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Consideration of the origin of Herbert Simon's theory of “satisficing” (1933‐1947)
Abstract
Herbert Simon's major contribution to decision-making theory is the concept of “satisficing”. This was first posited in Administrative Behavior, published in 1947, and the book, concerned as it was with establishing a scientific approach to administrative theory, puts forward an adjustment of then-current economic theory, which viewed administrative choice as a process of maximising. While, over the ensuing decades, Simon adjusted his definitions of both “economic man” and of “satisficing” in several subsequent publications, the original exposition of these was a major contribution to the area of administrative theory. An attempt has been made here to explore what circumstances might have led Simon into putting forward the concept of “satisficing”.
... Instead of optimizing, decision makers satisfy to achieve a threshold level of satisfaction that is good enough [3]. Brown [4] mentioned in decision making, satisfying explains the tendency to select the first option that meets a given need or select the option that seems to address most needs rather than the "optimal" solution. This point introduces soft paradigm to decision making literature. ...
... For understanding the paradigm axioms, it is necessary to define some concepts. We use Shakun's definitions: In common, dictionary usage, rationality of actions (decisions) means those actions are reasonable with regard to producing ends (goals), so the actions/goals relation is reasonable [4]. These relations are beliefs held by a decision maker [15]. ...
In Connectedness Decision paradigm (CDP), by integrating spirituality and rationality, spiritual rationality can help maintain connectedness with One as shared inherent purpose in an individual's life. By considering spiritual rationality, we can gain a right decision: a decision that is rational and spiritual. The main purpose of this research is to explore the main characteristics of Right Decision and present them in the form of a model by using Interpretive Structural Modeling (ISM) method according to experts' opinion. As a result, 10 main characteristics of right decision be considered and a hierarchy model with three levels has been obtained. The top level represents spiritual aspect of right decision and consists of 3 characteristics: be in Tune with Human Nature, Manifestation of connect with One, and Representation of Awareness. The middle level represents the rational aspect and consists of 3 characteristics: caused to connectedness with others, Faith & Value Based, and based on independent authority. And the last level represents behavioral aspect and consists of 4 characteristics: Right job, caused to calmness, make happiness and Love, and possibility.
... The main objective of this study was to evaluate the organizational effectiveness (EOE) of industrial enterprises affiliated with the state of the game theory approach. This is an applied and descriptive study according to the purpose and method of data collection (Brown, 2004), quantity and modeling in terms of nature. In terms of objective, temporal, and spatial scales, the current study falls objectively in the field of Performance management issues and in the performance appraisal subgroup. ...
... The set of satisficing equilibrium is and indicates completely efficient units (Stirling, 1999). Set B(u) is complementary to the set ε which includes units that are strongly better than u and are defined as follows: (4) In order to implement each of the models included in the GAMS (Stirling, 2003) software and to employ CPLEX for its optimal solution, the mathematical symbols used in the model were defined as follows Table 1 shows the data formed for industrial enterprises of Slovakia. Finally, the following table was obtained by solving the form. ...
Assessment of organizational effectiveness is critical to any organization. The purpose of this paper is to present a mixed approach using game theory analysis to assess the performance of organizational effectiveness within organizations. To assess the competence of each unit in assessing organizational effectiveness, the relationship between different departments within an organization is modeled based on effectiveness indicators. Furthermore, indicators related to each aspect of organizational effectiveness are expressed as inputs and outputs for determining effectiveness. The proposed model has been implemented in 20 different industrial enterprises within Slovakia, based on the information obtained in 2022. This paper is based solely on the financial and economic data of various manufacturing companies in Slovakia. With approximately 500 statements, over a period of 6 years, this paper is expected to be able to describe organizational effectiveness, which may provide a potential indication of the company's level of viability in the coming years. Statistical analyses are also performed to monitor the general practicality of the data.
... The concept of "satisficing" is arguably the Herbert Simon's biggest contribution to decision making theory (Brown, 2004). Simon's concept was formed following his thought that managers "satisfice" rather than "maximize" (Simon, 1955). ...
... Companies could be satisficed when their decisions suffice for the purpose. Thus, a satisfactory sufficiency emerges and leads to decisions that are good enough but not optimal or ideal, decisions that are sufficient to satisfy requirements (Brown, 2004). ...
Climate change urgency requires a fast transition to a low carbon society which implies broad-scale changes at all levels, hence the need of an energy transition based on enhancing energy efficiency and renewable energy. Energy efficiency is pivotal to combat climate change, it is the most affordable and readily accessible resource, and the most profitable path to sustainability. Manufacturing companies are increasingly adopting energy efficiency practices (EEP) as they become more knowledgeable about the central role energy efficiency plays in their companies’ competitiveness and the planet’s sustainability. However, the severity of climate change requires the adoption of “optimal” EEP rather than “fairly good” ones. Companies’ satisficing behavior occurs when they do not operate as profit-maximisers, but as satisfactory solutions-seekers. This study explores avenues to address companies’ satisficing behavior regarding EEP. Our research model was empirically tested through survey data collected from 193 manufacturing companies in Morocco. Results show that satisficing negatively affects EEP. Financial slack and governments’ incentives have a positive direct effect on EEP without attenuating the negative relationship between satisfying and EEP. Mimetic pressure attenuates the negative relationship between satisfying and EEP. Based on our findings, policy implications are discussed.
... We are instead interested in how administrators' values may be deliberately influenced and leveraged by legislators. The social and organizational context that limits individuals' rationality includes less-material factors such as those of Jones' 'cognitive architecture': "attention, emotion, habit and memory" (Brown, 2004(Brown, :1245Jones, 2003:398). Engel described this as 'motivationally bounded rationality' (Engel, 1994:154). ...
... It is useful to consider various bounds on administrative decision-making in terms of their level of formality and explicitness. At the implicit and informal end of the spectrum, conventions act as bounds on rationality through inculcation at the organizational level (Simon, 1947;March, 2008) of potentially non-rational normative constructs such as public service motivation and identity (Brown, 2004;Trondal, 2011;Campbell and Faber, 1961). These constructs are even now offered as "important motivation that induces employees to exert their efforts on behalf of the organization" (Miao et al., 2019:77). ...
Purpose
A central question of public administration is how political principals secure the cooperation of administrators within organisational frames and contexts; increasingly, rational influences are being considered alongside bounded rationality and non-rational influences. This paper aims to explore the intent of New Zealand’s Public Service Act 2020 in managing administrative behaviour.
Design/methodology/approach
The methodology is primarily ethnographic, combining emic and etic perspectives. A mixed-methods approach comprises participant observer field notes and meeting documentation, substantiated by official documents; documents were analysed thematically and triangulated with other data sources.
Findings
The Public Service Act introduces new bounds on administrative behaviour. The stated rationale for these changes reveals an attempt to set limits on the principal–agent relationship between politicians and administrators and causes predictable deviations from rational behaviour by cultivating public service motivation and a unified public service identity.
Research limitations/implications
As the legislation in question was only passed in 2020, it is too early to definitively assess the ultimate impact of legislation on administrative behaviour. This case study demonstrates that behavioural approaches to public administration are being applied intentionally by governments. The choice architecture created in the case study blends rational, bounded, and non-rational influences. Together, this produces a bricolage of semi-relevant theories from other disciplines, especially psychology, to explain administrative behaviour. Further refinement is needed to develop a cohesive and comprehensive theory of administrative behaviour that can account for contemporary practice.
Practical implications
Administrators act as agents of political principals, within ethical and rules-based limitations and influenced by public service motivation and social identity. Shifting from implicit to explicit choice architecture does not negate possible tensions between bounds and can signal them more explicitly. Shared symbols are sometimes intended to influence identity and therefore adherence to behavioural norms.
Originality/value
This paper explores the manipulation of choice architecture as a viable strategy for altering behaviour for the better and, to the best of the authors’ knowledge, is the first known instance of choice architecture being “legislated in” rather than merely “showing through”. This study illustrates the blending of rational, boundedly rational and non-rational factors into a choice architecture for public administrators that help mediate the biases and challenges of principal–agent relationships (which form a cascade in New Zealand’s public administration system).
... The satisficing concept is explained and justified extensively in Simon's 1955 paper and subsequent works (e.g., Simon 1959Simon , 1979; for a reconstruction of satisficing from Simon's early works see Brown 2004). One of Simon's arguments is that decision-makers endowed with limited information-processing capabilities may strive for decisions which are good enough with reasonable costs of computation (Simon 1955, p. 106;Simon 1979, p. 498). ...
... An in-depth analysis of the concept's origin in Simon's work is given byBrown (2004);Radner (1975) introduced a general formulation for purposes of mathematical optimization. 3 These three elements, in principle, correspond to building blocks proposed byGigerenzer and Todd (1999) for heuristics, which are search rules, stopping rules and decision rules (see alsoGigerenzer and Gaissmaier 2011). ...
Computational models of managerial search often build on backward-looking search based on hill-climbing algorithms. Regardless of its prevalence, there is some evidence that this family of algorithms does not universally represent managers’ search behavior. Against this background, the paper proposes an alternative algorithm that captures key elements of Simon’s concept of satisficing which received considerable support in behavioral experiments. The paper contrasts the satisficing-based algorithm to two variants of hill-climbing search in an agent-based model of a simple decision-making organization. The model builds on the framework of NK fitness landscapes which allows controlling for the complexity of the decision problem to be solved. The results suggest that the model’s behavior may remarkably differ depending on whether satisficing or hill-climbing serves as an algorithmic representation for decision-makers’ search. Moreover, with the satisficing algorithm, results indicate oscillating aspiration levels, even to the negative, and intense—and potentially destabilizing—search activities when intra-organizational complexity increases. Findings may shed some new light on prior computational models of decision-making in organizations and point to avenues for future research.
... However, Simon also acknowledged the influence of "some system of values" that allows alternative means or ends to be preferred over another (Simon 1947, 75). This means that the social and organizational context that limits individuals' rationality also includes less material factors such as those of Jones' 'cognitive architecture': "attention, emotion, habit and memory" (Brown 2004(Brown , 1245; (Jones 2003, 398). Engel described this as motivationally bounded rationality, which is the sense of bounded rationality that we mostly refer to in this article (Engel 1994, 154). ...
... As well as the dimension of political or democratic responsiveness in opposition to bureaucratic morals, it is important to consider the status of the various bounds on administrative decision-making in terms of their level of formality and explicitness. At the implicit and formal end of the spectrum, bounds are mostly normative, taking the form of constructs such as loyalty and identity, and which are therefore imposed by inculcation within the administrative organisation (Trondal 2011;Brown 2004;Simon 1947;Campbell and Faber 1961). These constructs are even now offered as "important motivation that induces employees to exert their efforts on behalf of the organisation" (Miao, et al. 2019, 77). ...
A central question of public administration is how public administrators make decisions within organisational frames and context. Public administrators cannot and do not make purely rational decisions based on means-ends models, and instead operate within bounded rationality. Motivational bounds are frequently implicit and culturally inculcated, but recent New Zealand legislation attempts to make these explicit. New Zealand intended that legislating for administrative behaviour would preserve longstanding conventions perceived as under threat. The legislated bounds are traditional in content but novel in form, contribute to ongoing debate on the limits of political responsiveness, and potentially reset existing public service bargains.
... The satisficing concept is explained and justified extensively in Simon's 1955 paper and subsequent works (e.g., Simon 1959Simon , 1979; for a reconstruction of satisficing from Simon's early works see Brown 2004). One of Simon's arguments is that decision-makers endowed with limited information-processing capabilities may strive for decisions which are good enough with reasonable costs of computation (Simon 1955, pp. ...
... An in-depth analysis of the concept's origin in Simon's work is given byBrown (2004);Radner (1975) introduced a general formulation for purposes of mathematical optimization. ...
Computational models of managerial search often build on backward-looking search based on hill-climbing algorithms. Regardless of its prevalence, there is some evidence that this family of algorithms does not universally represent managers' search behavior. Against this background, the paper proposes an alternative algorithm that captures key elements of Simon's concept of satisficing which received considerable support in behavioral experiments. The paper contrasts the satisficing-based algorithm to two variants of hill-climbing search in an agent-based model of a simple decision-making organization. The model builds on the framework of NK fitness landscapes which allows controlling for the complexity of the decision problem to be solved. The results suggest that the model's behavior may remarkably differ depending on whether satisficing or hill-climbing serves as an algorithmic representation for decision-makers' search. Moreover, with the satisficing algorithm, results indicate oscillating aspiration levels, even to the negative, and intense - and potentially destabilizing - search activities when intra-organizational complexity increases. Findings may shed some new light on prior computational models of decision-making in organizations and point to avenues for future research.
... Students consistently identified their expectations of the programme as not being met. They balanced this directly through their ability to shift their expectations and accept 'good enough' or 'satisficed' experiences (Brown 2004(Brown : 1240: experiences that are determined to be satisfactory and sufficient, as opposed to ideal. By accepting experiences as satisficed or good enough, and letting go of expectations, students were able to process more easily the large amount of information experienced while living and studying away from home (Agosto 2002). ...
... By accepting experiences as satisficed or good enough, and letting go of expectations, students were able to process more easily the large amount of information experienced while living and studying away from home (Agosto 2002). This is of particular importance to transcultural learning, which has typically been described as learning that is complex and messy, where perfection is not possible and therefore not a choice or option to pursue (Brown 2004). ...
One way in which higher education has responded to globalisation and the emergence of transculturality has been to expand its focus on internationalisation at an unprecedented rate. Traditionally this occurred through international students and their contact with local students. A longitudinal case study into the student experience of transculturality in the Erasmus Mundus Transcultural European Outdoor Studies Masters programme found transcultural self-growth and transcultural capabilities of resilience, intelligence and the ability to work through fatigue to be central to their experience. Using Kemmis and Smith’s (2008a) themes related to praxis (doing, morally committed action, reflexivity, connection, concreteness and a process of becoming) this theoretical article explores the place of critical transcultural pedagogical praxis in supporting transcultural learning experiences of higher education students.
... The history regarding the origin of the theory has led to the strong emphasis placed on the restructuring of the organization to "build the peace". This initiative consists of focusing on the administrative and organizational effectiveness and decision-making processes (Brown, 2004(Brown, , p. 1241. Early decision-making study primarily addressed rational decision-making and the development of "mathematical algorithms by researchers for the prediction of purely optional and rational decision-making" (Agosto, 2002, p. 16). ...
... Meanwhile, an administrative man limits the world around him into what has the highest relevancy and importance, followed by the exploration of choices until the ideal choice is found. In this case, he is not required to consider all possible choices as determining a functional choice would suffice (Brown, 2004). Provided that the administrative man is highly conscious of time, the origin of the acquired information may not entirely cover every area besides those that would equip him with the capability of deciding on the suitable choice for him. ...
Over the years, studies related to people with disabilities (PWDs) have been performed as a result of the government’s concern on the future of this group as a part of the national grassroots. The valuable contribution of people of this group has also led to a negative perception and connotation of people, which reduces their opportunity for employment. This article presents the initial investigation of the descriptive analysis of Malaysian employers’
perception of the employment of PWDs in their organization and the validation of the replicated instrument before the actual study. A pilot study was conducted on a registered organization with the Malaysia External Trade Development Corporation (MATRADE). The profile of each organization was accessible online via MATRADE website, with the compilation of email addresses as the method of questionnaire distribution. The questionnaire was replicated from the Survey of Employer Perspectives on the Employment of People with Disabilities provided by The U.S. Department of Labor, Office of Disability Employment Policy (ODEP). The instrument was then distributed to two-hundred organizations. Out of 37 responses collected after the provision of three reminders to the
organizations, 20 completed responses were gathered and used for reliability analysis. The results of this analysis are presented in this article. The pilot testing is vital to ensure that the questionnaire determines the employers’ feedback on the employment of PWDs, which may warrant the validity of the actual study for future discussion. The pilot test reveals six constructs reliability analysis, namely (a) employability skills, (b) PWDs recruitment efforts, (c) factors of PWDs employment, (d) challenges and barriers, (e) concern and perception, (f) career development for PWDs, and (g) strategies and incentives for employers in hiring PWDs.
... This theory emerges due to the notable emphasis placed on the reformation or the organization to -develop peace‖. This reformation involves administrative and organizational efficacy, including decision-making processes (Brown, 2004(Brown, , p. 1241. A study on decision-making research was initially performed with a focus on rational decision-making and the development of -mathematical algorithms by researchers for the prediction of completely rational or optional decision-making‖ (Agosto, 2002, p. 16). ...
... Meanwhile, an administrative man limits the world around him into what has the highest relevancy and importance, followed by the exploration of choices until the ideal choice is found. In this case, he is not required to consider all possible choices as determining a functional choice would suffice (Brown, 2004). Provided that administrative man is highly aware of time, the information he obtained may not only cover the areas, which enable a decision-making process that he is adapted to. ...
The omission and marginalization of people with disabilities (PWDs) in the employment sector and from the workforce market have led to various issues in the growth of human capital in a country. Unemployment harms this group of people, especially in the sociological and psychological aspects, including their regular salary for survival. As a result, the inequality inflicted on the PWDs‘ lives as normal human beings have led to impoverishment. Accordingly, a systematic review analysis was performed to examine the factors of the restriction of PWDs from their rights for employment. Furthermore, a PRISMA flow diagram was implemented to collect scholarly works on PWDs, followed by identification, screening, abiding by the qualifications, and the use of inclusion and exclusion features for the selection of the suitable articles for analysis. Subsequently, a total of 15 papers from 2015 to 2019 publication years were gathered. The databases were extracted from ERIC, Google
Scholar, SCOPUS, peer reviews, and indexed journals on online database websites. Notably, this study emphasized on the methodologies, terminologies, arguments, contents, and results in the chosen articles to analyze the current application of research on PWDs. Important implications regarding PWDS are developed for the stakeholders, researchers, and practitioners to apply the ideal measures to solve unemployment among the PWDs. It is hoped that the neglect of PWDs in the nation would be reduced and the most suitable educational programs could be provided without removing the PWDs‘ right for employment, which offers an indirect growth of solitude spirits from the roots.
... As noted by Herbert Simon, finding a global optimum to real-world problems often requires an intractable amount of time, effort, and computation, but finding a solution that satisfices�i.e., is feasible and meets or exceeds a baseline aspiration level�is often tractable. 156,157 This is marked in the case of combinatorial optimizations�like those involved in materials discovery, in which the number of possibilities grows exponentially in the problem variables, each of which must be checked. In these cases, we argue that merely sampling the solutions to find a satisfactory solution should be our goal. ...
... Clearly, such behavior is planned and likely induces considerable error-perhaps both systematic and random. Third is Herbert Simon's Theory of Satisficing (Brown 2004). Specific to survey research, it has been stated that "respondents often choose satisfactory answers rather than searching for an optimum answer. ...
A sample of 1452 adult respondents in the United States was drawn using a highly respected commercial Internet-based service provider. The 85-question survey addressed issues related to anti-consumption behavior among consumers. The instrument incorporated four quality control checks designed to identify inattentive respondents and cleanse the resultant data set. These quality control (QC) checks were a uniform identifier (where one specific response should result), an instructional manipulation check. A common knowledge question, and a time check. A total of 514 (35.4%) respondents failed at least one of the four QC checks with nine respondents failing all four. Comparisons of inattentive respondents to those who passed all four QC checks consistently identified statistically significant differences on each of the metrics used to determine the potential impact of inattentive respondents. These results indicate that inattentiveness does not produce “random noise” as some authors have stated; rather the inattentive respondents “create both random and systematic measurement error which impacts estimates of the reliability and validity” of the metrics used to assess various consumer phenomena. The results of this study are important, not only in projects designed to help marketers, but also for research in other fields where accuracy is of paramount importance.
... As noted by Herbert Simon, finding a global optimum to real-world problems often requires an intractable amount of time, effort, and computation, but finding a solution that satisfices-i.e., is feasible and meets or exceeds a baseline aspiration levelis often tractable. 156,157 This is marked in the case of combinatorial optimizations-like those involved in materials discovery-in which the number of possibilities grows exponentially in the problem variables, each of which must be checked. In these cases, we argue that merely sampling the solutions to find a satisficing solution should be our goal. ...
Exceptional molecules and materials with one or more extraordinary properties are both technologically valuable and fundamentally interesting because they often involve new physical phenomena or new compositions that defy expectations. Historically, exceptionality has been achieved through serendipity, but recently, machine learning (ML) and automated experimentation have been widely proposed to accelerate target identification and synthesis planning. In this Perspective, we argue that the data-driven methods commonly used today are well-suited for optimization but not for realizing new exceptional materials or molecules. Finding such outliers should be possible using ML, but only by shifting away from using traditional ML approaches that tweak the composition, crystal structure, or reaction pathway. We highlight case studies of high-Tc oxide superconductors and superhard materials to demonstrate the challenges of ML-guided discovery and discuss the limitations of automation for this task. We then provide six recommendations for the development of ML methods capable of exceptional materials discovery: (i) Avoid the tyranny of the middle and focus on extrema; (ii) When data is limited, qualitative predictions that provide direction are more valuable than interpolative accuracy; (iii) Sample what can be made and how to make it, and defer optimization; (iv) Create room (and look) for the unexpected while pursuing your goal; (v) Try to fill-in-the-blanks of input and output space; (vi) Do not confuse human understanding with model interpretability. We conclude with a description of how these recommendations can be integrated into automated discovery workflows that should enable the discovery of exceptional molecules and materials.
... The aim of this research is to develop a decision support model based on a compromise Decision Support Problem (cDSP) construct and Decision Support in the Design of Engineered Systems (DSIDES) to explore a range of satisficing solutions. The concept of 'satisficing' first used by Simon (Brown, 2004) supposes that a decision maker will search for an alternative offering satisfactory performance on all criteria without necessarily attempting to maximize this performance. We model a case of MSC transportation of ration (water, food) from several base depots to combat units operating in a low-intensity conflict region of northeastern Nigeria, highly vulnerable to terrorist activity. ...
... The aim of this research is to develop a decision support model based on a compromise Decision Support Problem (cDSP) construct and Decision Support in the Design of Engineered Systems (DSIDES) to explore a range of satisficing solutions. The concept of 'satisficing' first used by Simon (Brown, 2004) supposes that a decision maker will search for an alternative offering satisfactory performance on all criteria without necessarily attempting to maximize this performance. We model a case of MSC transportation of ration (water, food) from several base depots to combat units operating in a low-intensity conflict region of northeastern Nigeria, highly vulnerable to terrorist activity. ...
The complex and dynamic nature of military supply chains (MSC) requires constant vigilance to sense potential vulnerabilities. Several studies have employed decision support models for the optimization of their operations. These models are often limited to a best single-point solution unsuitable for complex MSC constellations. In this article, the authors present a novel approach based on decision support models to explore a range of satisficing solutions against disruptions in MSCs using a compromise Decision Support Problem (cDSP) construct and Decision Support in the Design of Engineered Systems (DSIDES). Two cases were evaluated: (1) a baseline scenario with no disruption and (2) with disruption to achieve target values of three goals: (1) minimizing lead time, (2) maximizing demand fulfilment and (3) maximizing vehicle utilization. The results obtained in Case 1 identified a more stable solution space with minimal deviations from the target value, while in Case 2 the solution space was unstable with deviations from the target values
... As noted by Herbert Simon, finding a global optimum to real-world problems often requires an intractable amount of time, effort, and computation, but finding a solution that satisfices-i.e., is feasible and meets or exceeds a baseline aspiration levelis often tractable. 158,159 This is marked in the case of combinatorial optimizations-like those involved in materials discovery-in which the number of possibilities grows exponentially in the problem variables, each of which must be checked. In these cases, we argue that merely sampling the solutions to find a satisficing solution should be our goal. ...
Exceptional molecules and materials with one (or more) extraordinary properties are both technologically valuable and fundamentally interesting because they often involve new physical phenomena or new compositions that defy expectations. Historically, exceptionality has been achieved through serendipity, but recently, machine learning (ML) and automated experimentation have been widely proposed to accelerate target identification and synthesis planning. In this Perspective, we argue that the data-driven methods commonly used today are well-suited for optimization but not for realizing new exceptional materials or molecules. Finding such outliers should be possible using ML, but only by shifting away from using traditional ML approaches that tweak the composition, crystal structure, or reaction pathway. We highlight case studies of high-Tc superconductors and superhard materials to demonstrate the challenges of ML-guided discovery and discuss the limitations of automation for this task. We then provide six recommendations for the development of ML methods capable of exceptional materials discovery: (i) Avoid the tyranny of the middle and focus on extrema; (ii) When data is limited, qualitative predictions that provide direction are more valuable than interpolative accuracy; (iii) Sample what can be made and how to make it, and defer optimization; (iv) Create room (and look) for the unexpected while pursuing your goal; (v) Try to fill-in-the-blanks of input and output space; (vi) Do not confuse human understanding with model interpretability. We conclude with a description of how these recommendations can be integrated into automated discovery workflows that should enable the discovery of exceptional molecules and materials.
... Simon's Satisficing Theory According to Brown (2004), Herbert Simon who was the first economist to formulate the behavioural theory of firm believed that the main objective of a firm is not to maximise profit but to satisfice profits. Herbert Simon stated that it shouldn't be expected that the main goal of a firm is to maximise profit but rather to attain a certain level of profit and holding a certain share of the market as well. ...
The present day challenge has been the failure of small and medium-sized Enterprises (SMEs) in transforming themselves into large firms both regionally and globally. Being in point of fact that small businesses irregularly make substantial growth; academicians, management experts and government in many countries have been keen to discover what constraints prevent their growth. This study will utilize the secondary source of data collection which include; publications, journals, books, articles, reports, internet sources among others and Thiele-T statistical model will be used to show the disparities in the growth of five selected SMEs
which is used as sample SMEs within a period of five years 2013-2017 in Nigeria and they include; the Arts & crafts, Rugs & carpets, Textile, Jewelry and Pottery industries. This study aims at examining the SME growth models and see to its effectual application which will contribute substantially to the growth of enterprises.
Key words: Growth models; Industries; Nigeria; SMEs; Thiele-T
... In most businesses, particularly small and medium sized operations, decisions are largely made by the manager, sometimes with assistants, using their 'objectively informed intuition' [9][10][11] as they believe it provides the best decisions [12], within their knowledge levels, at least cost. Right from the objective set not being the maximisation of utility (the alternative 'satisficing' is often mentioned [13,14], as is a 'lexicographic objective form' [15], as well as other possibilities) through to the difficulties of quantitatively allowing for risk and uncertainty, the realities mean intuition is a practical and feasible approach even if a decision maker's position between the practical to the theoretical probably moves with evolving training [16] and experience [17] and similarly for the simplifications used. ...
Business decisions are frequently based on informed intuition in contrast to a formal analysis. Early man used simple intuition, but through time knowledge increases allowed decision makers (DMs) to move to ‘objectively informed intuition’ (OII). This uses inherent and learnt cognition at both unconscious and conscious levels. A model of business OII is proposed and evaluated using as variables the managers’ personal characteristics and their unique set of objectives. The resultant equation allows assessing decision quality and provides a framework for DMs to work on improvements relative to their objectives. The literature suggests OII stems from a DM’s makeup (business related phenotype), training and experience in a dynamic trio leading to the defining equation. Analyses show business related phenotype is the most important determinant as well as confirming the proposed theory on the determinants of OII success. Practical methods of improving OII are reviewed, and issues worth further investigation outlined. This research is the first encompassing quantitative relationships explaining business OII quality thus enabling improving OII. Suggested further research may refine the equation and expand its core base. This work involves a range of disciplines as different aspects of human characteristics impact on how decisions are made.
... Above we pointed to selected drivers supporting the advancement of SLCP, but there are also inhibiting factors. Especially critical in this context, many global companies, including large retailers and brands, are not aware of the potential in the transformation associated with SLCP and rely more on a 'satisfying behaviour' approach (R. Brown, 2004). Among informants interviewed, many did not know much about SLCP and recurred to non-reflexive answers reflecting a 'new-standardtiredness'. ...
Social Compliance Audit practices in Bangladesh
... Unfortunately, the use of these judgment heuristics in such limiting circumstances ultimately results in what Simon (1947) has called "satisficing". According to Brown (2004): [. . .] [p]eople will satisfice when they make a decision that satisfies and suffices for the purpose. ...
Purpose
The recent COVID-19 crisis has been followed by an epidemic of fraud. This study aims to evaluate cases of COVID-19-related fraud to identify cognitive heuristics that influence decision-making under the pressure of crisis conditions.
Design/methodology/approach
An analysis of fraud advisories and cases relating to COVID-19 is conducted and matched against various types of cognitive heuristics to explain their influence on victims of crisis fraud.
Findings
The affect, availability, cue-familiarity, representativeness and scarcity heuristics are identified and explained to have a substantial influence on risk evaluations of crisis fraud.
Originality/value
The findings from this study can help individuals avoid fraud victimisation by helping them understand psychological vulnerabilities that they may be unaware of under the pressure of crisis conditions.
... In this approach, a "rational" decision is perceived as being bounded by restrictions such as time, resource, and information constraints, resulting in SDM constituting "bounded-rationality" and "satisficing" (Schwartz 1998;Simon 1947). These terms reflect the acceptance of an alternative or solution that is "good enough," rather than maximize "that which satisfices, while not ideal, will suffice to satisfy requirements" (Brown 2004(Brown , p. 1241. Profit maximization is also not always the ultimate reason for committing to a particular option (Schwartz 1998;Simon et al. 1987). ...
This study explores strategic decision-making (SDM) in micro-firms, an economically significant business subsector. As extant large-and small-firm literature currently proffers an incomplete characterization of SDM in very small enterprises, a multiple-case methodology was used to investigate how these firms make strategic decisions. Eleven Australian Information Technology service micro-firms participated in the study. Using an information-processing lens, the study uncovered patterns of SDM in micro-firms and derived a theoretical micro-firm SDM model. This research Leonardo Liberman-Yaconi (PhD) is associate professor at the Adolfo Ibanez University, Chile. He has worked for the
... The most popular decision-making models with organizational applicability include the rational [20], satisficing [21], incremental [22], and mixed-scanning model [23]. ...
Background:
Many studies report the positive effects of outcome-based education in improving medical education quality. An important aspect of outcome-based education is the statement of learning outcomes, which is closely associated with medical schools' mission, vision, and educational goals. Medical schools' mission statement not only sets the standards to determine educational goals and outcomes but also provides an indicator to monitor and evaluate medical education quality.
Purpose:
This study identified a methodology to provide optimal mission statements at medical schools through the framework of suggested decision-making method.
Methods:
This study analyzed the focus of the mission development suggested by World Federation for Medical Education and Liaison Committee on Medical Education medical education standards and searched for appropriate decision-making methods based on these standards. In addition to validate the suggested framework of mission statement, case analysis of medical schools was conducted.
Results:
Consequently, a mission development method that applies the mission statement based on stakeholders' priority (MSSP) was derived. The MSSP involves (1) content analysis, (2) candidate extraction, (3) priority evaluation, and (4) priority validation. The keywords of the mission system derived during this process were categorized and listed in ranks to be suggested as the mission, vision, and core values. The proposed MSSP was applied in two South Korean medical schools and, thereby, the mission, vision, and core values were determined for each medical school.
Conclusion:
The two schools' case analysis verified MSSP's effectiveness as a decision-making methodology to gather and converge diverse opinions from stakeholders for the mission statement at the medical schools.
... Meanwhile, in the field of business economics, several important studies, for example from Irving Fisher in the 1900s who introduced the concept of net present value, or Chester Barnard in the 1930s which distinguished between personal decision making and organizational decision making in the context of business (Buchanan, 2006). Some well-known theories or concepts in the subsequent development including game theory from Von Neumann & Morgenstern in 1944(Von Neumann & Morgenstern, 2007 or bounded rationality from Herbert Simon in 1947 (Brown, 2004). ...
Purpose-Cultural village is an area-based development concept that engages with the culture and creative industries as well as tactical urbanism. Typically, a cultural village is situated in geographical areas that have traditionally had strong cultural themes and have the potential for socioeconomic growth in the surrounding region. Decision-making in this environment differs from pure-profit sector decision-making. This study set out to draw lessons from the cultural village, especially in Global South, where the culturally-led consensus approach is used to reshape group decision-making processes. Design/methodology/approach-This study uses a systematic review method as a way to search, screen, analyze and synthesize knowledge from the academic database. The Scopus academic database is used for the search process. Findings-This paper concludes that the inclusion of culture into decision-making offers three stages of fundamental lessons for the community, which are flexibility, openness, and innovation. These three forms the foundation for the five main elements of decision-making in the cultural village, which include inclusive, participatory, collaborative, agreement-seeking, and cooperative. Research limitations/implications-This paper certainly has limitations, especially in terms of the number of papers reviewed. Future reviews can be carried out more broadly by expanding search keywords as well as subject areas and regions. Originality/value-This study concludes that the implementation of culturally-based Consensus Approach (CA) in cultural villages has generally promoted inclusive, participatory, collaborative, agreement seeking, and cooperative decision-making process, although in several cases, the approach was struggled to encourage equal collaboration and effective agreement seeking.
... Unlike the DEA method which tries to compare each DMU with an optimal DMU that probably is virtual, in satisficing game theory, the option "good enough" in terms of the calculated utility function is enough for us (Zhang & Gong, 2017). The "good enough" options are placed in the Satisficing Equilibrium Set (Brown, 2004). Definition of Satisficing Equilibrium Set is proportional to the definition of the utility function in the investigated decision-making problems. ...
... Invariably, however, the maximisation of utility is seldom the primary objective with approaches such as 'satisfying' [17] and lexicographic ordering [18], as well as other theories, more likely to feature in objective forms. In addition, the difficulties of quantifying risk and uncertainty, and decision-maker attitudes to risk, also lead to the use of intuition [5]. Figure 1 reflects the movement towards the use of intuition away from the more formal approaches particularly when risk is a major factor. ...
Over the decades, many researchers have explored the concept of intuition as a decision-making process. However, most of this research does not quantify the important aspects of intuition, making it difficult to fully understand its nature and improve the intuitive process, enabling an efficient method of decision-making. The research described here, through a review of the relevant literature, demystifies intuition as a decision system by isolating the important intuition determining variables and relating them to quantitative intuition research. As most farm decisions are made through intuition, farmers, consultants, researchers and students of farm management will find the review useful, stimulating efforts for improving decision-making skills in farmers. The literature search covered all journals and recent decades and includes articles that consider the variables to be targeted in improving intuitive skill. This provides a basis for thinking about intuition and its improvement within the farming world. It was found from the literature that most of the logical areas that should influence decisions do in fact do so and should be targeted in improving intuition. One of the most important improvement processes is a farmer's self-criticism skills through using a decision diary in conjunction with reflection and consultation leading to improved decisions. This must be in conjunction with understanding, and learning about, the many other variables also impacting on intuitive skill.
... Research also showed that only 18% of IT projects were completed within the originally planned schedule and on the originally planned budget, revealing large deviations from the optimal (Baucells et al., 2018). This overall tendency of PMs to make suboptimal decisions is in line with behavioral research suggesting that individuals often choose a "satisficing" or a "good enough" option (Simon and Barnard, 1947;Katona, 1953;Simon, 1959;Brown 2004). It is important to note that although project managers are expected to base their decisions on rational foundations in regards to choosing optimal work plans, meeting project objectives, and planning appropriate timelines, such expectations might be ungrounded. ...
Prior research shows that project managers tend to avoid following the optimal work plan, and that this tendency is negatively influenced by the perceived complexity of the Gantt chart. This research introduces a central factor moderating this effect: the level of communication effort required by PMs (project managers) when managing IT (information technology) team members. To test this prediction, the researchers followed an experimental approach and manipulated the level of communication effort by defining two group types, which differed in the number of team members and the geographical distance between them (together or not). Research results show that the complexity level of the Gantt chart negatively affects PMs' motivation to adopt an optimal work plan, and importantly, findings suggest that the group type (together or not) attenuates this effect. Research findings also offer practical implications for managers seeking to influence PM's behavior and attenuate the negative impact of Gantt chart complexity without changing other aspects of the work plan.
... La participación en las empresas y la consiguiente cesión de recursos a las mismas se fundamenta en la reciprocidad o equidad (Aristóteles), ya que los participantes esperan una devolución acorde a la aportación realizada; lo cual exige de forma necesaria la creación simultánea de valor para las diferentes partes interesadas, entre las que de forma general se pueden identificar: clientes, usuarios, personas trabajadoras, inversores, financiadores, proveedores, otras empresas del sector, o los shapeholders, entre otros. Esta distribución de valor para el conjunto de los stakeholders, no responden al concepto de maximización, al que se suele recurrir en el modelo financiero cuando se trata de la empresa o de los shareholders, sino a un equilibrio en la distribución [satisficing] (Simon, 1957;Brown, 2004) del valor entre todas las partes implicadas. No obstante, el principio de reciprocidad no excluye la gratuidad en la distribución de valor, que puede dar lugar a la generación de ciclos de valor incremental, donde la atribución gratuita de valor a un actor específico incrementa el retorno de valor para otras partes interesadas. ...
Desde ya hace un tiempo, la narrativa de los stakeholders se ha incorporado de forma decidida en un amplio elenco de organizaciones, contribuyendo al ideario de las principales empresas del mundo. Sin embargo, para un adecuado desarrollo de la misma no es suficiente incorporarla al propósito, es también necesario incorporar dicha perspectiva en los resultados. La transferencia de valor mediante mecanismos no monetarios o incluso emocionales, y la distribución de valor a múltiples stakeholders requiere un sistema más completo del que ofrece la contabilidad financiera. Un instrumento pensado principalmente para identificar el valor monetario residual, es decir, el beneficio; donde el valor distribuido a otros stakeholders, como por ejemplo los trabajadores y proveedores, aparece como un gasto con signo negativo; es decir, como una merma de valor. Para hacer frente a este problema y a la necesidad de una información más completa, tal y como está demandando la teoría de stakeholders, se necesita ampliar el actual sistema de información contable. En el presente artículo se propone una ampliación del concepto de valor, incorporando además de las transacciones basadas en precios, las transferencias realizadas en un entorno de no mercado (sin contraprestación de precio) y aquellas de carácter emocional; así mismo, se propone una ampliación desde una perspectiva unidimensional, centrada en los accionistas a una multidimensional que incorpore a la totalidad de los stakeholders de la organización. En el resto del artículo se reflexiona sobre las experiencias y las implicaciones de este modelo decontabilidad para los stakeholders que, sin duda, tiene un excelente encaje en la Economía Social.
... This process yields a plausible conclusion but may not always positively verify it. The abductive conclusions are heuristics (see [1]), hence involve uncertainty, which is expressed by the bounded rationality as satisficing. Satisficing is a decision making process which takes into account the costs of optimization into the optimization process, thereby producing an efficient but suboptimal result. ...
We forecast 1,000,000 COVID-19 cases outside of China by March 31st, 2020 based on a heuristic and WHO situation reports. We do not model the COVID-19 pandemic; we model only the number of cases. The proposed heuristic is based on a simple observation that the plot of the given data is well approximated by an exponential curve. The exponential curve is used for forecasting the growth of new cases. It has been tested for the last situation report of the last day. Its accuracy has been 1.29% for the last day added and predicted by the 57 previous WHO situation reports (the date 18 March 2020).
... This is particularly common for the first-generation migrants, who do not have skills and knowledge useful in a host country. Thus, we claim that the bounded rationality perspective which emphasises satisficing (looking for the first satisfactory option) (Simon, 1947;Brown, 2004) has broader application in the immigrant entrepreneurship context than in the corporate management context. At the same time, the decision-making process in the immigrant entrepreneurship context also differs from that in the corporate business world, as immigrants belonging to an ethnic community face a different incentive structure than other entrepreneurs. ...
Purpose
The phenomenon of imitation has attracted immense attention in studies of big companies, but it has been largely neglected in the immigrant entrepreneurship research thus far. The purpose of this paper is to address that gap by proposing a theoretical framework for studying immigrant entrepreneurship imitation decisions.
Design/methodology/approach
The framework is based on a review of relevant literature covering the issue of imitation within three perspectives: institutional, heuristics of judgement and organisational learning. We validate the framework by juxtaposing it with existing studies on immigrant entrepreneurship, where imitation practices were directly and indirectly referred to. The framework is also initially validated with data from three qualitative studies performed by the authors.
Findings
The literature-derived framework consists of three major building blocks (i.e. causes, target and content of imitation) while immigrant-entrepreneurship specificity (ethnic groups and clusters, ethnic identity, generation, and resources) constitutes the context of the framework. The authors formulate 12 propositions on which the framework is based. The specific character of immigrant entrepreneurs' imitation decision is discussed, and differences in that regard between immigrant entrepreneurs and established local businesses are highlighted.
Research limitations/implications
A more diversified sample and quantitative studies are needed to further verify the proposed framework and propositions.
Social implications
The framework is intended to expedite future research on immigrant entrepreneurs' imitative decisions and facilitate better-adjusted public policy to support immigrant entrepreneurs.
Originality/value
This paper drives attention to a widely used, yet understudied phenomenon of imitation, provides an analytical framework for the study of imitation in immigrant entrepreneurship, provides a preliminary validation of the framework and contributes to a better understanding of immigrant behaviour.
... This process yields a plausible conclusion but may not always positively verify it. The abductive conclusions are heuristics (see [1]), hence involve uncertainty, which is expressed by the bounded rationality as satisficing. Satisficing is a decision making process which takes into account the costs of optimization into the optimization process, thereby producing an efficient but suboptimal result. ...
We forecast 1,000,000 COVID-19 cases outside of China by March 31st, 2020 based on a heuristic and WHO situation reports. We do not model the COVID-19 pandemic; we model only the number of cases. The proposed heuristic is based on a simple observation that the plot of the given data is well approximated by an exponential curve. The exponential curve is used for forecasting the growth of new cases. It has been tested for the last situation report of the last day. Its accuracy has been 1.29% for the last day added and predicted by the 57 previous WHO situation reports (the date 18 March 2020).
... Elements such as pride of belonging to a cooperative, trust between members in general and trust in directive boards in particular (involving empathy and admiration), the existence of effective dynamics of participation (involving shame and guilt for not fulfilling a task) and the feeling that one's contributions are considered, etc. are strongly related to pro-social emotions. Farmers' satisfaction is a behavioral concept with a wide academic genealogy (Brown, 2004;Oliver, 2014;Schwartz, 2002). Thus, the following hypothesis was formulated: ...
Cocoa marketing cooperatives are essential in the current model of governance of cocoa production and distribution in Peru and other developing countries. Because farmer satisfaction is particularly important for the success and development of cooperatives, this article focuses on an analysis of the factors related to farmer satisfaction as well as the identification of demographic and socio-economic elements that can explain the different levels of satisfaction among different cooperative members. Data obtained through a survey of 150 cocoa farmers were analyzed through three main statistical methods: (1) an exploratory factor analysis with a principal component analysis method; (2) cluster analysis; and (3) an independent samples t-test. The results confirm that farmer satisfaction is explained by a complex set of cognitive and psycho-social elements and pro-social emotions. Finally, the results indicate that some socio-economic features such as farm size or household size are associated with the varying existing levels of farmer satisfaction
When faced with the need to transform an object, idea, or situation, people have a tendency to favor adding new components rather than removing existing ones. This is called the additive bias . Previous research, along with historical and anecdotal examples, shows that this bias may significantly reduce problem‐solving abilities and have a detrimental impact on the innovation process. In this study, our objective was to develop a novel tool, the additive bias implicit association test (ad‐IAT), to investigate the reasons underlying people's preference for additive actions. By using this tool, we empirically demonstrated that people displayed an inherent tendency to assign a positive valence to additive concepts and to perceive additive actions as safer and more functional than subtractive concepts. Importantly, we also found that implicit preference for addition resulted in participants favoring additive actions while neglecting subtractive alternatives when engaged in a problem‐solving task. Collectively, our series of experiments substantiated the effectiveness of our ad‐IAT in uncovering and quantifying the additive bias. This, in turn, provided a deeper comprehension of the underlying factors contributing to the bias and its impact on people's behavior.
This chapter connects the lines of thought presented in the previous chapters—both theoretically and empirically grounded—with current issues, challenges, and opportunities in design research and practice. Design practice often seeks to engage communities and institutional partners with designers working as or with intermediaries. This chapter argues for the merits of a more explicit engagement with intermediation as part of the toolbox of design practice. The chapter discusses some of the utility of intermediation skills and techniques and calls for intermediation to be better embedded and integrated in design practices.
Decisions by individuals, organisations, and nations shape the well-being of humans and other species, the environment, and sustainability. Decisions for Sustainability examines how we can make better decisions concerning our future. It incorporates sociological, psychological, and economic perspectives to highlight our strengths and weaknesses in decision-making, and suggest strategies to influence both individual and societal decisions. Sustainability challenges – from local land use and toxic contamination to climate change and biodiversity loss – illustrate how we can improve decision making and what factors lead to conflict. How we use science in the face of uncertainty is also examined, and a range of ethical criteria for good decisions are proposed. Emphasizing the need for diversity in decision making and clarifying the relationship between reform and societal transformation, this book provides a comprehensive view of what we know about decision-making, and how we can do better in the face of sustainability challenges.
Zusammenfassung
Das begriffliche Instrumentarium von Herbert A. Simon und Niklas Luhmann zu Entscheidungsprämissen und Entscheidungsprogrammen wird vergleichend untersucht. Luhmann bezieht sich zwar explizit auf Simon, durch eine unterschiedliche Theorieanlage entsteht aber eine Sinnverschiebung. Simons Theoriebildung ist auf eine empirische Analyse menschlichen Verhaltens angelegt und verfolgt das ambitionierte softwaretechnische Projekt der Modellierung von Heuristiken in einem „General Problem Solver.“ Luhmanns Theoriekonstruktion ist dagegen am Vorbild juristischen Entscheidens orientiert. Gerade dadurch gelingt es ihm aber, eine neue soziologische Perspektive auf Entscheidungen in Organisationen zu eröffnen, die für aktuelle Diskussionen zum „automated decision making“ genutzt werden kann.
https://periodicos.ufba.br/index.php/revistaoes/article/view/47334
Resumo O objetivo deste artigo é investigar o itinerário epistemológico de Herbert A. Simon acerca dos limites da racionalidade registrados em seu livro Administrative Behavior, de 1947. A pesquisa, fundamentada no materialismo, abordou o itinerário epistemológico, a partir de duas categorias de análise: as fontes principais ao estabelecimento dos limites da racionalidade e o modo como o autor procedeu a investigação desse objeto. A pesquisa revelou que o desenvolvimento dos limites da racionalidade galgava terreno nas primeiras décadas do século XX e inúmeros materiais, dentro de certa tendência de então, serviram de canal difusor para Simon cuja assimilação por este autor se deu dentro das fronteiras do empirismo, dando continuidade ao criticismo ao irrealismo do agente maximizador na escola neoclássica. Em termos procedimentais de investigação sobre os limites da racionalidade, Simon realizou observações pontuais e, a partir delas, inferências lógicas das consequências dos limites da racionalidade para certos aspectos organizacionais. Palavras-chave: história da ciência administrativa; epistemologia; Herbert Simon; limites da racionalidade.
https://periodicos.ufba.br/index.php/revistaoes/article/view/47334
This article investigates Herbert A. Simon's epistemological itinerary with regard to the limits of rationality presented in his book Administrative Behavior, published in 1947. The investigation, grounded in materialism, explores his epistemological itinerary based on two categories of analysis: the key sources used to establish the limits of rationality and the way in which the author proceeded to investigate this object. The investigation revealed that the development of the limits of rationality gained ground in the early decades of the twentieth century and that numerous texts, which reflected a particular trend at the time, served as a conduit for Simon. Simon's assimilation of this development took place within the boundaries of empiricism, continuing the critique of the unrealism of the maximizing agent in the neoclassical school. In procedural terms of research on the limits of rationality, Simon made specific observations and, based upon them, logical inferences regarding the consequences of the limits of rationality for certain organizational aspects.
Collective intelligence (CI) in organizational teams has been predominantly understood and explained in terms of the quality of the outcomes that the team produces. This manuscript aims to extend the understanding of CI in teams, by disentangling the core of actual collective intelligent team behavior that unfolds over time during a collaboration period. We posit that outcomes do support the presence of CI, but that collective intelligence itself resides in the interaction processes within the team. Teams behave collectively intelligent when the collective behaviors during the collaboration period are in line with the requirements of the (cognitive) tasks the team is assigned to and the (changing) environment. This perspective results in a challenging, but promising research agenda armed with new research questions that call for unraveling longitudinal fine-grained interactional processes over time. We conclude with exploring methodological considerations that assist researchers to align concept and methodology. In sum, this manuscript proposes a more direct, thorough, and nuanced understanding of collective intelligence in teams, by disentangling micro-level team behaviors over the course of a collaboration period. With this in mind, the field of CI will get a more fine-grained understanding of what really happens at what point in time: when teams behave more or less intelligently. Additionally, when we understand collectively intelligent processes in teams, we can organize targeted interventions to improve or maintain collective intelligence in teams.
The Green Deal was part of a strategy to tackle climate change by reducing home energy use. It operated in the UK from 2013 to 2015, but uptake of the policy was very low. Energy efficiency policies usually advantage homeowners over tenants and landlords. Therefore, it is important to analyse the differences in uptake and the reasons for low uptake across sectors. This study examines which role financial incentives, decision-making and awareness play in inequality of uptake of the Green Deal, compared between the privately rented and owner-occupier sectors and between student landlords and the young professional landlord market. The study uses qualitative interviews, a survey, and documentary research to address the research question. The conclusion is that financial reasons are very relevant for understanding why uptake of the Green Deal was lower in the privately rented sector than the owner-occupier sector, and the student rented sector than the young professional rented sector. I found that the Green Deal finance was too expensive for customers in general, but that people in the privately rented sector found it more difficult than owners to access loans under the scheme. One of the novel findings from the study was that student landlords focused on rental incomes and believed that Green Deal improvement would not increase their rental incomes, but young professional landlords focused on capital gains and understood that Green Deal improvements would slightly increase their capital growth. Decision making reasons are very important for explaining the inequality of take-up of the Green Deal across sectors. The requirement for consensus between landlord and tenant in the rented market not exist in the owner-occupier market. I found that it is more difficult to reach consensus in student rented market than in the young professional rented market because the student market is made up of more transient and larger tenant groups than the young professional rented market, which contains fewer tenants who plan to stay for longer. It is less clear how important awareness reasons are to explain the difference in uptake of the Green Deal across sectors. There were equal levels of Green Deal awareness between the privately rented sector and the owner-occupier sector, and between the students rented market and the young professional rented market. I found that tenants are not interested in energy efficiency when renting, but owners consider energy efficiency in their buying decisions. Therefore, owner-occupiers might be more willing to act on their pro-environmental attitudes than landlords and tenants. Equally, environmental attitudes of different types of landlord are potentially relevant in explaining difference in uptake of the Green Deal in the student rented market and the young professional rented market. Landlords in the young professional rented market might be more willing to act on their pro-environmental attitudes than landlords in the student rented market, as the former’s motivations to rent out their properties are based on long-term enhancement of capital value, as against the latter’s motivations based on short-term profit.
In recent years, special attention has been paid to the area of travel behavior, perceptions, and preferences for multimodal mobility, but also to the comprehensive facts about what multimodal mobility means for people, for their activities and their daily routines. Travel planning behaviour (choice of travel mode) can be understood as a decision-making process based on accumulated experience as well as developed behavioural patterns during the journey, etc. The paper describes a decision support system for multimodal travel planners based on a behavioural decision-making model.KeywordsMultimodal travelUser preferencesDecision theoryDecision support system
The chapter provides a broad review of theories of decision making, starting from a dominant cognitive view and shifting to more recent emphases on the essential roles of noncognitive factors such as motivation and emotion. The chapter distinguishes between rational and intuitive decision-making approaches and explores this continuum to reveal an overall nuanced understanding of decision processing. A comprehensive review of research studies examining the impact of goal motivations and personal agency beliefs on decision making, and a closer look at the role of affect, emotion, and stress, highlights the numerous influences on decision making and the different pathways decision-makers can use to arrive at satisfactory decision outcomes. With a focus on adolescents and adults in the general population, the chapter also explores the roles of personal and developmental factors in decision making, such as age, gender, personality, individual differences, and social and cultural influences. After establishing a broad theoretical context, the chapter presents an updated version of the Pathways Model of Decision Processing, an exploratory framework for guiding decision-making study and research involving individuals with intellectual and developmental disabilities.
Project managers commonly adopt suboptimal work plans, even when optimal plans are readily accessible. This research identifies a factor that elicits this seemingly irrational behavior: the perceived complexity of the optimal work plan, as reflected in the plan’s Gantt chart representation. Four controlled experiments show that among experienced project managers presented with a work plan explicitly stated to be optimal, those who view a low-complexity plan are more likely to adopt the plan compared with project managers who view a high-complexity plan. Work-related stress triggered by exposure to the work plan is shown to mediate the effect.
This chapter studies the essence of machine and human rationality by looking at the relevance of information, intelligent machines, and optimization for the formulation of the concept of rationality. Rational agents maximize their net utility. This chapter also studies the notion of utility and how it is formulated. The uniqueness of a utility function is also elaborated on. It concludes that the formulation of utility is subjective, and this has implications on the essence of rationality.
Prototyping plays a pivotal role in the engineering design process. Prototypes represent physical or digital manifestations of design ideas, and as such act as effective communication tools for designers. While the benefits of prototyping are well-documented in research, the fundamental ways in which the construction of a prototype affects designers' reflection on and evaluation of their design outcomes and processes are not well understood. The relationships between prototypes, designers' communication strategies, and recollection of design processes is of particular interest in this work, as preliminary research suggests that novice designers tend to struggle to clearly articulate the decisions made during the design process. This work serves to extend prior work and build foundational knowledge by exploring the evaluation of design outcomes and processes, and communication strategies employed by novice designers during prototyping tasks. A controlled in-situ study was conducted with 45 undergraduate engineering students. Results from qualitative analyses suggest that a number of rhetorical patterns emerged in students' communications, suggesting a complicated relationship exists between prototyping, communication, and design cognition.
This thesis considers three combinatorial optimization problems of substantial practical importance. First, a new approach to efficiently obtain a large number of ranked solutions to a 3-dimensional assignment problem is presented, and is applied to generate fuel assembly loading patterns. Second, we formulate the problem of dynamically scheduling maritime surveillance assets, and solve it using branch-and-cut and approximate dynamic programming (ADP) with rollout, and investigate the tradeoffs between the two. Third, a multi-objective ship routing problem is also investigated, where we propose a solution combining approximate dynamic programming techniques and clustering techniques to contain the computational and storage complexity. Lastly, this dissertation develops a seminal approach to adaptive Kalman filtering via the use of post-fit residuals given data samples -- an approach not yet discussed prior to this work.
Thomas S. Kuhn's classic book is now available with a new index. "A landmark in intellectual history which has attracted attention far beyond its own immediate field. . . . It is written with a combination of depth and clarity that make it an almost unbroken series of aphorisms. . . . Kuhn does not permit truth to be a criterion of scientific theories, he would presumably not claim his own theory to be true. But if causing a revolution is the hallmark of a superior paradigm, [this book] has been a resounding success." âNicholas Wade, Science "Perhaps the best explanation of [the] process of discovery." âWilliam Erwin Thompson, New York Times Book Review "Occasionally there emerges a book which has an influence far beyond its originally intended audience. . . . Thomas Kuhn's The Structure of Scientific Revolutions . . . has clearly emerged as just such a work." âRon Johnston, Times Higher Education Supplement "Among the most influential academic books in this century." âChoice One of "The Hundred Most Influential Books Since the Second World War," Times Literary Supplement
Measuring Municipal Activities, monograph, International City Manager's Association
- C E Ridley
- H A Simon
Measurement techniques in administrative research
- H A Simon
Fiscal Aspects of Metropolitan Consolidation
- H A Simon
Determining Work Loads for Professional Staff in a Public Welfare Agency
- H A Simon
- W R Divine
- E M Cooper
- M Chernin
Administrative Behavior, The Macmillan Company
- H A Simon