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Relationship Between Intake of Green Tea and Periodontal Disease

April 2009
The Journal of Periodontology 80(3):372-7

DOI:10.1902/jop.2009.080510

Source
PubMed

Authors:

Yoshihiro Shimazaki

Aichi Gakuin University

Yoshihisa Yamashita

Kyushu University

Green tea is a very popular beverage, and in vitro studies have shown that green tea polyphenols inhibit the growth and cellular adherence of periodontal pathogens and their production of virulence factors. We investigated the epidemiologic relationship between the intake of green tea and periodontal disease. We analyzed 940 Japanese men aged 49 to 59 years as part of a comprehensive health examination. Probing depth (PD), clinical attachment loss (AL), and bleeding on probing (BOP) were used as the periodontal parameters. We examined the relationship between the intake of green tea and periodontal parameters. The intake of green tea was defined as the number of cups per day in a self-administered questionnaire. The intake of green tea was inversely correlated with the mean PD, mean clinical AL, and BOP. In multivariate linear regression models, every one cup/day increment in green tea intake was associated with a 0.023-mm decrease in the mean PD (P <0.05), a 0.028-mm decrease in the mean clinical AL (P <0.05), and a 0.63% decrease in BOP (P <0.05), after adjusting for other confounding variables. There was a modest inverse association between the intake of green tea and periodontal disease.

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Parameter Estimates From Stepwise Multivariate Linear Regression Models Evaluating Each Independent Variable in Relation to Periodontal Parameters

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Relationship Between Intake of Green

Tea and Periodontal Disease

Mitoshi Kushiyama,* Yoshihiro Shimazaki,* Masatoshi Murakami,* and Yoshihisa Yamashita*

Background: Green tea is a very popular beverage, and in

vitro studies have shown that green tea polyphenols inhibit

the growth and cellular adherence of periodontal pathogens

and their production of virulence factors. We investigated the

epidemiologic relationship between the intake of green tea

and periodontal disease.

Methods: We analyzed 940 Japanese men aged 49 to

59 years as part of a comprehensive health examination.

Probing depth (PD), clinical attachment loss (AL), and bleed-

ing on probing (BOP) were used as the periodontal parameters.

We examined the relationship between the intake of green tea

and periodontal parameters. The intake of green tea was de-

ﬁned as the number of cups per day in a self-administered

questionnaire.

Results: The intake of green tea was inversely correlated

with the mean PD, mean clinical AL, and BOP. In multivariate

linear regression models, every one cup/day increment in

green tea intake was associated with a 0.023-mm decrease

in the mean PD (P<0.05), a 0.028-mm decrease in the

mean clinical AL (P<0.05), and a 0.63% decrease in BOP

(P<0.05), after adjusting for other confounding variables.

Conclusion: There was a modest inverse association be-

tween the intake of green tea and periodontal disease. J Peri-

odontol 2009;80:372-377.

KEY WORDS

Epidemiology; green tea; periodontal disease; periodontitis.

Periodontal disease is a chronic dis-

ease that is prevalent in adults.

The incidence and progression of

periodontal disease is related causally to

periodontal pathogens,

1,2

as well as to

various host and environmental fac-

tors.

3,4

Eating habits and nutritional

intake affect periodontal disease. Many

studies have reported that consumption

of vitamin C and calcium is linked to

periodontal disease

5,6

and that the con-

sumption of whole-grain and lactic acid

foods has a prophylactic effect on peri-

odontal disease.

7-9

Green tea is a popular drink, and the in-

take of greentea and its components,such

as catechin, had a preventive effect

against cancer development and cardio-

vascular disease in experimental and

epidemiologic studies.

10,11

Several in vi-

tro studies have suggested that green tea

catechins, such as (-)-epigallocatechin

gallate (EGCg), inhibit periodontal path-

ogens

12-14

and the destruction of peri-

odontal tissue.

15,16

A pilot clinical

study

showed that periodontal treatment

withtheslow-releaselocaldeliveryofcate-

chin improved periodontal status. How-

ever, it is not clear whether the daily

intake of green tea has a beneﬁcial effect

on periodontal health. Therefore, we exam-

ined the epidemiologic relationship be-

tween the daily intake of green tea and

periodontal disease through a compre-

hensive health examination in middle-

aged Japanese men.

* Department of Preventive Dentistry, Kyushu University Faculty of Dental Science,

Fukuoka, Japan.

doi: 10.1902/jop.2009.080510

Volume 80 • Number 3

372

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Study Population

More than 95% of the men enlisted in the Self-Defense

Force in Fukuoka, Japan, attended a comprehensive

health examination that included a 5-day admission

to the Self-Defense Force Fukuoka Hospital in the 5

years before retirement. The examination was con-

ducted for preretirement healthcare for the subjects.

We examined a total of 1,123 men aged 49 to 59 years

between January 2000 and March 2002. Of these, 940

subjects who had ‡20 teeth and all of the data required

for analysis were studied to ensure an adequate as-

sessment of periodontal condition. The subjects pro-

vided oral consent to participate in this study. The

study was conducted in accordance with the Helsinki

Declaration, and the design and procedures were ap-

proved by the Self-Defense Force, Fukuoka Hospital,

and the Ground Staff Ofﬁce.

Measurements

Oral examination was carried out by one dentist

trained to perform a clinical examination of oral health

status using a normal dental chair. Probing depth (PD)

and clinical attachment loss (AL) were measured

using a periodontal probe

†

at the mesio-buccal and

mid-buccal sites for all remaining teeth, except third

molars, following the method of the Third National

Health and Nutrition Examination Survey.

Gingival

bleeding on probing (BOP) was evaluated by calculat-

ing the percentage of teeth exhibiting gingival bleed-

ing within a few seconds of probing the periodontal

pockets. The examiner reliability of the periodontal

examination was veriﬁed by an intraexaminer calibra-

tion of volunteers; the percentage agreement (within

–1 mm) ranged from 91.0% to 100% for PD and from

89.0% to 100% for clinical AL. The kappa value

ranged from 0.86 to 1.00 for PD and from 0.84 to

1.00 for clinical AL. The examiner was masked to

the answers of the questionnaire while conducting

the periodontal examination.

Each subject completed a self-administered ques-

tionnaire that assessed smoking history, alcohol in-

take, toothbrushing habits, and the daily intake of

green tea; an examiner checked the answers orally.

Smoking habit was quantiﬁed as the number of ciga-

rettes smoked per day multiplied by the number of

years smoked. The frequency of toothbrushing was

divided into ﬁve categories and coded as follows:

never =1; sometimes =2; once a day =3; twice a

day =4; and three or more times a day =5. We asked

about the habitual frequency of drinking green tea as

the number of cups per day and used it as a continu-

ous variable in the analysis.

Physicians examined each subject’s systemic con-

dition. A blood sample was collected from the antecu-

bital vein after an overnight fast to determine lipid and

glucose levels. The body mass index was deﬁned as

the weight in kilograms divided by the square of the

height in meters. Body fat was deﬁned using foot-to-

foot bioelectric impedance analysis using a body com-

position monitor.

‡

Statistical Analysis

Weused the mean PD,mean clinicalAL, and BOP as de-

pendentvariablestoreﬂectperiodontaldisease.We cal-

culated the Spearman correlation coefﬁcient among

each periodontal parameter, the intake of green tea,

andotherstudy variables.We used simple linear regres-

sion analysis to examine the relationship between the

intake of green tea and each periodontal parameter.

Stepwise multivariate linear regression analysis was

used to examinethe effect of each independent variable

on the periodontal parameters. The variables for which

the correlation coefﬁcient was signiﬁcant were entered

into the multivariate model. The statistical analyses

were performed using a software program.

RESULTS

The characteristics of the subjects were compared to

the data for men 50 to 59 years old from the National

Nutrition Survey of Japan, conducted in 2000 (Table

1).

Most of the data were similar; however, the

subjects’ systolic blood pressure and triglycerides

were slightly lower and the high-density lipoprotein

(HDL) cholesterol was slightly higher compared to

the results of the National Nutrition Survey. The per-

centage of smokers (current and past) was 81.5% in

this study and 76.7% in the National Nutrition Survey.

Table 1 shows the Spearman correlation coefﬁcient

of the study variables. The intake of green tea, smok-

ing habit, number of teeth, and HDL cholesterol were

signiﬁcantly correlated with all of the periodontal pa-

rameters. The frequency of toothbrushing was associ-

ated with the mean PD and BOP, and the body fat and

triglycerides were associated with BOP. The intake of

green tea was correlated with the frequency of tooth-

brushing and number of teeth. There was no signiﬁ-

cant seasonal variation in mean green tea intake.

The simple linear regression analysis identiﬁed a

signiﬁcant relationship between the intake of green

tea and each periodontal parameter (Table 2). Table

3 shows the results of the stepwise multivariate linear

regression to evaluate each independent variable in

relation to the periodontal parameters. The intake of

green tea was signiﬁcantly inversely correlated with

all of the periodontal parameters. Every one cup/

day increment in green tea intake was associated with

a 0.023-mm decrease in mean PD (P<0.05), a 0.028-

mm decrease in mean clinical AL (P<0.05), and a

† PCPUNC15, Hu-Friedy, Chicago, IL.

‡ TBF-401, Tanita, Tokyo, Japan.

§ SPSS version 15.0, SPSS Japan, Tokyo, Japan.

J Periodontol • March 2009 Kushiyama, Shimazaki, Murakami, Yamashita

373

0.63% decrease in BOP (P<0.05), after adjusting for

other confounding variables.

DISCUSSION

We conducted a comprehensive health examination

of males in their ﬁfties and examined the relationship

between the daily intake of green tea and periodontal

disease. Most of the subjects in the Self-Defense Force

were men, and men in their ﬁfties have a relatively

large number of existing teeth and a high prevalence

of periodontal disease. The daily intake of green tea

was signiﬁcantly associated with indices of peri-

odontal disease, including PD, clinical AL, and BOP,

such that the more frequently the subjects drank

green tea, the better was their periodontal condition.

Bacterial bioﬁlm development in the marginal

gingiva and periodontal pockets is important in the

pathogenesis of periodontal disease. Previous in vitro

studies showed that green tea catechin inhibits the

growth of Porphyromonas gingivalis,Prevotella inter-

media, and Prevotella nigrescens

12,14

and the adher-

ence of P. gingivalis onto human buccal epithelial

cells.

In addition, green tea catechins with the steric

structures of 3-galloyl radial, EGCg, (-)-epicatechin

gallate (ECg), and (-)-gallocatechin gallate, which

are the major tea polyphenols, inhibit the production

of toxic end metabolites of P. gingivalis.

These re-

ports of the inhibitory effects of catechin contained

in green tea on periodontal pathogens may provide

the basis for the beneﬁcial effect of the daily intake

of green tea on periodontal health.

Periodontal disease is an infectious disease involv-

ing gingival inﬂammation and the destruction of peri-

odontal tissue. Periodontal pathogens, such as P.

gingivalis and Aggregatibacter actinomycetemcomi-

tans (previously Actinobacillus actinomycetemcomi-

tans), produce matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs)

and exhibit collagenase activity.

MMPs, such as

Table 1.

Characteristics of Variables and Spearman Correlation Coefﬁcients

Spearman Correlation Coefﬁcient

Mean –SD

(range)

National Nutrition

Survey

Mean PD

Mean

Clinical AL BOP

Intake of

Green Tea

Age (years) 52.4 –0.9 (49 to 59) (50 to 59) -0.04 -0.01 -0.03 0.03

PD (mm) 2.5 –0.8 (1.0 to 7.0) – 0.77* 0.69* -0.11*

Clinical AL (mm) 3.0 –1.0 (0.7 to 8.2) 0.77* – 0.50* -0.11*

BOP (%) 17.7 –19.0 (0 to 100) 0.69* 0.50* – -0.08

†

Intake of green tea (cups/day) 3.5 –2.2 (0 to 12) -0.11* -0.11* -0.08

†

–

Smoking habit (pack-years) 23.3 –17.7 (0 to 87.5) 0.24* 0.30* 0.14* -0.06

Alcohol intake (times/week) 4.4 –2.7 (0 to 7) -0.01 -0.03 0.004 -0.04

Toothbrushing frequency (times/day) 3.8 –0.8 (1 to 5) -0.13* -0.02 -0.15* 0.09*

Teeth (n) 26.3 –2.9 (20 to 32) -0.22* -0.35* -0.12* 0.07

†

BMI (kg/m

) 23.8 –2.6 (16.6 to 32.8) 23.6 –3.0 0.05 -0.03 0.03 -0.01

Body fat (%) 21.5 –4.4 (10.1 to 35.5) 0.06 -0.004 0.07

†

-0.01

Systolic blood pressure (mm Hg) 128.9 –14.9 (90 to 220) 134.9 –19.5 0.03 0.003 0.05 0.03

Diastolic blood pressure (mm Hg) 82.6 –9.9 (46 to 126) 83.9 –11.7 0.02 -0.05 0.04 -0.02

Total cholesterol (mg/dl) 205.5 –33.1 (99 to 339) 204.0 –36.6 0.01 -0.05 0.05 -0.02

HDL cholesterol (mg/dl) 57.5 –15.9 (23 to 128) 54.1 –15.6 -0.09* -0.11* -0.09

†

0.01

Triglycerides (mg/dl) 149.6 –124.2 (31 to 1,753) 164.3 –161.2 0.05 0.04 0.08

†

0.01

Fasting plasma glucose level (mg/dl) 102.1 –19.2 (74 to 289) 101.7 –29.9 0.04 0.04 0.05 -0.02

–=not applicable.

*P<0.01.

†P<0.05.

Intake of Green Tea and Periodontal Disease Volume 80 • Number 3

374

collagenases and gelatinases, break down the colla-

gen and gelatin that make up the extracellular matrix

of periodontal tissue, and MMP activity plays an im-

portant role in the pathogenesis and progression of

periodontal disease. When periodontal pathogens

live on local periodontal tissue, ﬁbroblasts and mac-

rophages produce several cytokines, including inter-

leukin-1 and -6 and tumor necrosis factor-alpha, as

mediators of the inﬂammatory response and immune

reaction.

These cytokines play a direct role in the

destruction of periodontal tissue and encourage

ﬁbroblasts and macrophages in periodontal tissue

to enhance the production and activation of MMPs, re-

sulting in the progressive destruction of periodontal

tissue.

Astudy

showed that green tea catechin,

EGCg, and ECg inhibit the activity of P. gingivalis–

derived collagenase. In addition, EGCg inhibited

osteoclast formation in a coculture of primary osteo-

blastic cells and bone marrow cells,

and it induced

the apoptotic cell death of osteoclast-like multinucle-

ated cells in a dose-dependent manner.

studies

10,11

suggested that green tea catechin has a

preventive effect against the development of cancer

and cardiovascular disease, and the effect has been

ascribed to the antioxidative mechanisms of cate-

chin.

24,25

Oxidative stress plays an important role

in the pathogenesis of periodontal disease, as well

as many other disorders,

26,27

and it is believed that

antioxidants can defend against inﬂammatory dis-

eases.

Vitamin C is a well-known antioxidant,

and reports

5,29

have shown a signiﬁcant relationship

between vitamin C deﬁciency and periodontal break-

down. In addition, a recent animal study

showed

that the oral administration of vitamin C prevented

alveolar bone resorption by decreasing oxidative

damage to periodontal tissue. Therefore, similar

mechanisms might be involved in the effects of the in-

take of green tea.

Smoking habit and the frequency of toothbrushing,

which are important lifestyle factors for periodontal

Ta b l e 3 .

Parameter Estimates From Stepwise Multivariate Linear Regression Models Evaluating

Each Independent Variable in Relation to Periodontal Parameters

Dependent Variable

Mean PD (mm)

Dependent Variable

Mean Clinical AL (mm)

Dependent Variable

BOP (%)

Independent Variables Coefﬁcient SE PValue Coefﬁcient SE PValue Coefﬁcient SE PValue

Intake of green tea

(cups/day)

-0.023 0.011 0.037 -0.028 0.013 0.035 -0.63 0.27 0.021

Smoking habit

(pack-years)

0.008 0.001 <0.001 0.013 0.002 <0.001 0.096 0.035 0.006

Toothbrushing

frequency (times/day)

-0.072 0.031 0.021 -3.04 0.79 <0.001

Teeth (n) -0.056 0.008 <0.001 -0.12 0.011 <0.001 -0.65 0.21 0.002

Intercept 4.19 0.26 <0.001 6.01 0.29 <0.001 46.24 6.52 <0.001

for mean PD =0.103, for mean clinical AL =0.193, and for BOP =0.048.

Ta b l e 2 .

Parameter Estimates From Simple Linear Regression Models Evaluating Intake of Green

Tea in Relation to Periodontal Parameters

Dependent Variable

Mean PD (mm)

Dependent Variable

Mean Clinical AL (mm)

Dependent Variable

BOP (%)

Independent Variable Coefﬁcient SE PValue Coefﬁcient SE PValue Coefﬁcient SE PValue

Intake of green tea (cups/day) -0.034 0.011 0.002 -0.046 0.015 0.002 -0.84 0.28 0.002

Intercept 2.65 0.047 <0.001 3.21 0.062 <0.001 20.70 1.14 <0.001

for mean PD =0.010, for mean clinical AL =0.010, and for BOP =0.010.

J Periodontol • March 2009 Kushiyama, Shimazaki, Murakami, Yamashita

375

disease, were signiﬁcantly associated with periodon-

tal parameters and were associated with the intake

of green tea in the bivariate analyses. However, when

we entered the green tea intake and these factors si-

multaneously as independent variables into a multi-

variate regression model whose dependent variable

was an index of periodontal disease, the intake of

green tea was signiﬁcantly associated with each peri-

odontal parameter, independent of other variables.

This shows that the relationship between the intake

of green tea and periodontal disease is independent

of other confounding factors.

The correlation coefﬁcients in this study were gen-

erally small, suggesting that it is difﬁcult to explain

periodontal disease using only a few variables, be-

cause periodontitis is a multifactorial disease. The

sample size in our study was sufﬁciently large to show

the statistical signiﬁcance of the relationship between

the intake of green tea and periodontal disease,

but the factors considered in this study were not sufﬁ-

cient to account for periodontal disease. Although a

number of previous studies suggested that the intake

of food and nutrients, such as dairy products,

8,9

whole

grain,

ﬁber,

and vitamin C,

may affect the preva-

lence of periodontal disease, we did not examine the

intake of foods and supplements other than green

tea. Further studies including a dietary survey are

necessary to identify other important confounders that

explain the relationship between periodontal disease

and the explanatory variables. Our periodontal exam-

ination at the mesio-buccal and mid-buccal sites of

each tooth may have led to bias because we did not

examine the periodontal condition at six sites per

tooth. In some studies

31,32

that have examined the

reproducibility and validity of dietary questionnaires,

reasonable levels of reproducibility and validity were

observed for the intake of tea. Nevertheless, because

we did not assess the validity and reliability of our

self-administered questionnaire, a bias derived from

measurement errors may have affected the study re-

sults. The study design was based on a cross-sectional

model, so the results cannot establish whether the

regular intake of green tea has a beneﬁcial effect on

periodontal disease. Longitudinal studies of the rela-

tionship between the continued intake of green tea

and periodontal disease are required to strengthen

the interrelation. In addition, because our study sub-

jects were males in their ﬁfties, studies of both genders

and a wide range of ages are needed to generalize

the relationship between the intake of green tea and

periodontal disease.

CONCLUSIONS

The present study suggests that there is a modest in-

verse association between the daily intake of green

tea and periodontal disease. Drinking green tea at

meals and breaks is a relatively easy habit to main-

tain, and drinking green tea as frequently as possible

may help to maintain a healthy periodontium. However,

because the observed relationship between the daily

intake of green tea and periodontal disease was

weak, the application of concentrated green tea com-

ponents, such as catechin, may be expected to have

a more beneﬁcial effect on the periodontal condition.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

This work was supported by Grants-in-Aid of Scientiﬁc

Research (19390541 and 20592458) from the Minis-

tryofEducation,Science,SportsandCultureofJapan,

Tokyo, Japan, and by the department budget of

Kyushu University, Faculty of Dental Science. The au-

thors report no conﬂicts of interest related to this study.

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Correspondence: Dr. Yoshihiro Shimazaki, Department

of Preventive Dentistry, Kyushu University Faculty of

Dental Science, 3-1-1 Maidashi, Higashi-ku, Fukuoka

812-8582, Japan. Fax: 81-92-642-6354; e-mail: shima@

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J Periodontol • March 2009 Kushiyama, Shimazaki, Murakami, Yamashita

377

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Jul 2024

The relationship between diet and oral inflammation is intricate and significant, influencing overall periodontal health through various mechanisms. Nutritional factors such as vitamins, minerals, and bioactive compounds play pivotal roles in either exacerbating or mitigating inflammatory processes in the oral cavity. Vitamin C, essential for collagen synthesis and tissue repair, along with calcium, critical for bone health, are key nutrients that support periodontal health by reducing susceptibility to gingival inflammation and periodontitis. Polyphenols, abundant in fruits, vegetables, and tea, exhibit strong anti-inflammatory properties that protect against oxidative stress and inflammation in oral tissues. Dietary patterns also have a profound impact on oral health. The Mediterranean diet, rich in fruits, vegetables, whole grains, and healthy fats, has been associated with lower levels of periodontal inflammation due to its high content of antioxidants and polyphenols. Conversely, the Western diet, characterized by high consumption of refined carbohydrates, sugars, and saturated fats, is linked to increased periodontal disease risk, promoting hyperglycemia and insulin resistance that exacerbate inflammatory responses. Vegetarian and plant-based diets, which emphasize the intake of anti-inflammatory and antioxidant-rich foods, are associated with better periodontal health markers, including lower bleeding on probing and reduced periodontal pocket depth. Antioxidants and anti-inflammatory nutrients are crucial in combating oxidative stress and reducing inflammation, essential for maintaining oral health. Vitamin E, coenzyme Q10, omega-3 fatty acids, and green tea polyphenols are particularly beneficial, reducing oxidative damage and inflammation in periodontal tissues. Dietary strategies incorporating these nutrients effectively support oral health and can be part of a comprehensive approach to preventing and managing periodontal disease. Diet plays a critical role in oral health, influencing periodontal inflammation through specific nutrients and overall dietary patterns. Emphasizing the intake of antioxidant-rich and anti-inflammatory foods, while minimizing harmful dietary components, is fundamental in promoting and maintaining periodontal health.

Probable benefits of green tea with genetic implications

Article

Full-text available

Sep 2024

Oral Health and Nutraceutical Agents

Article

Full-text available

Sep 2024
INT J MOL SCI

Oral health is essential for both overall health and quality of life. The mouth is a window into the body’s health, and nutrition can strongly impact the state of general and oral health. A healthy diet involves the synergistic effect of various nutraceutical agents, potentially capable of conferring protective actions against some inflammatory and chronic-degenerative disorders. Nutraceuticals, mostly present in plant-derived products, present multiple potential clinical, preventive, and therapeutic benefits. Accordingly, preclinical and epidemiological studies suggested a protective role for these compounds, but their real preventive and therapeutic effects in humans still await confirmation. Available evidence suggests that plant extracts are more effective than individual constituents because they contain different phytochemicals with multiple pharmacological targets and additive/synergistic effects, maximizing the benefits for oral health. Moreover, nutritional recommendations for oral health should be personalized and aligned with valid suggestions for overall health. This review is aimed to: introduce the basic concepts of nutraceuticals, including their main food sources; examine the logic that supports their relationship with oral health, and summarize and critically discuss clinical trials testing the utility of nutraceuticals in the prevention and treatment of oral diseases.

Karakterisasi Perbandingan Bahan Baku Sekam Padi dan Campuran Sekam Padi-Ampas Tebu terhadap Kualitas Briket

Article

Full-text available

Jul 2024

Fossil fuels cause several problems, such as energy scarcity and air pollution. Charcoal briquettes are sought by People around the world as an alternative to fossil fuels due to the high calorific value of briquettes. This phenomenon brings the briquettes prospect that is applied as solid fuel. This research aims to determine the effect of biomass feeds on the quality of briquettes. The research stages: carbonization at the temperature of 300 ºC for 1 hour with raw materials such as pure rice husk (RH) and a mixture of rice husk and sugarcane bagasse (RH:SB) with ratios of 1, 1.5 and 2. In the casting process, charcoal RH and RH:SB were varied with durian seed flour adhesive (20% weight of feed). The results of the raw material values for pure RH and RH:SB mixture are (3,505; 3,043; 2,733 cal/gr) and (5,094; 4,161; 4,283 cal/gr), which meet the regulation ESDM (4000-5000 kal/gr) for all RH: SB samples. The improvements in briquette quality are also found in the water content parameters of the briquettes, the water content of pure RH and RH: SB mixture is (10.44%, 10.15%, 6.6%) and (5.59%, 5.57%, 5.2%), where all RH:SB briquette samples comply with SNI (<8%). The content of ash, volatile matter and bound carbon still do not meet standards. It is recommended to vary the temperature to achieve the optimal temperature in order to obtain ash content, volatile matter and fixed carbon, which can meet the standards. ABSTRAK Bahan bakar fosil menimbulkan beberapa permasalahan seperti kelangkaan energi dan polusi udara. Briket arang mulai diminati oleh masyarakat di dunia sebagai alternatif pengganti bahan bakar fosil dikarenakan nilai kalor briket yang tinggi. Karena itu briket memiliki prospek untuk diaplikasikan sebagai bahan bakar padat. Tujuan dari penelitian ini adalah mengetahui pengaruh bahan baku biomassa terhadap kualitas briket. Tahapan penelitian mencakup perlakuan karbonisasi pada suhu 300 ºC selama 1 jam pada bahan baku pure sekam padi (SP) dan campuran sekam padi dan ampas tebu (SP:AT) dengan rasio 1; 1,5; dan 2. Pada proses pencetakan, masing-masing arang divariasikan terhadap perekat tepung biji durian (20% berat dari feed). Hasil nilai bahan baku SP dan campuran SP:AT adalah (3.505; 3.043; 2.733 kal/gr) dan (5.094; 4.161; 4.283 kal/gr) yang telah memenuhi Permen ESDM (4000-5000 kal/gr) pada sampel SP:AT. Perbaikan kualitas briket juga terdapat pada parameter kandungan air pada briket, kadar air pure SP adalah 10,44%; 10,15%; 6,6 %, sedangkan campuran SP:AT adalah 5,59%; 5,57%; 5,2%, di mana seluruh sampel briket SP:AT telah sesuai dengan SNI (<8%). Parameter kadar abu, zat terbang, dan karbon terikat masih belum memenuhi standar sehingga direkomendasikan untuk melakukan variasi temperatur agar mendapatkan temperatur optimal agar kadar abu, zat terbang, dan karbon terikat dapat memenuhi standar.

Multimodal inhibitory effect of matcha on Porphyromonas gingivalis

Article

Full-text available

May 2024

Porphyromonas gingivalis has been associated with progression of periodontitis, characterized by inflammation and destruction of periodontal tissues. Here, we report that matcha, a product of Camellia sinensis, hampers the adherence and survival of P. gingivalis through multiple tactics. Matcha extract (ME) inhibited the growth not only of P. gingivalis but also of Prevotella nigrescens and Fusobacterium nucleatum, while it did not inhibit growth of nine species of oral streptococci and Aggregatibacter actinomycetemcomitans. ME-mediated P. gingivalis growth inhibition was characterized by both morphological and physiological changes at the bacterial envelope, which were accompanied by nano-particle formation and decreased membrane fluidity/permeability without loss of membrane integrity. ME also triggered autoaggregation of P. gingivalis in a major fimbriae (FimA)-dependent manner. In addition, adherence of P. gingivalis was dramatically inhibited by ME, irrespective of fimbriae. Furthermore, a structure-activity relationship study tested a series of catechins isolated from ME and identified the pyrogallol-type B-ring of catechins as essential for P. gingivalis growth inhibition. In a clinical study to assess the microbiological and therapeutic effects of matcha mouthwash in patients with periodontitis, the P. gingivalis number in saliva was significantly reduced by matcha mouthwash compared to the pre-intervention level. A tendency toward improvement in probing pocket depth was observed in the matcha group, although the difference was not statistically significant. Taken together, we present a proof of concept, based on the multimodal inhibitory effect of matcha against P. gingivalis, and that matcha may have clinical applicability for prevention and treatment of periodontitis. IMPORTANCE Periodontitis, a multifactorial inflammatory disease of the oral cavity, results in alveolar bone destruction, and is a major cause of tooth loss of humans. In addition, emerging evidence has demonstrated associations between periodontitis and a wide range of other chronic inflammation-driven disorders, including diabetes mellitus, preterm birth, cardiovascular disease, aspiration pneumonia, rheumatoid arthritis, cognitive disorder, and cancer. In the present study, we report that matcha, a product of Camellia sinensis, hampers Porphyromonas gingivalis, a major periodontal pathobiont, in not only a series of in vitro experiments but also a pilot intervention clinical trial of patients with periodontitis, in which matcha mouthwash statistically significantly reduced the P. gingivalis number in saliva, as compared to the pre-intervention level. Taken together, we suggest that matcha may have clinical applicability for prevention and treatment of periodontitis.

Chapter: Antioxidants as an Adjuncts to Periodontal Therapy

Chapter

Full-text available

Mar 2024

Sura Dakhil

Abstract It has been established that periodontal diseases are related with the hyperactivity of neutrophils. Reactive oxygen species are produced mainly by neutrophils. In order to maintain the balance with reactive oxygen species, the need for antioxidants is increasing. As for supplements to the conventional periodontal therapy, different anti- oxidants have been applied in an attempt to provide new possibilities in the periodon- tal treatment. This chapter focused on recent studies that used different antioxidants as adjuncts to conventional periodontal treatments. Keywords: antioxidant, periodontal diseases, periodontal treatments, reactive oxygen species, neutrophils

Exploring the Nonlinear Relationship Between Dietary Flavonoid Intake and Periodontitis

Article

Nov 2024
INT DENT J

Antioxidants and their vital significance in periodontal health

Article

Full-text available

Aug 2024

Given that periodontitis is so common worldwide, there is growing interest in this condition. The disruption of the vital balance between the virulence factors generated by bacteria and the inflammatory host response leads to this inflammatory disease. Several attempts have been made before to treat this illness and restore periodontal health. The gold standard has been seen to be nonsurgical debridement, which targets the underlying cause. Nonetheless, studies have indicated that an unbalanced diet and dietary deficiencies may have an impact on the periodontium. Therefore, an effort toward the maintenance of optimal conditions, as well as the improvement of oral health, necessitates the introduction of adjunctive nutritional therapy, which can benefit the patients. Antioxidants in the diet have some remarkable benefits and valuable properties that play an irreplaceable role in the maintenance of periodontal health. These have emerged as excellent adjuncts that can enhance the outcomes of conventional periodontal therapy. The aim of this review article is to highlight some of these dietary antioxidants that can make a notable difference by striking a balance between health and disease.

Salivary levels of catalase, total antioxidant capacity and interleukin-1β and oral health-related quality of life after matcha and green tea consumption for patients with gingivitis: A randomized clinical trial

Article

May 2024
Int J Dent Hyg

Objectives To evaluate the changes in salivary levels of catalase (CAT), total antioxidant capacity (TAC) and IL‐1β (primary outcomes) as well as gingival health and oral health‐related quality of life (OHRQOL) 1 month after the consumption of matcha and green tea in adult patients with gingivitis. Methods This study was a parallel randomized clinical trial. Forty gingivitis adult patients were randomly assigned to drink either matcha or green tea cup twice daily for a duration of 1 month. They were asked to keep their habitual oral hygiene measures. Plaque index (PI) and bleeding on probing (BOP) were recorded. In addition, saliva was collected at baseline and 1 month after tea consumption. Salivary levels of CAT, TAC and IL‐1β were determined by ELISA. Each participant was asked to fill OHIP‐14 questionnaire before and after tea consumption. Results Following tea intake, 40.6% of the study sample had healthy gingiva. Both groups similarly showed reductions in PI (0.32 ± 0.11–0.22 ± 0.08) and BOP (0.24 ± 0.08–0.13 ± 0.07) scores after tea consumption. There was a significant difference between mean TAC before and after matcha tea consumption only. Non‐significant reductions in salivary levels of CAT and IL‐1β were detected after tea consumption. OHRQOL of participants was improved after tea, both types, consumption. Conclusion Despite study limitations, daily consumption of matcha and green tea might be beneficial as they potentially enhance OHRQOL of individuals with gingivitis and reduce the extent of gingivitis despite non‐significant changes in salivary antioxidants and IL‐1β levels.

Grüner Tee – Daten und Studien zur chinesischen und westlichen WirkungGreen Tea—Data and studies on the Chinese and Western effects

Article

Mar 2024

Lars Staab

Green tea (Camellia sinensis) is a type of unfermented tea that largely retains the natural substance of fresh leaves. It is the second most popular beverage in the world after water. This article examines its historical and contemporary significance and presents some relevant studies. It also describes the ingredients of green tea as well as discussing the physiological and pharmacological effects, relevant side-effects or interactions and possible toxicologies according to their clinical relevance. Studies have shown that the tea polyphenols, with the catechins as the main representatives, have the greatest clinical significance and are pharmacologically active in a variety of ways. Studies have also demonstrated that green tea has antioxidant, anticancer, antibacterial, antiviral, hypoglycemic, cardiovascular and neuroprotective effects. Toxic effects such as hepatotoxicity are very rare and occur mainly at very high doses of green-tea extract and/or in connection with relevant pre-existing conditions or interactions. In summary, studies carried out to date show that green tea and green-tea extracts have an evidence-based efficacy, especially in health care and disease prevention, but they are also increasingly being used successfully in therapeutic applications.

Mechanisms of alveolar bone destruction in periodontitis

Article

Feb 2007
PERIODONTOL 2000

Personal risk factors for generalized periodontitis

Article

Feb 1995
J CLIN PERIODONTOL

Abstract Periodontitis is generally considered to be a consequence of an unfavourable host-parasite interaction in which bacteria are the determinants of disease. An intense search continues for the bacteria, specific or non-specfic, that are responsible for periodontitis and various forms of the periodontal diseases have been associated with, and are widely believed to be caused by, specific bacterial groups. However, the distribution of periodontopathic bacteria is far wider than the distribution of periodontitis, indicating that the association between bacteria and periodontitis is weak. This paper proposes a paradigm for the etiology of generalized periodontitis in which ‘host’ factors are not only those triggered by bacteria (the agent) but are also those personal factors that influence the outcome of the host/parasite relationship. The personal factors that diminish the efficiency of host defence may include psycho-social stress from the social environment, factors from the lifestyle such as diet, smoking and alcoholism and systemic factors such as intercurrent disease or deficiencies within the immune inflammatory system. A model is described in which the interaction of personal factors with the social environment provides the potential for the initiation of periodontitis. Biological variation is significant and the combination of factors that cause generalized periodontitis or any other chronic disease in one individual may not result in dental or any other chronic disease in another.

Effect of (-)-epigallocatechin gallate, the main constituent of green tea, on lung metastasis with mouse B16 melanoma cell lines

Article

Aug 1992
CANCER LETT

(-)-Epigallocatechin gallate (EGCG), the main polyphenolic constituent of green tea, inhibits tumor promotion and chemical carcinogenesis in animal experimental systems. Here we report that the peroral administration of EGCG inhibited metastasis of B16 melanoma cell lines, such as B16-F10 and BL6, in both experimental and spontaneous systems.

Flavonoids as Antioxidants: Determination of Radical-Scavenging Efficiencies

Article

Feb 1990
METHOD ENZYMOL

The antioxidants of extracellular fluids

Article

Aug 1990

The antioxidants in the aqueous phase of human plasma include ceruloplasmin, albumin (the protein itself and possibly also albumin-bound bilirubin), ascorbic acid, transferrin, haptoglobin, and hemopexin. Assays that attempt to answer the question "what is the most important antioxidant?" are compared, it being concluded that the answer is different depending on the nature of the prooxidant stress imposed in the assay.

The Influence of Age, Relative Weight, Smoking, and Alcohol Intake on the Reproducibility of a Dietary Questionnaire

Article

Oct 1987

To evaluate factors that affect the reproducibility of a semi-quantitative food frequency questionnaire used in a large prospective study we compared an extended 99-item questionnaire with a shorter, 61-item form completed by 1497 women with an interval of nine months between. Correlation coefficients for individual items assessed by the two questionnaires were highest for beverages (Spearman r = 0.70). For other foods, coefficients ranged from 0.60 to 0.70 for items eaten frequently (or habitually), to values between 0.34 and 0.45 for foods, such as sweet potatoes and ready made pie, that were eaten less frequently. For food items, the correlation between mean frequency of consumption and the reproducibility coefficient (Spearman r) was 0.51 (p less than 0.01), formally confirming that the reproducibility of measurements was positively associated with frequency of use. Pearson correlation coefficients for calorie-adjusted intakes of nutrients between the two questionnaires ranged from 0.40 for trans-fatty acids to 0.71 for vitamin E (including supplements). These correlation coefficients did not vary materially between subjects in different categories of smoking status or tertiles of age or relative weight. Moderate alcohol use had minimal effect on correlation coefficients, but reproducibility was slightly reduced among heavier drinkers. These data indicate that this self-administered dietary questionnaire can provide reproducible information about individual food and nutrient intakes which is not altered materially by age and a number of important health habits.

Collagenolytic activity associated with Bacteroides species and Actinobacillus actinomycetemcomitans

Article

Jun 1982

Collagenolytic activity was assessed in a variety of microorganisms with particular emphasis on members of the indigenous oral flora. Organisms were grown in complete and peptide depleted basal anaerobic broth. Cell sonicates and media preparations were assayed for collagenolytic activity using 14C-labelled collagen in solution and as fibrils. Assay reaction products were evaluated by acrylamide gel electrophoresis. All tested species of Bacteroides, including B. gingivalis, B, melaninogenicus ss. melaninogenicus and intermedius, B. capillus, B. oris, B. thetaiotaomicron, and B. fragilis produced collagenase which was primarily associated with the cell fraction. Collagenolytic activity was also observed in both media and cell sonicates of Actinobacillus actinomycetemcomitans, Strain 511. The Bacteroides and Actinobacillus enzymes were heat labile, inhibited by EDTA and human serum. Enzyme activity appeared to be enhanced when these organisms were grown in peptide depleted medium. Collagenase production by tested species of Bacteroides and A. actinomycetemcomitans (511) was unique among other members of the oral microflora including species of Fusobacterium, Actinomyces, Capnocylophaga, and Selenomonas, which did not demonstrate collagenolytic activity under the same cultural conditions.

Patterns of antibody response in subjects with periodontitis

Article

Jun 1995

Periodontal diseases comprise a heterogeneous group of infections that are difficult to distinguish on a clinical basis alone. The purpose of the present investigation was to group periodontitis subjects according to their elevated serum antibody levels to specific subgingival species. A total of 119 subjects (19-70 years) with evidence of prior periodontal destruction were monitored at 2-month intervals (maximum 8 visits), prior to therapy, using clinical parameters measured at 6 sites per tooth. The probing attachment level was measured twice at each visit, and an increase of > 2.5mm at a site was used to define subjects with progressing disease. Serum samples were obtained from each subject at each visit and the level of antibody determined by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay to 12 subgingival species. Subgingival plaque samples were taken from the mesial aspect of all teeth in each subject at each visit, and the levels of 14 different subgingival species were determined using a colony-lift method and DNA probes. Subjects were grouped by cluster analysis of their elevated antibody levels using a simple matching coefficient. Ninety-two subjects fell into 9 clusters with 100% similarity; 29 subjects in one cluster group exhibited elevated antibody to none of the test species. Seven subjects in a second cluster group showed elevated antibody to Bacteroides forsythus. Subjects in the other 7 clusters showed elevated antibody to Actinobacillus actinomycetemcomitans serotype a only or in combination with B. forsythus, A. actinomycetemcomitans serotype b, Prevotella intermedia or Porphyromonas gingivalis.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS)

Reproducibility and validity of food intake measures from a semiquantitative food frequency questionnaire

Article

Aug 1993
J AM DIET ASSOC

Few food frequency questionnaires have been evaluated for their ability to assess intakes of individual foods that may be related to disease independently of their nutrient content. The reproducibility and validity of food intake measurements by a 131-item semiquantitative food frequency questionnaire were evaluated in a sample of 127 men from the Health Professionals Follow-up Study, a large longitudinal study of diet and disease. Each subject completed two questionnaires 1 year apart and two 1-week diet records 6 months apart during the intervening year. Pearson correlations assessing reproducibility between food intakes from the two questionnaires ranged from .31 for pie to .92 for coffee (mean = .59). Validity was measured by comparing food intakes from the second questionnaire with those from the diet records. Pearson correlations corrected for within-person weekly variation in diet record data ranged from .17 for other nuts to .95 for bananas (mean = .63). Large within-person variation precluded the calculation of accurate validity correlations for 29 foods. As we previously observed in women, the foods most often overreported were fruits and vegetables, and meats and dairy products were most often underreported. With few exceptions, reasonable levels of reproducibility and validity were observed for intake of individual foods in this extensive food frequency questionnaire.

Inhibitory Effect of Tea Catechins on Collagenase Activity

Article

Aug 1993

A major purpose of this study was to examine inhibitory effect of the catechin derivatives from Japanese green tea Camellia sinensis on collagenase activity. The crude tea catechins, which contain (+)-catechin (C), (-)-epicatechin (EC), (+)-gallocatechin (GC), (-)-epigallocatechin (EGC), (-)-epicatechin gallate (ECg), and (-)-epigallocatechin gallate (EGCg), were tested for their ability to inhibit the prokaryotic and eukaryotic cell derived collagenase activities. Among the tea catechins tested, ECg and EGCg showed the most potent inhibitory effect on collagenase activity when an optimal concentration of tea catechins (100 micrograms/ml) was added to reaction mixture containing collagenase and collagen. Preincubation of collagenase with tea catechins reduced the collagenase activity as well. In contrast to ECg and EGCg, the other four tea catechins (C, EC, EGC, and GC) did not show any collagenase inhibitory effect. Our results suggest that the steric structure of 3-galloyl radical is important for the inhibition of collagenase activity. The collagenase activity in the gingival crevicular fluid from highly progressive adult periodontitis was completely inhibited by the addition of tea catechins. These results demonstrated that tea catechins containing galloyl radical possess the ability to inhibit both eukaryotic and prokaryotic cell derived collagenase.