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Digit ratios and preferences for aggressive content in entertainment
Abstract
Digit ratios (2D:4D) contain information concerning an individual’s propensity towards aggression. Our study adds the first clue to better understanding the relationship between 2D:4D and exposure to aggressive contents in entertainment products. Our findings suggest that individuals with low 2D:4D prefer aggressive contents such as action films, sports telecast, killing and achieving games, hip-hop music, and erotic video clips rather than do individuals with high 2D:4D. Also individuals with low 2D:4D tend to demonstrate less preference for romance films than individuals with high 2D:4D. In addition, we found that low 2D:4D was associated with a preference for sports instead of other genres of entertainment products. Therefore, 2D:4D (a putative correlate of prenatal sex steroids) helps us to better understand the rationale of individuals’ preferences for media violence.
... Building on the research showing that sex drive is associated with masculinized digit ratios in men (Manning & Fink, 2008), Nepomuceno, Saad, Stenstrom, Mendenhall, and Iglesias (in press) documented that men with masculinized digit ratios are more inclined to engage in courtship-related consumption to woo potential mates and retain current mates. Furthermore, Huh (2011) found that men with masculinized digit ratios have stronger preferences for watching erotic videos. In the current work, we hope to extend this line of research by investigating if digit ratios are associated with erotic gift-giving in a romantic relationship. ...
... We found that masculinized digit ratios were associated with erotic gift-giving, but only among men with high mating confidence. This finding constitutes a significant theoretical contribution by suggesting that prenatal testosterone and estrogen not only influence sex drive (Manning & Fink, 2008), romantic gift-giving (Nepomuceno et al., in press) and preferences for erotic videos (Huh, 2011), but also has an impact on erotic gift-giving among men with high mating confidence. While exposure to high prenatal testosterone and low prenatal estrogen are likely to promote a greater desire to offer erotic gifts in men, only those with high mating confidence are able to act on these bold desires. ...
While prenatal testosterone and estrogen have been associated with various masculinized traits such as risk-taking, aggression, athletic ability, and sex drive, little is known regarding the impact of prenatal hormones on male romantic gift-giving. In a sample of 130 Caucasian men, we investigate the association between digit ratios (2D:4D and rel2), a proxy of exposure to prenatal testosterone-to-estrogen ratio, and the likelihood of offering erotic gifts to romantic partners. We hypothesize that men with highly masculinized (low) digit ratios and high mating confidence (i.e., the self-perceived ease with which one gains sexual access to others) will engage in greater erotic gift-giving. We find that masculinized digit ratios are associated with greater erotic gift-giving, but only among men with high mating confidence. Our findings suggest that high prenatal testosterone exposure and high prenatal estrogen exposure are likely to promote a greater desire to offer erotic gifts to a romantic partner, but that only men with high mating confidence have the courage to act on these desires.
... Also, social roles theory (Eagly, 1987; see also Steinmetz et al., 2014;Eagly and Sczesny, 2019) offers a framework for investigating gender. The effects of prenatal testosterone constitute yet another explanation (Mazur et al., 1997;Huh, 2011; see also Constantinescu and Hines, 2012). Those explanations, however, only consider proximate mechanisms (cultural-/ environmental-proximate in the first cases, biological-proximate in the latter case). ...
We investigated the accuracy of gender stereotypes regarding digital game genre preferences. In Study 1, 484 female and male participants rated their preference for 17 game genres (gender differences). In Study 2, another sample of 226 participants rated the extent to which the same genres were presumably preferred by women or men (gender stereotypes). We then compared the results of both studies in order to determine the accuracy of the gender stereotypes. Study 1 revealed actual gender differences for most genres—mostly of moderate size. Study 2 revealed substantial gender stereotypes about genre preferences. When comparing the results from both studies, we found that gender stereotypes were accurate in direction for most genres. However, they were, to some degree, inaccurate in size: For most genres, gender stereotypes overestimated the actual gender difference with a moderate mean effect size.
... К. Миллет и З. Дьюитт (Millet, Dewitte 2007) в своем исследовании показали возможные отрицательные ассоциации между 2D:4D и самооценкой по физической агрессии под воздействием музыкального видео со сценами насилия. Г. Хух (Huh 2011) обнаружил, что индивиды с низким пальцевым индексом предпочитают агрессивные фильмы-боевики, спортивные телепередачи, насильственные компьютерные и видеоигры, музыку в стиле хип-хоп и эротические клипы достоверно чаще по сравнению с обладателями высоких пальцевых индексов. Таким образом, пальцевой индекс может также иметь прогностическую ценность в объяснении индивидуальных предпочтений медианасилия. ...
2D:4D) в качестве маркера суммарного влияния андрогенов (тестос-терона) и эстрогенов на плод в раннем эмбриогенезе и доказывается необходимость и перспективность включения этого признака в качестве непременной составляющей современных антропометрических исследований. Показана необходимость дальней-шего развития методической базы с учетом уже доказанной роли постнатальной андро-генизации в формировании костей кисти. В заключение сделан вывод о необходи-мости дальнейших исследований пальцевого индекса в контексте его ассоциации с морфофизиологическими и психологическими характеристиками человека с учетом влияния средовых (экологических) и социокультурных факторов, а также роли стрес-совых факторов в период раннего развития плода в утробе матери.
... Gospel music is claimed to imbue its listeners with a strong sense of power (Cusic, 1990). Empirically, heavy metal and hip-hop music have been linked to increased dominance and aggression, factors associated with power (Chavez, 2008;Chen, Miller, Grube, & Waiters, 2006;Coyne, Stockdale, & Nelson, 2012;Fischer & Greitemeyer, 2006;Huh, 2011;Rubin, West, & Mitchell, 2001). In addition, neuroimaging research indicates that certain classical music (i.e., Mozart) is linked to left frontal activity (Habe & Jaušovec, 2003), a marker that correlates highly with approach tendencies (Keltner et al., 2003), and the experience of power (Boksem, Smolders, & De Cremer, 2012). ...
Music has long been suggested to be a way to make people feel powerful. The current research investigated whether music can evoke a sense of power and produce power-related cognition and behavior. Initial pretests identified musical selections that generated subjective feelings of power. Experiment 1 found that music pretested to be powerful implicitly activated the construct of power in listeners. Experiments 2–4 demonstrated that power-inducing music produced three known important downstream consequences of power: abstract thinking, illusory control, and moving first. Experiments 5a and 5b held all features of music constant except for the level of bass and found that music with more bass increased participants’ sense of power. This research expands our understanding of music’s influence on cognition and behavior and uncovers a novel antecedent of the sense of power.
... Millet and Dewitte (2007), suggested possible negative associations between 2D:4D and self-ratings on physical aggression while exposed to violent music video, whereas after exposure to a non-violent video such relationships were not found. Furthermore, Huh (2011) suggested that individuals with low 2D:4D prefer aggressive media such as action films, sports telecast, killing and achieving games, hip-hop music, and erotic video clips rather than do individuals with high 2D:4D. Thus, 2D:4D may be a marker for understanding the rationale of individuals' preferences for media violence. ...
The aim of this study was to consider digit ratio (2D:4D: a putative marker of prenatal testosterone and estrogen levels) and aggression in a sample of 1,452 children and adolescents (mean age 13.6 years) from five regions of Russia. The 2D:4D was calculated from direct measurements of the fingers, and aggression scores were obtained from completed Buss and Perry (J Pers Soc Psychol 63 (1992) 452-459) aggression questionnaires. The 2D:4D demonstrated significant sexual dimorphism, with lower 2D:4D in boys in all regions. Physical aggression scores were highest in boys, but verbal aggression, anger and hostility were highest in girls. The highest right hand 2D:4D in boys was found in the most northerly population (Central Russia Region). Our data revealed small, but highly significant negative correlations between right 2D:4D, right-left 2D:4D (DR-L ) and self-ratings on physical aggression in boys, but not in girls. These relationships remained after considering Russian ethnics only, and controlling for region. We suggest that the associations may be due to sex differences in prenatal androgen secretion. Am J Phys Anthropol, 2013. © 2013 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.
Objective Observations of sex differences have led some scientists to doubt whether the neuroendocrine system is involved in attentiondeficit/ hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) etiology. One of the interesting study subjects in this context is prenatal steroid hormone exposure. The aim of the present study was to replicate and extend previous work by addressing two research questions: 1) Are second-tofourth digit (2D:4D) ratios lower in ADHD than in controls? 2) Is there a correlation between 2D:4D ratios and symptoms of ADHD, aggression and intelligence scores in boys with ADHD?
Methods The study included 100 treatment-naive male children diagnosed with ADHD and 55 healthy male children. We measured the ratios of 2D:4D and administered a Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children-Revised to assess IQ scores, as well as behavioral rating scales, in children with ADHD and comparison individuals.
Results We observed lower 2D:4D ratios in the right hand in ADHD in comparison to the control group. The left-hand ratios of 2D:4D, however, did not differ between ADHD and control groups. There were negative correlations between the left-hand 2D:4D ratios and the hyperactivity scores. However, no significant correlation was detected between right-hand 2D:4D ratios and the psychological questionnaire scores.
Conclusion These results provide further evidence that fetal androgen exposure may contribute to the pathophysiology of ADHD, at least in boys.
Loss aversion is allegedly one of the key drivers for behavioral biases in the financial economics context, e.g. the disposition effect and the equity premium puzzle. However, while loss aversion is important, little research has investigated its determinants. Therefore, loss aversion was elicited using an incentivized task. Results reveal that lower loss aversion is associated with greater prenatal testosterone exposure, as measured by the 2D:4D. Surprisingly, this correlation between loss aversion and the digit ratio only holds true for the right hand. Furthermore, a greater number of siblings, improved math skills and the male gender are all associated with reduced loss aversion. The results contribute to the understanding of loss aversion in general and the effect of prenatal testosterone on economic preferences in particular.
The current study tested the hypothesis that digit ratios would be associated with celebrity worship, especially among adolescents. Our sample consisted of 45 male and 61 female participants aged 12–14years (M=13.20, SD=0.71). We measured the digit ratios on the participants’ right hands and used the 23 items of the revised Celebrity Attitude Scale (CAS) to explore the degree to which participants engaged in celebrity worship. The average digit ratio was 0.95 (SD=0.04) among male participants and 0.97 (SD=0.47) among female participants. The mean CAS scores were 50.06 (SD=20.63) for male participants and 64.49 (SD=18.04) for female participants. The digit ratios for the entire sample were positively correlated with CAS scores (r=0.29, p
Much recent research has focused on the ratio of the lengths of the second to fourth manual digits (2D:4D) as a predictor of the degree of expression of sexually dimorphic and other sex-hormone-mediated traits. However, published findings are often contradictory or subject to various methodological problems. In the present study, we reassessed the relationships among three measures of 2D:4D (left hand, right hand, and mean) and several variables previously claimed to be related to 2D:4D, including sexual orientation, spatial ability, status, physical prowess, and components of reproductive success. In addition, we examined the relationship between 2D:4D measures and several other traits whose expression is thought to be related to sex hormones, including voice pitch, sociosexuality, mating success, and fluctuating asymmetry. 2D:4D measures showed highly significant sex differences, as did spatial ability, sociosexuality, components of reproductive and mating success, and fluctuating asymmetry. However, out of 57 correlations, 2D:4D correlated significantly in the predicted direction only with sexual orientation (for both sexes) and only for left hand 2D:4D. We discuss the recent 2D:4D literature in light of these findings and consider their implications for understanding the timing of developmental events.
The uses and gratifications tradition posits individual needs for stimulation, for information, vary systematically. These needs may, in turn, affect what media sources, and other stimuli, various individuals access. This study used a survey design (N = 610) to examine the relationship between several key personality factors, media exposure and liking, and risk‐taking behavior. Overall, it was found that sensation seeking, verbal aggressiveness, argumentativeness, and instrumental androgyny were positively associated with exposure to violent films and horror movies and to a lesser extent real crime and violent television. However, these personality factors did not consistently predict liking of these genres suggesting that individuals may be seeking excitement and aggression (gratifications sought) in these genres but are not necessarily satisfied (gratifications obtained) by these mediated forms. In addition, even after controlling for these personality factors, exposure to these various forms of violent media was directly related to self‐reported violent behavior and risky behavior.
The impact of personality characteristics (Extraversion, Neuroticism, Psychoticism) on audiences' use of movies, television, and radio, and on genre preferences within these media was explored. Extraversion was associated positively with in-home movie viewing and with listening to urban, jazz-classical, and pop-rock music. Neuroticism was associated positively with pop-rock music listening. Psychoticism was associated negatively with watching romance and comedy films, but this relation was moderated by an interaction in that the impact of Psychoticism was most powerful among those who were also high in Neuroticism. Follow-up analyses evaluating the impact of personality within groups defined by gender and race were also carried out. The results point to the potential of incorporating audiences' perceptions of the gratifications offered by particular media into further research. These perceptions, which are likely to vary across audience groups, may contribute to how personality factors are expressed in media behavior.
Males tend to be more aggressive than females and the organizational effects of prenatal testosterone (T) appear to contribute to this sex difference. Low second-to-fourth digit ratio (2D:4D) is thought to be a marker of high prenatal testosterone. For this reason, a number of studies have used 2D:4D to investigate a potential effect of prenatal T upon aggression in later life. Here we meta-analyse these studies to determine the true size of the relationship between 2D:4D and aggression. We find no evidence of 2D:4D better predicting aggression at different levels of risk nor do we find evidence for a relationship between 2D:4D and aggression in females. Regarding males we find some evidence of a small, negative relationship between 2D:4D and aggression (r ≈ −.06) and no indication that either hand would predict aggression better than the other. We contrast these findings with results regarding levels of aggression in females with elevated prenatal T levels due to Congenital Adrenal Hyperplasia and we discuss implications for 2D:4D research.
Prenatal testosterone has important effects on brain organization and future behavior. The second-to-fourth digit length ratio (2D:4D), a proxy of prenatal testosterone exposure, has been linked to a wide variety of sexually differentiated dispositions and behaviors. We examine the relationship between digit length ratios (2D:4D and rel2, the length of the second finger relative to the sum of the lengths of all four fingers) and risk-taking behaviors across five domains: financial, social, recreational, ethical, and health. In a sub-sample of male Caucasians (ethnically homogeneous), lower rel2 was predictive of greater financial, social, and recreational risk-taking, whereas lower 2D:4D was predictive of greater risk-taking in two domains (social and recreational). In the full male sub-sample (ethnically heterogeneous), the only significant correlation was a negative association between 2D:4D and financial risk. A composite measure of risk-taking across all five domains revealed that both rel2 and 2D:4D were negatively correlated with overall risk-taking in both male sub-samples. No significant correlations were found in the female sub-samples. Finally, men were more risk-seeking than women across all five contexts.
Recent research (Anderson, Benjamin, & Bartholow, 1998) indicates that the presence of guns increases the accessibility of aggressive thoughts via automatic priming. Our research examined whether this “weapons priming effect” differs depending on the structure of an individual's knowledge about guns, and if so, whether that difference results in corresponding differences in aggressive behavior. Experiment 1 revealed that individuals with prior gun experience (hunters) have more detailed and specific information about guns than do individuals with no direct gun experience (nonhunters), and that hunting experience interacts with gun type (hunting versus assault) in predicting affective and cognitive reactions to guns. Experiment 2 revealed that pictures of hunting guns were more likely to prime aggressive thoughts among nonhunters, whereas pictures of assault guns were more likely to prime aggressive thoughts among hunters. Experiment 3 showed differences in aggressive behavior following gun primes that correspond to differences in affective and cognitive responses to gun cues. Our findings are discussed in light of the General Aggression Model.
There is now compelling evidence that the ratio of the length of the second digit divided by the length of the fourth digit (2D:4D) is affected by prenatal androgens in humans. This ratio is greater in females than males from fetal life through adulthood, correlates with polymorphism in the androgen receptor gene in men, is feminine in XY androgen insensitivity syndrome, and masculinized in congenital adrenal hyperplasia. Using 2D:4D as a correlate, researchers have found evidence that prenatal androgens affect many sexually differentiated human behaviors, including sexual orientation in women (but not in men), attention deficit disorder, autism, eating disorders, aggression, and risk-taking. In each case, lower 2D:4D, indicative of greater prenatal androgen stimulation, is associated with behavior more commonly displayed by males than females. The correlation between 2D:4D and prenatal androgen stimulation is too imperfect to accurately predict the phenotype of a particular individual, even in terms of sex. However, digit ratio is the best available retrospective marker of average differences in prenatal androgen stimulation between groups of people, and/or correlations of prenatal androgen stimulation with particular behaviors and characteristics within a group. Thus digit ratios offer a valid test of the organizational hypothesis that androgens act early in life to masculinize various human behaviors.
The differentiation of the urinogenital system and the appendicular skeleton in vertebrates is under the control of Hox genes.
The common control of digit and gonad differentiation raises the possibility that patterns of digit formation may relate to
spermatogenesis and hormonal concentrations. This work was concerned with the ratio between the length of the 2nd and 4th
digit (2D:4D) in humans. We showed that (i) 2D:4D in right and left hands has a sexually dimorphic pattern; in males mean
2D:4D = 0.98, i.e. the 4th digit tended to be longer than the 2nd and in females mean 2D:4D = 1.00, i.e. the 2nd and 4th digits
tended to be of equal length. The dimorphism is present from at least age 2 years and 2D:4D is probably established in utero;
(ii) high 2D:4D ratio in right hands was associated with germ cell failure in men (P = 0.04); (iii) sperm number was negatively
related to 2D:4D in the right hand (P = 0.004); (iv) in men testosterone concentrations were negatively related to right hand
2D:4D and in women and men LH (right hand), oestrogen (right and left hands) and prolactin (right hand) concentrations were
positively correlated with 2D:4D ratio and (v) 2D:4D ratio in right hands remained positively related to luteinizing hormone
and oestrogen after controlling for sex, age, height and weight.
Television viewing and aggressive behavior were assessed over a 17-year interval in a community sample of 707 individuals.
There was a significant association between the amount of time spent watching television during adolescence and early adulthood
and the likelihood of subsequent aggressive acts against others. This association remained significant after previous aggressive
behavior, childhood neglect, family income, neighborhood violence, parental education, and psychiatric disorders were controlled
statistically.
Two experiments examined the effects of sex and violence in rock music videos on viewers' judgments of the appeal of the music and visuals and emotional responses to the videos. The effects of videos with high, moderate, or low visual sex content were compared in Experiment 1. Positive emotions and the appeal of both the music and visuals were found to be positively related to the level of sexual content. In Experiment 2, the effects of videos with high, moderate, and low levels of visual violence content indicated that negative emotional responses and reduced appeal of both the music and the visuals were related to the level of violence. Evidence was obtained from both experiments that the combination of sex and violence also decreased appeal. In addition, music arousal was found to have an effect on appeal. More arousing music was positively related to appeal and positive emotions in sexy videos, but its influence was found to be independent of visual sex. In violent videos, however, music arousal was associated with decreased appeal and negative emotions and appeared to result from the “transfer” of excitation from the arousing music to the violence of the visual content.
This study examined the relation between personality factors, as measured by the NEO Personality Inventory-Revised and individuals' viewing and enjoyment of various television and film genres. Five hundred fifty adults between the ages of 18 and 78 were surveyed. Utilizing a uses and gratifications model, the factors underlying media use (gratifications sought-GS) and media liking (gratifications obtained-GO), particularly of violent fare, were investigated. Overall, it was found that viewing (GS) and liking (GO) were not strongly related. In terms of personality factors, there was some supporting evidence that personality factors are associated with liking and, to a lesser extent, watching certain content. Several of the Neuroticism facets were positively related to watching violent media, watching real crime, and watching cop dramas; however, there were no significant relations between Neuroticism and liking violent content. For Extraversion, there was a negative relation with overall television viewing, but a positive one with movie watching. When extraverts did watch television, the results indicated a significant association between Extraversion and various violent genres. For Openness there was a positive relation between liking of violent media and openness to aesthetics. Last, we found that several facets of Agreeableness were negatively associated with liking violent content.
For 14 teams of three young men, salivary testosterone and cortisol were assessed twice before and twice after competing in within-group and between-group video games that simulated violent male–male competition. Men who contributed the most to their teams' between-group victory showed testosterone increases immediately after the competition, but only if this competition was played before the within-group tournament. High-scoring men on losing teams did not show this immediate effect, but they did show a delayed increase in testosterone. In contrast, high-ranking men tended to have lower testosterone and higher cortisol during within-group tournaments. The results are consistent with the hypothesis that men's competitive testosterone response varies across ingroup and outgroup competitions and is muted during the former. The testosterone response during the between-group competition also suggests that violent multiplayer video games may be appealing to young men because they simulate male–male coalitional competition.
Numerous studies have investigated the relationship between testosterone (T) and aggression but yielded inconsistent findings in healthy subjects. One possible reason for this might be the measurement of actual T-levels, ignoring that its role in neurodevelopment seems to be of predominant importance. The aim of our study was to further elucidate the effects of T availability during early phases of gestation, operationalized by the measurement of the 2nd to 4th digit ratio (2D:4D), on behavioral aggression in healthy volunteers. A low 2D:4D (indicating a long ring finger relative to the index finger) relates to high levels of prenatal T. A total number of 171 healthy subjects (98 men, 73 women) ranging in age from 20 to 30 years were tested. Participants were subjected to a modified version of a competitive reaction-time task, a commonly used and well-established tool to elicit and measure aggression (Taylor paradigm). They also completed self-report scales on trait aggression. Ventral surface scans of both hands were used to determine the 2D:4D ratio. As expected, the 2D:4D was lower in men as compared to women for both hands. Moreover, in contrast to questionnaire data, men reveal higher levels of aggression in the computer task compared to women. Finally, a negative correlation between 2D:4D and aggression was found in males but not in females. Results are discussed with respect to the usefulness of the 2D:4D construct as well as to sex differences in organizational effects of T.
This study examined the role of three personality characteristics, Psychoticism, Extraversion, and Neuroticism (PEN), on viewers' level of attention to five different genres of television programming: news, soap operas, reality shows, talk shows, and crime dramas. A survey of 381 college students showed psychoticism to be negatively related to attention to news and reality show programming. There was a positive relationship between extraversion and attention to reality programming. Finally, neuroticism was positively associated with attention to all genres assessed. The implications of these findings for future research are discussed.
TESTED THE HYPOTHESIS THAT STIMULI COMMONLY ASSOCIATED WITH AGGRESSION CAN ELICIT AGGRESSIIVE RESPONSES FROM PEOPLE READY TO ACT AGGRESSIVELY. 100 MALE UNIVERSITY SS RECEIVED EITHER 1 OR 7 SHOCKS, SUPPOSEDLY FROM A PEER, AND WERE THEN GIVEN AN OPPORTUNITY TO SHOCK THIS PERSON. IN SOME CASES A RIFLE AND REVOLVER WERE NEAR THE SHOCK KEY. THESE WEAPONS WERE SAID TO BELONG, OR NOT TO BELONG, TO THE AVAILABLE TARGET PERSON. IN OTHER INSTANCES THERE WAS NOTHING NEAR THE KEY, WHILE FOR CONTROLS 2 BADMINTON RACQUETS WERE NEAR THE KEY. THE GREATEST NUMBER OF SHOCKS WAS GIVEN BY THE STRONGLY AROUSED SS (WHO HAD RECEIVED 7 SHOCKS) WHEN THEY WERE IN THE PRESENCE OF THE WEAPONS. THE GUNS HAD EVIDENTLY ELICITED STRONG AGGRESSIVE RESPONSES FROM THE AROUSED MEN. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
The impact of personality type (extraversion, neuroticism, psychoticism) and culture (American, German) on preferences for contemporary movies was explored. Consistent with theoretical expectations, the findings revealed that movie preferences were mediated by both the psychoticism and extraversion personality types and by an interaction between psychoticism by culture.
A developmental theory is presented to account for the relation between increased exposure to media violence and increased aggressive behavior. It is argued that the effect of media violence on individual differences in aggression is primarily the result of a cumulative learning process during childhood. Aggressive scripts for behavior are acquired from observation of media violence and aggressive behavior itself stimulates the observation of media violence. In both childhood and adulthood, certain cues in the media may trigger the activation of aggressive scripts acquired in any manner and thus stimulate aggressive behavior. A number of intervening variables may either mitigate or exacerbate these reciprocal effects. If undampened, this cumulative learning process can build enduring schemas for aggressive behavior that persist into adulthood. Thus, early childhood television habits are correlated with adult criminality independently of other likely causal factors. It is concluded that interventions directed at mitigating the effects of media violence on delinquency and criminality should focus on the preadolescent years.
The ratio between second and fourth finger (2D:4D) is sexually dimorphic; it is lower in men than in women. Studies using broad personality domains yielded correlations of 2D:4D with neuroticism, extraversion or agreeableness, but the obtained results have been inconsistent. We correlated 2D:4D of 184 women and 101 men with their scores in Cattell's 16 Personality Factor (16PF) Questionnaire. We found women with a higher (more ‘feminine’) right hand 2D:4D to score lower in emotional stability and social boldness and higher in privateness. Mediator analysis showed emotional stability to be probably primarily correlated with 2D:4D and to act as a mediator between 2D:4D and social boldness. Privateness appears to be mediated by an even more complex path. We discuss the usefulness of primary-level personality questionnaires and mediator analyses in the investigation of psycho-morphological associations. Copyright © 2007 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
Several studies have demonstrated that the ratio between the lengths of the second and fourth digits (2D:4D) is sexually dimorphic. On average males demonstrate lower digit ratios than do females. There is accumulating evidence that 2D:4D is established early in development and is negatively related to prenatal testosterone and positively with prenatal estrogen. In this present study, we investigated associations between digit ratio and the ‘big-five’ personality factors (extraversion, neuroticism, openness, conscientiousness and agreeableness). Only agreeableness showed a significant sex difference with females scoring higher. Neuroticism showed a significant positive correlation with right hand digit ratio for the whole sample, and in females only for right hand 2D:4D. Further, a significant negative association was found between females’ right hand digit ratio and agreeableness. Male 2D:4D did not correlate significantly with any of the personality factors. The results follow previous studies reporting that 2D:4D was a stronger correlate of personality traits in females than in males. In summary, the associations between digit ratio and personality factors are weak but provide some further support for the claim that gender-related behaviour is affected by the amount of steroid hormones present during critical periods of prenatal development.
Digit ratio (2D:4D) is a sexually dimorphic trait. Men have relatively shorter index fingers (2D) compared to ring fingers (4D) than women. Evidence suggests that more masculine ratios are influenced by higher prenatal testosterone levels. Testosterone and aggression are related and accordingly evidence suggests that male 2D:4D is related to physical aggression [Bailey and Hurd, 2005] and female 2D:4D is related to reactive aggression [Benderlioglu and Nelson, 2004]. As it has been shown that violent media have an impact on aggressive behavior, we predict that the relationship between 2D:4D and aggression should be stronger when exposed to an aggressive than to a non-aggressive music video. Accordingly, we show that 2D:4D and aggression (as measured by two different measures) are related, but only after exposure to the aggressive video. We suggest that future 2D:4D research should focus on plausible interactions between 2D:4D and context cues rather than on linear relations.
The psychological origins of television viewing motives were examined within the conceptual framework of the psychobiological model of personality developed by H. Eysenck (1947, 1990). Specifically, empirical evidence of linkages between three personality dimensions—psychoticism, extraversion, and neuroticism—and five television viewing motives—Pass Time, Companionship, Relaxation, Information, and Stimulation—is detailed. The findings, based on a sample of undergraduates (612 males; 526 females), revealed that individuals in the neuroticism personality dimension, compared to those in the psychoticism and extraversion groups, strongly endorsed the Pass Time, Companionship, Relaxation, and Stimulation motives for television viewing. Further, the data show that individuals in the socially outgoing extraversion group strongly reject the notion of using television as a functional alternative to interpersonal companionship. Some implications of these findings are discussed.
The aim of this work was to study the relationship between the viewing of and interest in violent episodes on TV, whether they be in action and adventure films or cartoons, and both personality, measured by the Eysenck Personality Questionnaire(EPQ\J), the Sensation Seeking Scale (SSS\J) and the Sensitivity to Punishment and Sensitivity to Reward Scales (SP-SR), and academic achievement. The sample was made up of 235 teenage boys and 235 teenage girls. The study also took account of teachers’ reports on student personality traits and attitudes such as aggressivity, excitability, leadership, responsibility and interest in studies. Our results reveal that those boys who perceive violent cartoon films as being funny and thrilling are deemed more aggressive and excitable by their teachers. Those boys who rate action and adventure films as more interesting attain lower academic achievement. Boys and girls who perceive violent cartoon films as being thrilling and funny get higher scores on N, P, SSS\J and SR. Those boys who rate action and adventure films watched as more interesting get higher scores on N, P, SSS\J and SR, whereas girls do likewise on E and P, SSS\J. The possible relationship between disinhibited, not very socialised personality and interest in violent topics on TV is thereafter discussed.
Personality characteristics (extraversion, neuroticism, and psychoticism) and media preferences (prime-time television programs, contemporary movies, and popular music) were assessed for 119 male undergraduates using a questionnaire. The findings revealed considerable correspondence between the respondents' predominant personality characteristics and their media content preferences. For example, respondents scoring high on neuroticism expressed a strong preference for information/news television programs and “downbeat” music while tending to avoid more lighthearted comedy and action/adventure fare. Those scoring high on psychoticism, on the other hand, evidenced significantly less interest in comedy offerings but displayed a strong preference for graphically violent horror movies. Further, media preference profiles that successfully discriminated between different levels of neuroticism and psychoticism were identified. Some implications of these findings for future research on media selection and use effects are discussed.
Following up on earlier research suggesting a link between implicit affiliation motivation and progesterone (P) and implicit power motivation and testosterone [T; Schultheiss, O.C., Dargel, A., Rohde, W., 2003. Implicit motives and gonadal steroid hormones: Effects of menstrual cycle phase, oral contraceptive use, and relationship status. Horm. Behav. 43, 293-301.], we tested whether arousal of affiliation motivation increases P levels and whether arousal of power motivation increases T levels. Sixty subjects were randomly assigned to watch 30 min of either Bridges of Madison County (affiliation arousal) or The Godfather II (power arousal), or a documentary about the Amazon (control condition). Levels of P and T were assessed in saliva samples taken before (T1), immediately after (T2), and 45 min after the movie (T3). The efficacy of experimental conditions to differentially arouse motives was verified by assessment of changes in affiliation and power motive imagery expressed in imaginative stories written before and after the movie. After the movie, salivary P levels (T2 and T3) in the affiliation-arousal group were significantly higher than in the control group and marginally higher than in the power-arousal group. Subjects' postmovie T responses (T3) depended on premovie T levels: in men, higher premovie T levels predicted a greater likelihood of postmovie T increases in the Power Arousal condition but not in the other conditions, whereas in women, higher premovie T levels tended to be associated with postmovie T decreases in the Power Arousal condition but not in the other conditions. These findings suggest that aroused affiliation motivation has a specific stimulatory effect on P, whereas aroused power motivation has a specific stimulatory effect on T in men, but not in women, with high baseline T levels.
Finger length ratio (2D:4D) is a sexually dimorphic trait. Men have relatively shorter second digits (index fingers) than fourth digits (ring fingers). Smaller, more masculine, digit ratios are thought to be associated with either higher prenatal testosterone levels or greater sensitivity to androgens, or both. Men with more masculine finger ratios are perceived as being more masculine and dominant by female observers, and tend to perform better in a number of physical sports. We hypothesized that digit ratio would correlate with propensity to engage in aggressive behavior. We examined the relationship between trait aggression, assayed using a questionnaire, and finger length ratio in both men and women. Men with lower, more masculine, finger length ratios had higher trait physical aggression scores (r(partial) = -0.21, N = 134, P = 0.028). We found no correlation between finger length ratio and any form of aggression in females. These results are consistent with the hypothesis that testosterone has an organizational effect on adult physical aggression in men.
A low second to fourth digit ratio (2D:4D) has been related to high testosterone levels and to markers of high status. In a social dilemma context status can be obtained either by acting egoistically (i.e. not contributing one's share) or by acting altruistically (i.e. contributing more than one's fair share). We therefore predicted that a low 2D:4D would be associated with high levels of egoism and altruism and low levels of common cooperativeness (i.e. contributing exactly one's fair share). We found the exact opposite: participants with a low 2D:4D were more likely to act cooperatively and less likely to act altruistically and egoistically. These findings suggest that: (1) there might be a high and a low testosterone strategy to gain status and (2) the high testosterone strategy is characterized by a preference for normative behavior.
Second-to-fourth digit ratio, a marker for prenatal testosterone levels, has been shown to be associated with sporting achievement in men. It is unclear, however, whether digit ratio makes a contribution over and above salient personality variables. The present study, which included female participants, measured four personality traits and one cognitive ability (mental rotation) that have been linked to both sports achievement and sex. The significant relationship between digit ratio and sporting achievement was nearly identical in women and men. A multiple regression showed that when significant correlates of sporting ability (weight, height, years playing, hours per week training, social potency, and mental rotation) were entered first, the contribution of digit ratio remained highly significant. We suggest that physiological as well as psychological factors may be an important avenue for future study.
Digit ratio (2D:4D) may be a correlate of prenatal sex steroids, and has been linked to traits, which are influenced by fetal testosterone and estrogen. Here we consider such links in a large Internet study of sex differences (the BBC Internet Study) in which finger lengths were self-measured. Consistent with lab-based findings the 2D:4D in this study shows sexual dimorphism, ethnic differences and higher dimorphism of right 2D:4D than left, thereby indicating that 2D:4D does measure real between-participant variation. High error in self-measurement of fingers reduces effect sizes. However, the large sample size gives assurance that significant effects are likely to be real. We controlled for ethnicity and sexual orientation by considering White heterosexuals only (153,429 participants). Sexual dimorphism was confirmed in 2D:4D and for the difference of right-left 2D:4D. After Bonferroni correction we found highly significant relationships with low effect sizes as follows. In males and females there were negative associations between 2D:4D and dominance. In males there were negative associations between 2D:4D and family size and factors associated with reproductive success. For females these associations were positive. For asymmetry we found U-shaped relationships with 2D:4D in both males and females. We found no relationship between 2D:4D and promiscuity (sociosexuality). In total, we considered 48 relationships and found 29 to be significant. We compare our findings with a similar study reported by Putz et al. (2004), which found only 2 out of 57 correlations to be significant and discuss possible reasons for the discrepancies between the studies.