philadelphia, PA Hans Strupp 1972-19731974 Denver, CO Lester Luborsky 1973-19741975Boston, MA and London, England Allen Bergin 1974-19751976Coronado Beach, San Diego, CA Sol Garfield 1975-19761977 Madison, WI Aaron T. Beck 1976-19771978Toronto, Canada Morris Parloff 1977-19781979Oxford, England Irene Elkin Waskow 1978-19791980 Asilomar State Park, Pacific Grove, CA Edward Bordin 1979-19801981 Aspen, CO Mardi Horowitz 1980-19811982 Smugglers ' Notch, Vermont Stanley Imber 1981-19821983 Sheffield, England Alan Gurman 1982-1983 1984 Lake Louise, Canada Arthur Auerbach 1983-1984 1985 Evanston, IL A. John Rush 1984Rush -1985Rush 1986 Wellesley, MA Jim Mintz 1985-19861987Ulm, Germany Larry Beutler 1986-19871988 Santa Fe, NM Larry Beutler 1987-19881989Toronto, Canada Charles Marmar 1988-19891990 Wintergreen, VA Leslie Greenberg 1989-1990 Lyon, France Horst Kächele 1990Kächele -1991Kächele 1992 Berkeley, CA Lorna Benjamin 1991-19921993 Pittsburgh, PA Leonard Horowitz 1992-19931994 York, England David A. Shapiro 1993-19941995Vancouver, Canada Clara Hill 1994-1995 Amelia Island, FL Klaus Grawe 19951997Geilo, Norway Paul Crits-Christoph 1996-19971998 Snowbird, UT William Stiles 1997-1998Braga, Portugal Marvin Goldfried 19982000 Bloomingdale Psychotherapy Research 3 over lunch and resolved to establish a UK SPR group with its own regular meetings. There were several compelling reasons to pursue this approach. ...
... In times of globalisation, it is evitable that national research expanded by building international cooperation. The tables of content of Psychotherapy Research reflect numerous cooperations between German and other European researchers, especially with those from North America (e.g., Caspar et al., 2000;Hölzer, Pokorny, Kächele, & Luborsky, 1997;Mergenthaler & Stinson, 1992;Zaunmüller, Lutz, & Strauman, 2014). ...
Objective:
This article discusses the 25th anniversary of the journal Psychotherapy research from a European perspective.
Method:
Based upon the reflections of one of the founding editors of the journal (David A. Shapiro), together with overviews from SPR colleagues, this article focuses on the major developments in the field of psychotherapy research in the U.K., Germany, as well as and other European countries, as well as Portugal, Spain, and Latin America.
Results:
The Society for Psychotherapy Research (SPR), which founded the journal as its official organ, underwent a metamorphosis from a purely North American to an international scientific organization during the 1980s. The move towards a greater international audience has been mirrored in the journal, where articles from North America are increasingly balanced with articles from other, especially European, countries.
Conclusion:
The journal Psychotherapy Research has become an important journal and its development allows thoughts about the future direction of the journal as well as the research field as a whole.
... On retrouve, selon la classification de Blanchet (1991), les recherches de type «mesure des variables linguistiques», «structure temporelle des interactions» et «l'approche micro-analytique». Dans ces études, différents éléments langagiers sont pris en considération tels que la fréquence des actions langagières et leur durée, la fréquence et la durée des pauses (Chapple, 1949), divers paramètres phonologiques (Pittenger, Hockett, & Danehy, 1960), le coefficient de richesse lexicale, le nombre de mots à la minute, le pourcentage de verbes au temps présent et au temps passé (Jaffe, 1961), la longueur du discours des praticiens (Kächele, 1992;O'Dell & Winder, 1975), les types de verbes (Anderson, Bein, Pinnel, & Strupp, 1999), les mots affectifs (Hölzer, Pokorny, Kächele, & Luborsky, 1997). Ces investigations posent le problème de l'articulation entre les indices isolés et l'émergence d'une éventuelle signification plus globale permettant d'apporter de nouvelles connaissances sur les processus thérapeutiques. ...
... Ils ne privilégient pas un seul type d'état mental comme peuvent le faire les interviewers avec l'état mental de cognition. Ces résultats peuvent être rapprochés de ceux obtenus par Anderson et al. (1999) et Hölzer et al. (1997 qui avaient mis en évidence un lien entre efficacité thérapeutique et verbalisation des émotions. Dans les thérapies réussies, les thérapeutes utiliseraient plus de mots affectifs que dans les thérapies non réussies (Hölzer et al. 1997). ...
... Ces résultats peuvent être rapprochés de ceux obtenus par Anderson et al. (1999) et Hölzer et al. (1997 qui avaient mis en évidence un lien entre efficacité thérapeutique et verbalisation des émotions. Dans les thérapies réussies, les thérapeutes utiliseraient plus de mots affectifs que dans les thérapies non réussies (Hölzer et al. 1997). Les thérapeutes efficaces emploieraient moins de verbes de cognition que les thérapeutes moins efficaces (Anderson et al., 1999). ...
Cette étude présente une nouvelle méthode pour analyser les discours des psychothérapeutes. Construite à partir d’une connaissance formelle des processus langagiers, l’analyse linguistico-pragmatique se démarque des méthodes d’analyses traditionnelles qui se centrent sur les contenus. L’analyse linguistico-pragmatique des états mentaux dans le discours des psychothérapeutes est un exemple d’application de cette méthode d’analyse. Elle permet d’identifier et de dénombrer les indices langagiers renvoyant à l’expression verbale des états mentaux. Cette méthode a été appliquée à 32 retranscriptions d’entretien (16 entretiens thérapeutiques et 16 entretiens de recherche). Les résultats ont montré que les psychothérapeutes utilisent davantage d’indices langagiers d’états mentaux que les chercheurs et qu’ils font référence à tous les types d’états mentaux. Les psychothérapeutes Centrés sur la Personne ont plus recours aux indices langagiers d’impression-sensation; et les thérapeutes d’inspiration psychanalytique à ceux d’émotion. Ces résultats invitent à poursuivre l’investigation des discours thérapeutiques à l’aide de l’analyse linguistico-pragmatique.
... There has been substantial research in the development of methods to analyse linguistic input in the field of psychotherapy in order to measure a number of psychological variables such as emotion, abstraction, referential activity, etc. among them Bucci's Referential Activity (RA) nonweighted (Bucci, 2002) and weighted dictionaries (Bucci and Maskit, 2006) for the English language, or Höltzer and others' affective dictionary (Hölzer et al., 1997) for the German language. ...
... In addition to work by (Bucci and Maskit, 2006) and (Hölzer et al., 1997), the Linguistic Inquiry and Word Count (LIWC) tool has been used to detect different types of personalities in written self-descriptions (Chung and Pennebaker, 2008). Early work on dictionaries in the area of psychology include the General Inquirer psycho-sociological dictionary (Stone and Hunt, 1963) which can be used in various applications. ...
... In the second part of the task, they were required to identify which single map was most helpful and least helpful for making the route choice decision and describe the reasons for this in full sentences. Our intention was to apply different methods for analysing emotions, such as sentiment analysis using emotion lexicons (Mohammad & Turney, 2013;Hölzer et al., 1997;Vo et al., 2009). However, due to relatively short descriptions provided by most of the participants, the results were not sufficiently informative and are not reported here. ...
As urbanisation increases, in many places, the transport system is suffering from problems that may affect large parts of the urban population, such as traffic congestion or increased air pollution. In both cases, a better distribution of traffic flows could contribute to establishing a more sustainable transport system, and to improve the situation from a societal point of view. In this paper, we use cartographic symbolisation for communicating favourability of route options for achieving a societal benefit. Since map symbols can evoke different emotional responses in the viewer, we investigate to which extent map symbols evoke positive and negative emotions and whether these influence route choice decision making. We created different cartographic visualisations and designed a user study that investigates the effectiveness and suitability of these different visualisation variants for influencing route choice based on two scenarios: traffic and air quality. Fourteen route maps were prepared using different map symbols to symbolise societally favourable and non-favourable route options. The results of this study show that map symbols can be used effectively for influencing route choice towards choosing the favourable route for the two tested scenarios. While visualisations that modify only lines were more effective in the traffic scenario, area symbol modifications were more effective for the air quality scenario. The symbolisation evoked a wide range of emotions in participants. While non-favourable routes mainly evoke negative emotions (particularly fear), favourable routes mainly evoked positive emotions (particularly contentment) or no emotions. The results further demonstrate that for some of the visualisation variants, emotions felt in response to the map visual-isations contributed significantly to changing the route choice decisions in favour of the societally favourable route option. The findings of this research demonstrate the relationship between route choice behaviour and emotional responses elicited by map symbols.
... Verbalization technic posits that it is possible to understand subconscious phenomena only when survivors manage to verbalize their own experiences or problems (Hölzer, 1997). ...
Most studies on sexual violence against men focus on forms, causes and consequences of this phenomenon giving little/or no attention to complex challenges and barriers affecting access to care for survivors. Drawing from semi-structured interviews with service providers, male survivors and from focus group discussions with community members in Eastern DRC, this thesis set out to explore challenges and barriers related to meeting the needs of male survivors of sexualized violence. Findings were interpreted through the lenses of ecological and gender theories and through hegemonic masculinity and holistic care model concepts. Generally, findings show that gender beliefs regarding masculinity and rape, lack of information about care programmes for male survivors, a dysfunctional justice system, distance from home to care programs and insecurity were perceived as major impediments to care access for male survivors. While masculinity constituted a barrier to health care for most male survivors, this thesis shows that it can also facilitate access to health care for some survivors. Discussion and analysis of the findings point out to a systemic inattention around the issue of sexual violence against men reinforcing barriers to health care. The thesis shows that existing responses have mainly been designed to address sexual violence against women and need to be re-adapted to male survivors without losing focus on female survivors as they suffer most from sexual violence.
... Aufgrund derer umfangreicher Items wurde der Erhebungs-und Komplexitätsreduktion zugunsten verzichtet. Ferner würde eine Differenzierung in objekt-und selbstbezogene Emotionskategorien (Dahl et al., 1992;Hölzer et al., 1997) tiefere Erkenntnisse hinsichtlich der Emotionsanalyse ermöglichen. Zusammenhänge zwischen lexikalischer Dichte, Diversität und autoritaristischer Konstrukte, lassen auf relevante Interventionsstrategien schließen. ...
‚Selbstmord auf Raten‘ oder ‚Fackeln der Freiheit‘? Je nachdem aus welchem Blickwinkel die Zigarette dargestellt wird, lässt sich deren Wahrnehmung in die eine oder andere Richtung framen – in einen Deutungsrahmen setzen. Und dieser bestimmt, wie Inhalte rezipiert werden. Wie Frames auf Interpretation und Kognition wirken, in welchem Umfang sie internalisiert und transponiert werden, wie sich Emotionen unterscheiden und ob eine Verschiebung autoritaristischer Einstellungen durch semantische Schemata beobachtet werden kann, sind die zentralen Fragen dieser Studie. Mittels eines triangulären Experiments werden sowohl quantitative als auch qualitative Kennzahlen erhoben und in einer computergestützten Sentimentanalyse zusammengeführt. Die Befragten werden dabei zufällig zwei Gruppen zugewiesen und erhalten jeweils einen Text zu lesen, der zwar im Kern das gleiche Thema behandelt, jedoch unterschiedlich konnotiert und formuliert ist. Jeweils vor und nach der Rezeption des Stimulus beantworten die Teilnehmer einen Fragebogen, der Autoritarismus, autoritäre Aggression, Unterwürfigkeit und Konventionalismus misst. Die Ergebnisse zeigen kaum Verschiebungen bei autoritaristischen Einstellungen, wohl aber stark ausgeprägte Internalisierung von Termini in das eigene Vokabular. Negative Formulierungen veranschaulichen Tendenzen zu äquivalenter Interpretation, wobei sich rhetorische Stilmittel als besonders wirkungsvoll erweisen. Stereotype und stabile Merkmale stellen sich als belastbarer heraus als latente Attribute, zu welchen wenig Vorwissen oder ungefestigte Assoziationen vorliegen.
... One way that the two-chair dialogue intervention is assumed to bring about change is by fostering better emotional processing by means of (a) increasing emotional arousal and (b) by increasing the clients' ability to be in contact with and make meaning out of this emotional arousal (experiencing). Previous research on emotional processing suggests that the outcome is related to both increased emotional arousal (Boritz, Angus, Monette, Hollis-Walker, & Warwar, 2011;Holzer, Pokorny, Kachele, & Luborsky, 1997;Iwakabe, Rogan, & Stalikas, 2000;Missirlian, Toukmanian, Warwar, & Greenberg, 2005;Piliero, 2004;Pos et al., 2003) and the processing of this arousal (Greenberg & Safran, 1987;Pascual-Leone & Yeryomenko, 2016;Watson & Bedard, 2006). Research by Pascual-Leone and Greenberg (2007) also supports the idea that symptoms of psychological distress are reduced when an increase in emotional arousal is used to process previously unprocessed emotions. ...
An increasing amount of research suggests that it is beneficial to work explicitly with emotions in psychotherapy. Emotion-focused therapy (EFT) utilizes interventions that are thought to enhance the evocativeness of emotional processing and facilitate explorations of new meaning. The purpose of this study was to examine the effect of such an intervention on therapeutic outcome. The intervention, a two-chair dialogue drawn from emotion-focused therapy, was added to the treatment conditions that consisted of empathically following the clients' emotional processes. The treatment comprised 2 phases. Using a multiple baseline design, 21 self-critical clients (15 women and 6 men) with clinically significant symptoms of depression and/or anxiety first received 5, 7, or 9 sessions of a baseline treatment focused on alliance building, empathic attunement to affect, and therapeutic presence and genuineness. A two-chair dialogue intervention was then added for 5 sessions. The symptoms were measured before each session using Beck's Depression Inventory, Beck's Anxiety Index, and Forms of Self-Criticizing/Attacking and Self-Reassuring Scale. An analysis using Hierarchical Linear Modelling revealed that the phase with the two-chair dialogue had a larger impact on symptoms of anxiety and depression when compared to the baseline phase. On BDI-II, there was a greater impact on somatic-affective components than cognitive components. Self-criticism was reduced when we used time as a predictor for both phases but not significantly more after introducing the intervention. The results corroborate that the two-chair dialogue intervention is associated with change beyond what is shown when relationship conditions alone are being provided. Implications and limitations are discussed.
... There has been substantial research in the development of methods to analyze linguistic input in the field of psychotherapy in order to measure a number of psychological variables such as emotion, abstraction, referential activity, etc. among them Bucci's Referential Activity (RA) non-weighted (Bucci, 2002) and weighted dictionaries (Bucci and Maskit, 2006) for the English language, or Höltzer and others' affective dictionary (Hölzer et al., 1997) for the German language. The LIWC tool has been used to detect different types of personalities in written self-descriptions (Chung and Pennebaker, 2008). ...
... Therapists' verbalizations of emotions, especially naming the patients' anger in the therapy, have also been associated with success in therapy (Holzer, Pokorny, Kachele, & Luborsky, 1997). Not surprisingly, affects and emotions are emphasized as an important part of the psychotherapeutic relationship (Elliott, Bohart, Watson, & Greenberg, 2011;Greenberg, Watson, Elliot, & Bohart, 2001;Horvath & Bedi, 2002). ...
... Patient mastery of emotional self-control and cognitive self-understanding has been found to be related to improvement in symptoms (Grenyer & Luborsky, 1996). A relationship has also been found between the therapist's emotional language within therapy and outcome for the patient, particularly when therapists named more emotions in sessions (Hö lzer, Pokorny, Kächele, & Luborsky, 1997). A number of studies have particularly investigated positive emotion and its relationship to cognition. ...
Abstract Therapist-patient verbalizations reveal complex cognitive-emotional linguistic data. How these variables contribute to change requires further research. Emotional-cognitive text analysis using the Ulm cycles model software was applied to transcripts of the third session of psychotherapy for 20 patients with depression and personality disorder. Results showed that connecting cycle sequences of problem-solving in the third hour predicted 12-month clinical outcomes. Therapist-patient dyads most improved spent significantly more time early in session in connecting cycles, whilst the least improved moved into connecting cycles late in session. For this particular sample, it was clear that positive emotional problem-solving in therapy was beneficial.
eprint: http://www.tandfonline.com/eprint/BG4tumBp5k2SzzM3AFyk/full
... On retrouve, selon la classification de , les recherches de type « mesure des variables linguistiques », « structure temporelle des interactions » et « l'approche micro-analytique ». Dans ces études, différents éléments langagiers sont pris en considération tels que la fréquence des actions langagières et leur durée, la fréquence et la durée des pauses (Chapple, 1949), divers paramètres phonologiques (Pittenger et al., 1960), le coefficient de richesse lexicale, le nombre de mots à la minute, le pourcentage de verbes au temps présent et au temps passé (Jaffe, 1961), la longueur du discours des praticiens (Kächele, 1992), les types de verbes (Anderson et al., 1999), les mots affectifs (Hölzer et al., 1997). Ces investigations posent le problème de l'articulation entre les indices isolés et l'émergence d'une éventuelle signification plus glo-bale permettant d'apporter de nouvelles connaissances sur les processus thérapeutiques. ...
This methodological study aims at identifying and at validating linguistic indicators of the therapist reflexive consciousness. The indicators were built from the textbooks of existing grid of analysis (Grille d'Analyse du Contre-transfert, Grille d'Élaboration Verbale de l'Affect et Experiencing Scale) and thanks to a linguistic-pragmatic model of the mental states in the speech. An empirical study concerning 1762 propositions quoted the three grids and the linguistic indicators allowed to confirm the validity of these indicators. As waited, the reflexive propositions are characterized by the presence of linguistic indicators. This linguistic method turns out thus decisive. It is presented as an alternative to the usual grids of analysis of contents. It increases the metrological qualities of the instruments based on the language by improving, in particular, the reliability of the quotation.
... On retrouve, selon la classification de Blanchet [4], les recherches de type mesure des variables linguistiques, structure temporelle des interactions et l'approche microanalytique. Dans ces études, différents éléments langagiers sont pris en considération, tels que la fréquence des actions langagières et leur durée, la fréquence et la durée des pauses [9], divers paramètres phonologiques, le coefficient de richesse lexicale, le nombre de mots à la minute, le pourcentage de verbes au temps présent et au temps passé [20], la longueur du discours des praticiens [21], les types de verbes [2], les mots affectifs [18]. Ces investigations posent le problème de l'articulation entre les indices isolés et l'émergence d'une éventuelle signification plus globale et cliniquement pertinente. ...
An essential issue for research in psychotherapy is a good knowledge of psychotherapists' interventions. The first part of this article is devoted to the presentation of the principal methods of psychotherapists' speech analysis. The second part of our work aims to present an exploratory empirical study of psychotherapists' interventions. The objective of this empirical research is to build a new tool for analyzing psychotherapists' interventions on the basis of three instruments largely recognized in the field. Blanchet's grid (1991), Porter's classification (1950), and the Psychotherapy Intervention Rating Scale (PIRS, Milbrath et al., 1999) were applied to the same corpus (1,065 verbal interventions resulting from 8 therapeutic interviews carried out with two patients by a psychiatrist within the framework of Short Psychodynamic Investigation). The analysis of the frequencies of the 25 categories of the three grids starting from cross tables allowed us to identify common categories as well as categories specific to the three grids. The common categories were compiled and the specific ones were kept separate in order to shape a new synthetic instrument made up of 15 mutually exclusive categories. Three categories result from Porter's classification, seven from Blanchet's grid and five from the PIRS. These 15 categories were then grouped together into four classes according to formal and thematic criteria: 1) the "empathic interventions" group together four categories of Blanchet's grid (referential reiteration, modal reiteration, referential declaration, modal declaration); 2) the "search for information" interventions group together three categories of Blanchet's grid (instruction, referential interrogation, modal interrogation) and a category of Porter's classification (invitation with saying); 3) the "clinical interventions" group together two categories of Porter's classification (support, solution) and three categories of the PIRS (association, interpretation of defenses, interpretation of transfer); 4) the interventions relating to the "therapeutic framework" group together two categories of the PIRS (contractual arrangement, improvement of work). This new instrument shows that in spite of conceptual divergences and methodological specificities, the grids of analysis of therapists' speech share a certain common base. Thus, comparisons and connections between tools seem possible and very useful. Our new instrument of analysis of therapists' interventions has several advantages: integration of clinical and linguistic approaches ensuring internal and external validity, representation of various psychotherapeutic theories. After validation (study in progress), this tool could be applied easily and contribute to support the development of research on linguistic processes in psychotherapy. Such a tool could prove particularly useful for studying the specificity of psychotherapeutic interviews and differences in interventions according to therapeutic school. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
... There has been substantial research in the development of methods to analyze linguistic input in the field of psychotherapy in order to measure a number of psychological variables such as emotion, abstraction, referential activity, etc. among them Bucci's Referential Activity (RA) non-weighted (Bucci, 2002) and weighted dictionaries (Bucci and Maskit, 2006) for the English language, or Höltzer and others' affective dictionary (Hölzer et al., 1997) for the German language. The LIWC tool has been used to detect different types of personalities in written self-descriptions (Chung and Pennebaker, 2008). ...
This paper reports an ongoing work in applying Common Sense knowledge to Machine Translation aiming at generating more culturally contextualized translations. Common Sense can be defined as the knowledge shared by a group of people in a given time, space and culture; and this knowledge, here, is represented by a semantic network called ConceptNet. Machine Translation, in turn, is the automatic process of generating an equivalent translated version of a source sentence. In this work we intend to use the knowledge represented in two ConceptNets, one in Brazilian Portuguese and another in English, to fix/filter translations built automatically. So, this paper presents the initial ideas of our work, the steps taken so far as well as some opportunities for collaboration.
... Greenberg, Auszra, and Herrmann (2007) reported that a high degree of expressed emotional arousal, in connection with high productivity around the meaning of the arousal, was associated with improved outcome. Hö lzer, Pokorny, Kächele, and Luborsky (1997) have shown amongst other findings that there is a significant correlation between psychotherapeutic outcome and the proportion of emotional words expressed by the therapists. Leising et al. (2003) and Leising, Rudolf, Oberbracht, and Grande (2006) used the Clinical Emotions List (Leising, Rudolf, & Grande, 2004 ) to analyse interviews with 10 psychoanalytic patients. ...
Background: An important focus of current psychotherapy research is to explore how change occurs in the psychotherapeutic processes. There is a lack of studies that track the process of emotional change throughout therapy. Aim: Analysis of a single case is used to examine transformations of emotional functions during the course of psychodynamic long-term therapy. Method: A rating instrument was used to assess three aspects of emotional expression over 120 hours of therapy. Results: The number of verbalised emotions and the variability of the emotional profile increased during the course of the therapy. These developments occured in three distinct phases. The proportion of positive emotions varied across each stage although there was no linear increase across the case as a whole. Modifications of the rating scale were made, in relation to its applicability to the analysis of therapeutic dialogue. Conclusions: The findings of this study suggest that discontinuous transitions can be regarded as reflecting therapeutic progress (proximate outcomes) at an individual emotional level. The rating instrument used in this study has the potential to be widely used in case study research as a means of identifying processes of emotional transition in individual therapy.
... Recently, a number of studies also have shown that successful dynamic therapies involve more of an emotion focus. Verbalization of emotion and the use of more emotion-focused words by the therapist (Anderson, Bein, Pinnell, & Strupp, 1999;Holzer, Pokorny, Horst, & Luborsky, 1997), greater emotional activation and reflection by the client (Mergenthaler, 1996), and a clear focus on fundamental repetitive and maladaptive emotions structures (frames) that capture the stories that are characteristic of people's emotional experience in therapy (Dahl & Teller, 1994;Holzer & Dahl, 1996) all relate to outcome. ...
A truly integrative approach to treatment needs to combine methods of working with affect, cognition, and behavior, but established principles of affective change are sorely missing in the literature. Emotion theory and research suggests that emotion awareness, regulation, and transformation are 3 major principles of emotional change. In addition to these principles, 3 general factors that help guide integrative intervention in their use are discussed. Intervention should be guided by the source of the affect involved in the client's distress (amygdala- or prefrontal cortex-generated emotion), the type of affect dysregulation involved (too much or too little emotion), and the type of change process to be used (quick change to improve coping or longer change to restructure character). (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
... En lo que respecta a la psicoterapia, la herramienta principal de los psicoterapeutas de diferentes orientaciones teóricas es la palabra, el discurso verbal, expresado a través de frases como preguntas, afirmaciones, interpretaciones, indicaciones etc. Existen varias investigaciones en psicoterapia que analizan ese discurso y sus contenidos, el tipo y la cantidad de palabras usadas durante un proceso psicoterapéutico (e.g. Buchheim & Mergenthaler, 2001;Czogalik & Russell, 1995;Elliot, et al., 1987;Hölzer, Pokorny, Kächele, 1997;Mergenthaler, 1996Mergenthaler, , 2000Stiles & Shapiro, 1995;Wiser & Goldfried, 1996). Sin embargo, poco se ha investigado sobre la contraparte material del discurso oral en psicoterapia, es decir, la voz de terapeuta y paciente como un elemento que, de manera poco consciente, estaría siempre presente e influyendo en la interacción entre ambos. ...
The importance that psychotherapists assign to the non-verbal aspects of their own voice and those of their patients was studied. A questionnaire was applied to 25 therapists of different theoretical orientations and expertise levels. Qualitativedescriptive procedures were used to analyze their answers, which made it possible to conceptualize and categorize different voice parameters of relevance for the psychotherapy. "The patients' voice characteristic"and "The use of the voice as a tool", emerged as the main categories. Their concepts and attributes are illustrated with excerpts taken from two in-deep interviews conducted with seniors' psychotherapists. The implications and scopes of these results are discussed, and future lines of study related with the voice as a therapeutic instrument are presented.
... This approach to assessing emotional language is based on the assumption that the words that appear in natural, spontaneous language reflect underlying psychological states and are less prone to the biases of self-report than questionnaire measures. 40 Text analysis of emotional language has been used with a number of different kinds of interacting dyads 41,42 including interactions of married couples. 43,44 Given the generally stressful nature of caring for a dementia patient, we hypothesized that caregivers of both AD and FTD patients would report lower marital satisfaction and use more negative emotional language and less positive emotional language than controls. ...
We studied the impact of 2 types of dementia on marital satisfaction and on the emotional language that spouses use during conflictive marital interactions. Fifteen frontotemporal dementia (FTD) and 16 Alzheimer disease (AD) patient-caregiver couples, and 21 control couples, discussed a relationship problem in a laboratory setting. Marital satisfaction was assessed through questionnaire, and emotion language was quantified using text analysis. FTD couples reported lower marital satisfaction than AD and control couples. During the interactions, FTD and AD caregivers used significantly more negative emotion words than their patient spouses (no spousal differences were found in control couples). FTD caregivers also used more negative words than AD caregivers and controls. We interpret these findings as reflecting challenges that the behavioral changes in FTD create for maintaining a healthy marital bond.
... Research within the experiential and short-term psychodynamic therapy literatures suggests that emotional arousal, experience, and expression during therapy may be important processes in facilitating client change (e.g., Greenberg & Korman, 1993;Hilsenroth, Ackerman, Blagys, Baity, & Mooney, 2003;Hölzer, Pokorny, Kächele, & Luborsky, 1997;Pos, Greenberg, Goldman, & Korman, 2003;Rosner, 1996). Moreover, active attention to and reflection on the emotional experience are also thought to be necessary for emotion schemes to be changed and restructured Pos et al., 2003;Warwar & Greenberg, 1999b). ...
Early-, middle-, and late-phase client emotional arousal, perceptual processing strategies, and working alliance were examined in relation to treatment outcome on 4 measures in 32 clients who previously underwent experiential therapy for depression. Hierarchical regression analyses relating these variables to outcome indicated that results varied depending on the therapeutic process, phase of treatment, and outcome measure involved in the analyses. Mid-therapy arousal predicted improvements in self-esteem, whereas mid- and late treatment perceptual processing predicted reductions in client interpersonal dysfunction. Emotional arousal in conjunction with perceptual processing during mid-therapy predicted reductions in depressive and psychopathological symptomatology better than either of these variables alone. The implications of these findings for psychotherapy research and practice are discussed.
... If an affect is associated with conflict, words or images used to express it are repressed and disappear from the patient's conscious verbalizations. Researchers inspired by this understanding are thus mostly interested in the presence/absence or quantity of affective themes in the clinical discourse (Butler & Strupp, 1991;Dahl, 1991;Gottschalk & Gleser, 1969;Hölzer, Pokorny, Kächele, & Luborsky, 1997;Horowitz, Fridhandler, & Stinson, 1992;Mergenthaler, 1996;Silberschatz & Sampson, 1991;Weintraub, 1989). In contrast, a view concordant with the more recent developments in psychoanalytic conceptualization of affect emphasizes the idea of a transformation of affective experiences, from basic somatic and motoric patterns to more symbolized and complex mental phenomena (see Lecours & Bouchard, 1997). ...
Recent interest in the transformative impact of reflective mechanisms on affect regulation has led to a focus on forms of "mentalized affectivity." This article aims at describing a method for assessing affect mentalization as it appears in verbal data. The method will be illustrated by a preliminary exploration of sex differences in the verbal expression of affect in a clinical setting. The Grille de l'Elaboration Verbale des Affects (GEVA) was applied to the transcribed first evaluation interview of 18 female and 18 male patients seeking psychotherapy. Controlling for GAF and language, results reveal that women take more ownership of their affect and are more expressive, verbally and nonverbally, than men, who are more mentally externalizing and use the motor modality more often than women.
A truly integrative approach to treatment needs to combine methods of working with affect, cognition, and behavior, but established principles of affective change are sorely missing in the literature. Emotion theory and research suggests that emotion awareness, regulation, and transformation are 3 major principles of emotional change. In addition to these principles, 3 general factors that help guide integrative intervention in their use are discussed. Intervention should be guided by the source of the affect involved in the client's distress (amygdala- or prefrontal cortex-generated emotion), the type of affect dysregulation involved (too much or too little emotion), and the type of change process to be used (quick change to improve coping or longer change to restructure character).
Verbal Elaboration of Affect (VEA) is an aspect of mentalization that refers to the transformation of drive-affect experiences. The GEVA (Grille de l'Elaboration Verbale de l'Affect), measures the formal properties of VEA, defined as levels of affect elaboration according to two dimensions: (1) four channels of verbal expression: somatic and motor activity, imagery, and labeling verbalization; (2) five levels of affect tolerance/abstraction: disruptive impulsion, modulated impulsion, externalization, appropriation, and meaning association. The GEVA and the Defense Mechanisms Rating Scales are applied to transcripts of a 14-session prematurely terminated psychotherapy. The patient demonstrated an increase in mental elaboration of her negative affects across the sessions. A closer examination, however, reveals that she became less spontaneous and more externalizing, while increasingly adopting the verbal channel. She was also increasingly disavowing in her defensive functioning and spoke less frequently of ...
Verbal Elaboration of Affect (VEA) is an aspect of mentalization that refers to the transformation of drive-affect experiences. The GEVA (Grille de l'Elaboration Verbale de l'Affect), measures the formal properties of VEA, defined as levels of affect elaboration according to two dimensions: (1) four channels of verbal expression: somatic and motor activity, imagery, and labeling verbalization; (2) five levels of affect tolerance/abstraction: disruptive impulsion, modulated impulsion, externalization, appropriation, and meaning association. The GEVA and the Defense Mechanisms Rating Scales are applied to transcripts of a 14-session prematurely terminated psychotherapy. The patient demonstrated an increase in mental elaboration of her negative affects across the sessions. A closer examination, however, reveals that she became less spontaneous and more externalizing, while increasingly adopting the verbal channel. She was also increasingly disavowing in her defensive functioning and spoke less frequently of her negative affects.
La connaissance des interventions des psychothérapeutes en situation d'entretien représente un enjeu essentiel dans le champ de la recherche en psychothérapie. Cet article d'ordre méthodologique vise à comparer et mettre en commun trois grilles d'analyse de discours afin d'élaborer un nouvel instrument. Mille soixante-cinq interventions verbales issues de huit entretiens (Investigation Psychodynamique Brève) effectués auprès de deux patientes ont été codées à l'aide des grilles de Blanchet (1991), de Porter (1950), et du Psychotherapy Intervention Rating Scale (1999). L'analyse des fréquences des 25 catégories d'intervention à partir de tableaux croisés a permis de dégager des catégories communes et spécifiques aux trois grilles et de construire un instrument synthétique de 15 catégories. Cette étude montre qu'un rapprochement entre des instruments issus d'univers théoriques différents s'avère réalisable et fructueux.
Most embedded systems for the avionics industry are considered safety critical systems; as a result, strict software development standards exist to ensure critical software is built with the highest quality possible. One of such standards, DO-178B, establishes a number of properties that software requirements must satisfy including: accuracy, non-ambiguity and verifiability. From a language perspective, it is possible to automate the analysis of software requirements to determine whether or not they satisfy some quality properties. This work suggests a bounded definition for three properties (accuracy, non-ambiguity and verifiability) considering the main characteristics that software requirements must exhibit to satisfy those objectives. A software prototype that combines natural language processing (NLP) techniques and specialized dictionaries was built to examine software requirements written in English with the goal of identifying whether or not they satisfy the desired properties. Preliminary results are presented showing how the tool effectively identifies critical issues that are normally ignored by human reviewers.
We present work in progress in the application of Natural Language Processing (NLP) technology to the analysis of textual transcriptions of psychotherapy sessions in the Spanish Language. We are developing a set of NLP tools as well as adapting an existing dictionary for the analysis of interviews framed on a psychoanalytic theory. We investigate the application of NLP techniques, including dictionary-based interpretation, and speech act identification and classification for the (semi) automatic identification in text of a set of psychoanalytical variables. The objective of the work is to provide a set of tools and resources to assist therapist during discourse analysis.
In this paper, an overview of an approach for cross-language image indexing and multilingual terminology alignment is presented. Content-Based Image Retrieval (CBIR) is proposed as a means to find similar images in target language documents in the web and natural language processing is used to reduce the search space and find the image index. As the experiments are carried out in specialized domains, a systematic and recursive use of the approach is used to align multilingual terminology by creating repositories of images with their respective cross-language indices.
Based on the recent discussion on evidence-based psychotherapy, the last 5 volumes of the international journal Psychotherapy Research were bibliometrically analyzed. The analysis demonstrates the variety and complexity of recent psychotherapy research by investigating articles from Psychotherapy Research, which serves as the official organ of the Society for Psychotherapy Research. North American and European contributions were compared with respect to the hypotheses, research tradition, methodological approaches, leading representatives (frequently cited authors of the journal), and the reception of the international state of research. Regardless of the current dominance of empirically supported treatments, the editors of Psychotherapy Research strategically compiled a wide variety of current research approaches without restricting the publications to randomized controlled studies that evaluated care systems. This approach has proven successful in view of the impact of the journal within the scientific community and among the flagship journals of the field.
Affect experience and affect regulation are based on varying concepts and the integration of this constructs is discussed controversy. The AREQ - Affect Experience and Affect Regulation Q-sort Test, an expert rating, covers the need of an integrated method to explore the emotional functioning of patients. This is the validation of the german version of the AREQ. Based on statistical considerations and in order to create a practicable and time efficient instrument, which is necessary to display the course and process of a therapy, we created a short version of the AREQ. In this short version only significant items are included, and therefore the time for the implementation is much shorter. The results of the statistical calculations show better psychometric properties for the short version. Especially the scales, which are defined by the original version, show better reliability and account in different samples for 60-73% of the variance.
© Georg Thieme Verlag KG Stuttgart · New York.
As described by many theorists, emotional expressions contribute to the activation and regulation of personal emotional experiences and communicate something about internal states and intentions. These emotional expressions can be observed in the words used in our speech and nonverbal behaviors, even when nonverbal behaviors are synchronized to one's own speech or to the speech of others. Using a quantitative and qualitative methodology, this article reports a classification of verbal emotional expressions of both psychotherapists and patients in change episodes. Assuming that the emotions loaded in linguistic contents are explicit emotions shown by emotion words, this methodology allows for a complete and differentiating assessment of affective qualities in both patients and psychotherapists during the psychotherapeutic dialogue.
Emotions can be assessed by means of different diagnostic methods, for example, by self-report instruments, ratings of facial expressions, or by projective techniques. This study presents an alternative approach: a computerized investigation of verbally expressed emotions by means of the Affective Dictionary Ulm (ADU; Dahl, Hölzer, & Berry, 1992), which was applied to responses in the Holtzman Inkblot Technique (HIT; Holtzman, 1988; Holtzman, Thorpe, Swartz, & Herron, 1961). A normal group (n = 30), patients with neurotic disorders (n = 30), borderline patients (n = 30), acute schizophrenics (n = 25), and chronic schizophrenics (n = 25) were compared in regard to verbally expressed emotions. According to the results, patients with neurotic disorders did not differ from the normal group in regard to verbally expressed emotions. Borderline patients expressed fear and emotions in general significantly more frequently than all other diagnostic groups. Furthermore, borderline patients differed in regard to specific emotions from patients with neurotic disorders, acute schizophrenics, and chronic schizophrenics. Acute schizophrenics did not differ from the normal group in regard to the expression of emotions, whereas chronic schizophrenics expressed anger, fear, anxiety, and emotions in general significantly less frequently than normals. By a discriminant analysis using verbally expressed emotions as predictors of the diagnosis, hit rates between 87% and 100% could be achieved. Furthermore, hypotheses about correlations between emotions on the one hand and internalized primitive object relations and bizarre-idiosyncratic thinking were tested empirically. Significant correlations could be demonstrated. These results support the validity of assessing emotions through a lexical content analysis of the HIT by use of the ADU.
Clinical observations suggest that depressive experiences in patients with borderline personality disorder have a specific quality. These experiences are characterized by emptiness and anger ("angry depression") and are associated with primitive forms of object relations. In this study, this observation was tested empirically. A sample of borderline inpatients (N=30) was compared with a sample of inpatients with higher levels of personality organization suffering from neurotic disorders (N=30). Depression and other affects were assessed by the Affective Dictionary Ulm (Dahl, Hölzer, & Berry, 1992). The quality of object relations was assessed by a scale developed by Urist (1977), which was applied to responses in the Holtzman Inkblot Technique (Holtzman, Thorpe, Swartz, & Herron, 1961). Correlations were assessed between depression, on the one hand, and anger, anxiety, and the quality of object relations, on the other hand. The clinical observations were confirmed: In the patients with borderline personality disorder, depression showed significant correlations with the affects of anger, anxiety, and fear, and with primitive forms of object relations. In the patients with higher levels of personality organization, no such correlations were found. The results are discussed with regard to the understanding of borderline disorders, diagnosis, and therapy.
Does the subjective emotional experience of patients change in the course of psychoanalytic treatment?
Ten patients were interviewed four times during their first two years in psychoanalytic therapy. Interviews were coded with regard to the patients' subjective emotional experience. Changes in individual emotion profiles were then tested for associations with therapy outcome using a hierarchical linear model.
Better therapy outcome was associated with an increase in emotional variability and a decrease in the proportion of negative emotions. In contrast, neither the number of emotions verbalized by the patients nor the frequencies of specific emotion categories were associated with therapy outcome.
Remarkable changes of emotional experience during the course of psychoanalytic treatment could be demonstrated. Particularly, a more variable emotional experience proved to be closely associated with improvement in mental health.
researchers in the field of psychosomatic medicine have been concerned with the long-term health effects of chronic emotions / although the nature of emotional experience within different diseases has been of interest, a central thrust within psychosomatic medicine has been to investigate the problems associated with the inhibition or supression of emotions / trace the history and development of emotional inhibition and its links to disease
the psychosomatic tradition: personality and disease / the specificity hypothesis within psychosomatics / emotion and emotional expressiveness related to asthma / anger and hostility as predictors of heart disease / emotional expression and immune dysfunction / beyond specificity: the generalized health risks of inhibition / situationally-induced inhibition: the role of traumatic experiences / reversing the adverse effects of inhibition through verbal expression (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
245 males (mean age 46.8 yrs) and 248 females (mean age 44 yrs) were readministered the Social Readjustment Rating Scale, measures of personal functioning, and a social background index 12–15 mo after their initial assessment. There was some evidence for temporal consistency in the number and type of events Ss experienced as well as for a relationship between initial symptoms of depression (among males) and the more frequent occurrence of later events. After controlling for Ss' initial symptom levels and propensity to experience stressful events, an increase in negative events during the follow-up period was related to an increase in symptoms. Among several gender differences, negative events were found to have more impact on females than males. The confounding of the measurement of discrete stressful events and ongoing life strain is identified as potentially underlying the consistency of "events" as well as contributing to the difficulty in interpreting the relationship between "events" and functioning. (53 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
The authors applied five different computer-assisted measures for the analysis of textual data to the transcripts of two brief psychotherapies. The five measures involved different computational procedures and were derived from different theoretical backgrounds. The two cases when compared did not show uniform results in their trends over time for any one method. However, examination and comparison of the five measurements for each case yielded convergent phenomena, which could then be validated by other data available for these cases.
The therapeutic process involves many different types of affective phenomena. No single therapeutic perspective has been able to encompass within its own theoretical framework all the ways in which emotion plays a role in therapeutic change. A comprehensive, constructive theory of emotion helps transcend the differences in the therapeutic schools by viewing emotion as a complex synthesis of expressive motor, schematic, and conceptual information that provides organisms with information about their responses to situations that helps them orient adaptively in the environment. In addition to improved theory, increased precision in the assessment of affective functioning in therapy, as well as greater specification of different emotional change processes and means of facilitating these, will allow the role of emotion in change to be studied more effectively. A number of different change processes involving emotion are discussed, as well as principles of emotionally focused intervention that help access emotion and promote emotional restructuring.
The Penn Psychotherapy Project reports further progress in its search for the factors predicting the outcomes of psychotherapy through the construction of the Penn Helping Alliance Rating Method. This method is based on the following two types of patients' statements during psychotherapy sessions: type 1, that the therapist is helping the patient, and type 2, that the patient and therapist are working together in a team effort to help the patient. The scales were applied reliably to the transcripts from ten patients who had improved the most and ten who had improved the least among the 73 in the project. Significant predictive correlations were found for the early helping alliance measures (eg, with status at the termination of treatment and with the composite of "success, satisfaction, and improvement"). In contrast, other theoretically important treatment variables were not significant predictors.
Our study of predictability of outcomes of psychotherapy used predictions of two kinds: (1) direct predictions by patients, therapists, and clinical observers; and (2) predictive measures derived from the same sources. Seventy-three nonpsychotic patients were treated in psychoanalytically oriented psychotherapy (mean, 44 sessions). Two thirds of the therapists were residents in psychiatry; one third were more experienced. The two main composite outcome measures, measured at termination, were Raw Gain (residualized) and Rated Benefits, which intercorrelated at .76. Most patients improved and showed a considerable range of benefits. The clinical observers' direct predictions of Rated Benefits were highest (.27, P less than 905). The success of the predictive measures were generally insignificant, and the best of them were in the .2 to .3 range meaning that only 5% to 10% of the outcome variance was predicted. The Prognostic Index Interview variables did the best (eg, emotional freedom composite, .30; a crossvalidation for 30 patients was .39 (P less than .05). Neither the therapist measures nor the early psychotherapy session measures predicted significantly. Reanalysis of the similar Chicago Counseling Center study, in our terms, showed a similar low level of prediction success, eg, adequacy of functioning, marital status match, and length of treatment predicted significantly in both studies.
The focus of many psychologists today is not so much on the traits and long-term characteristics of the people who participate in our research as on their reactions to events and situations. Psychologists are concerned with changing transitory psychological states, but have not yet developed fully effective techniques for their assessment. Content analysis of verbal communications can be helpful in assessing such states. Content analysis is based on the assumption that the language in which people choose to express themselves contains information about the nature of their psychological states. This assumption implies a representational or descriptive model of language, in contrast to the instrumental or functional model preferred, for example, by Mahl [1]. Content analysis can be applied only to verbal, not to nonverbal communications. However, although content analysis cannot be applied to nonverbal communications, inferences can be made about people’s states through objective and systematic identification of specified characteristics of their verbal communications [2, 3]. Content analysis of verbal communications is a way of listening to and interpreting people’s communicated accounts of events. When agreement between independent interpretations is achieved, the essential requirement of scientific endeavor (intersubjective agreement) is met [4].
Mit dem Aufkommen einer dialogorientierten Linguistik, im deutschen Sprachraum eingeführt als Diskurs- oder Konversationsanalyse (Klann 1979, Flader et al. 1982), wurde das Verständnis von Sprache als Handlung eine brauchbare Basis für die Untersuchung sprachlicher Elementarbestandteile auch in psychotherapeutischen Dialogen. Selbst wenn Freuds berühmte Charakterisierung — „In der analytischen Behandlung geht nichts anderes vor als ein Austausch von Worten zwischen dem Analysierten und dem Arzt.“ (Freud 1916–17, S. 9) — mehr didaktisch orientiert gewesen sein dürfte, so gibt sie doch eine heute noch aktuelle Ausgangssituation wieder, die nach der systematischen Untersuchung dieser Wörter ruft.
Attempting to understand the body’s signals is similar to trying to interpret the noises and sensations of the automobile that we drive. We do not have a computer printout of either the current physiological status of our body or the condition of the various systems of our car. Given this, we are in the position of attempting to understand a large array of ambiguous sensations about which we have at best a modicum of knowledge. Whether we are dealing with human bodies or inanimate cars, the awareness and reporting of symptoms are dependent on psychological or perceptual processes. Throughout this book, a large number of studies have outlined some of the parameters that determine when and why symptoms are reported. Before discussing some of the implications of symptom research, we present the following brief review of our current knowledge about the perception of physical symptoms.
Physical symptoms are fascinating phenomena to examine. We all experience them, use them as signals to guide our behavior, and usually assume that they accurately represent underlying physiological activity. At the same time, we implicitly know that bodily sensations are often vague, ambiguous, and subject to a variety of interpretations. It is not surprising, then, that there is often a disparity between what we think is going on in our bodies and what is objectively occurring. In short, phenomena such as physical symptoms are the stuff of psychology. My own research into physical symptoms started by accident several years ago. In a hastily devised experiment dealing with the effects of noise on behavior, I had to write a post-experimental questionnaire that would be long enough to allow the experimenter time to calibrate some equipment for a later portion of the study. I included some physical symptoms on the questionnaire as fillers. The experiment was a total failure, with the exception of the symptom reports. People's perceptions of symptoms were easily influenced by our manipulations, even though their actual physiological state had not changed. And so began the present inquiry. Despite the pervasiveness, importance, and sheer amount of time and money devoted to discussing and curing common physical symptoms and sensations, very little empirical work has been devoted to examining the psychological and perceptual factors related to sensory experience. Occa sional papers have tested a specific theory, such as cognitive dissonance, wherein physical symptoms served as an interesting dependent measure."
One purpose of our research was to determine the pretreatment predictive factors in the patient and therapist (Project A of this book). . . . Our other purpose was to determine the predictive factors within the treatment, especially in the early sessions (Project B of the book).
The first part of the book, known as "Project A," is largely devoted to the Penn Psychotherapy Project as it was first conceived.
The second part of the book reports on "Project B," which is aimed at locating predictive factors within the early sessions of the treatment. . . . Project B, therefore, offers a set of measures of the key concepts of psychoanalytic psychotherapy. The book winds up with a massive chapter summarizing all the findings in the Penn study and comparing them with the findings of most other predictive studies of the outcomes of psychotherapy.
This book will interest three types of readers: those who are practitioners of psychotherapy, those with a research interest in the topic, and those with both clinical and research interests. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Contends, on the basis of a survey, that from the behavioral medicine, social psychology, emotional psychology, and psychophysiology points of view, the role of inhibitory mechanisms in psychosomatic disorders is an important research issue. As an active process in the individual, inhibition must be considered among those mechanisms of auto- and behavioral regulation where psychic and somatic processes influence one another mutually. It is suggested that a better understanding may impact on intervention techniques in behavioral therapy, treatment of psychosomatic disorders, concordance therapy, and affects of the process of socialization. (English abstract) (38 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Since 1968 one of our major research efforts consists in establishing a methodology for performing psychoanalytic process research. Within this frame tape-recording of psychoanalytic long-term treatments constituted an essential methodical step inevitably leading to the production of a large collection of verbatim transcripts. We gradually and inadvertently realized the need for a major computerized databank to assist our own research. With support of the German Research Foundation we started in 1980 with the development of the Ulm Textbank Management System. While realizing the system it became obvious that such a databank would serve as well other researchers involved in process research when analyzing verbatim material. The final shape of the systems thus was strongly influenced by the orientation towards a variety of users and methodological approaches. Meanwhile this task is completed and the Ulm Textbank, as it is known, is available as a new unique tool for psychotherapy research.
In this study we investigated how vocabularies of patients, as well as therapists, are related to outcome of psychotherapeutic treatment. For this purpose 80 transcripts of the ten most and ten least improved patients of the Penn Psychotherapy Project (PPP) were included in the Ulm Textbank. In addition to the total amount of speech, different vocabulary measures, such as the "private vocabulary" and the "shared vocabulary" of patient and therapists, were applied to the transcripts. Furthermore, the "Regressive Imagery Dictionary" "RID" was applied as a content analytic approach, measuring primary and secondary process content in a given text. Significant correlations of these variables with the PPP outcome measure "residual gain" were found, indicating, that successful therapists tend to accommodate more to the language of their patients compared with their non-successful colleagues.
The 'quality of life' is a construct which many researchers are attempting to measure by means of self-rating procedures and by ratings from external observers. Another method of measuring this construct includes features of both the self-report method and the external observer rating method, and by doing so it minimizes some of the measurement errors inherent in the separate methods; this third method involves the content analysis of verbal behavior. This latter method preserves the reliability and validity of the scales that have been developed and tested for content analysis, while preserving the meanings intended by the subjects who are being assessed on this dimension, which meanings are often obscured or lost through self-report and ratings scales. A group of Content Scales especially applicable to assess the quality of life are reviewed and examples of their applicability are given. A discussion is provided dealing with special problems involving the assessment of this dimension, including cross-cultural issues and other factors that need consideration with respect to generalizability of the findings.
The authors describe the Prognostic Index, a clinical form for rating patients on 31 variables believed to be significant in predicting outcome of psychotherapy. Forty-seven patients were rated on this instrument at the beginning of therapy. Factor analysis of the Prognostic Index revealed the five main dimensions that its 31 variables represent. The outcome of therapy was significantly predicted by the patients' scores on three fators: General Emotional Health, Intellectual Achievement, and Acute Depression.
Introduction and Aims
The concept of "mental health" has become current in the everyday thinking of clinicians despite its global and diversely defined character. The members of the Psychotherapy Research Project of The Menninger Foundation wanted to know whether this concept had enough tangibility and unity of reference to be reliably judged along a single continuum by experienced observers. The vast literature does not deal extensively with this apparently simple question. Most contributors have worked on problems of definition (e.g.,Senn,20 Mayman15), although a small but expanding number of attempts have been made to measure specific criteria of health Lorr,10 Rogers and Dymond,18 Jahoda,8 Kelman and Parloff,9 Parloff17).*We came to this question in the early phases of the Psychotherapy Research Project26 when a need was felt for a simple survey instrument to record shorthand judgments of
Emotion in Psychotherapy Emotionen als Begierden und Botschaften -ein Konzept und eine Replikationsstudie
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A new psychoanalytic model of motivation. Emotion as appetites and messages
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Psychodynamik der Emotionsstörungen
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