Content uploaded by Patrick Ngulube
Author content
All content in this area was uploaded by Patrick Ngulube on Jan 13, 2014
Content may be subject to copyright.
154
Caveats and context
All physical formats, from paper to magnetic tape,
will decay over time. ”The storage environment
and physical handling and use compromise
all formats” (Ngulube 2002:128). Some of the
preservation activities that are fundamentals to the
survival of documentary formats into the future
include environmental control and monitoring,
handling and use of materials, reformatting,
disaster preparedness, preservation planning
and policies, security, storage of documents,
conducting preservation surveys and holding
maintenance (Henchy 1998; Khayundi 1995;
National Archives of the Netherlands et al. 2001;
Ngulube 2003; Swartzburg 1995).
However, environmental factors such as tem-
perature and humidity pose the major preserva-
tion challenges in most tropical countries (Kha-
yundi 1995:32; National Archives of the Neth-
erlands et al. 2001:49; Porck and Teygeler 2000).
In fact, archival management in tropical areas is
more governed by the climate than any other pro-
fessional concern (National Archives of the Neth-
erlands et al. 2001). Controlling the effects of the
environment in archives and libraries is the ”high-
est priority of any preservation program” (Dean
2002). In that regard, this paper focuses on envi-
ronmental control and monitoring as a means of
preserving recorded information in libraries and
archives of eastern and southern Africa. The re-
gion is largely affected by a tropical climate.
Environmental control and monitoring is one
of the keys to sustainable collection management
in libraries and archives (Forde 2002;
Peters 1996).
Put differently, environmental control and moni-
toring can extend the useful lives of library and
archival materials. It is one of the major effective
preventive measures in preservation manage-
ment. Libraries and archives may fail to provide
access to their holdings over time if they do not
take preventive measures to protect their holdings
into the future. Utilisation of knowledge stored
in libraries and archives depends on its current
Environmental Monitoring and Control
at National Archives and Libraries in
Eastern and Southern Africa
Patrick Ngulube
Information Studies Programme, School of Human and Social Studies,
University of KwaZulu-Natal
Dr Patrick Ngulube, Senior Lecturer. University of KwaZulu-Natal (PMB) , School of Human and Social Studies, Department of
Information Studies , Private Bag X01, Scottsville, 3209, Pietermaritzburg , South Africa. E-mail: ngulubep@ukzn.ac.za
Libri, 2005, vol. 55, pp. 154–168
Printed in Germany All rights reserved
Copyright Saur 2005
Libri
ISSN 0024-2667
When national archivists and national librarians select and
acquire materials, they should ensure that the materials
are accessible over time. All their efforts may come to
naught if the documentary materials were lost as result of
being exposed to extreme environmental conditions. En-
vironmental control and monitoring are keys to preventive
preservation strategies in the management of collections in
libraries and archives.
Libraries and archives may fail to provide access to their
holdings over time if they do not take preventive measures
to protect their holdings into the future. The current study
investigated environmental management at national archival
institutions and national libraries in eastern and southern
Africa. The results revealed that little attention was being
paid to environmental control and monitoring as a collection
management strategy.
155
Environmental Monitoring and Control at National Archives and Libraries
and future accessibility. Essentially, the utilisation
of knowledge ”is the core of information science
and information work” (De Beer 1999:13). In that
regard, housing the collections in environmentally
secure facilities may partly contribute to the
survival of documentary materials, and guarantee
current and future access to explicit knowledge
codifi ed in documentary materials in libraries and
archives.
It appears that little attention is being paid to
environmental control and monitoring as a collec-
tion management strategy worldwide, although
the problem is more acute in developing coun-
tries. Some studies have confi rmed that environ-
mental control and monitoring were not a priority
to many libraries and archival institutions. In 1986
Clements (1987) sent questionnaires to 300 ar-
chives and 550 libraries worldwide and received
417 replies from which he concluded that environ-
mental control and monitoring was neglected in
most of the surveyed institutions. A survey carried
out in 1997 by the National Archives of Hungary
revealed that regular environmental controls and
maintenance of the buildings were not adequately
undertaken (Albrecht-Kunszeri 1999).
Environmental control was identifi ed as one of
the major problems of managing documentary
materials in surveys carried out by Kenenouvong
(2002) and Fenn and Muir (2003). Hedstrom (n. d)
confi rmed that there is a serious environmental
problem at many institutions housing heritage
collections:
Thousands of repositories lack the means for disaster
prevention or adequate environmental controls to avoid
catastrophic loss of their holdings. The success stories and
regular use of established preservation methods are found
almost exclusively in developed countries.
In fact, the situation is steadily growing worse
as the infrastructures in many countries in Sub
Saharan Africa (SSA) have disintegrated with air-
conditioners and conservation equipment having
become non-functional (ESARBICA 2001; Mazika-
na 1992; Moyo 2001:110). On the basis of personal
observations, surveys and reports from consult-
ants, like Mazikana (1992) and Alegbeleye (2000)
one could dare to argue that the preservation
scene in SSA is in a dismal state.
The problem is exacerbated by lack of informa-
tion resources and research on the subject. The
problem is not entirely confi ned to Africa, a study
by Forde (2002) revealed that the level of informa-
tion and available advice on environmental moni-
toring and control was very low in the United
Kingdom. On the other hand, very little informa-
tion based on research is available on environmen-
tal monitoring and control in Sub Saharan Africa.
Empirical research can provide objective means
for critically evaluating and contextualizing the
theories and concepts constructed outside Africa
as well as understanding the preservation prob-
lems that the continent is facing. According to the
National Archives of the Netherlands and others
(2001:52), empirical research ”can give worthwhile
insight to the conservation needs” in the develop-
ing world. The International Federation of Library
Associations and Institutions (IFLA) Section on
Conservation also supports the need for research
into preservation matters (Manning 1998:115).
When it comes to SSA, it is evident from the lit-
erature and databases that little empirical research
has been conducted on preservation in general,
and environmental monitoring and control in par-
ticular. Some of the few studies that deal with
preservation issues in SSA that were identifi ed by
the current study were those of Akussah (2002),
Chida (1994), Kemoni (1996), Khayundi (1995),
Kufa (1998), Matangira (2003), Matwale (1995),
Mazikana (1992; 1995), Murray (2002), Ngulube
(2003), Ojo-Igbinoba (1993) and Peters (1998). In
any case, most of these studies only devoted a
paragraph or two to environmental management.
The paucity of preservation studies in Africa
was also confi rmed by the annotated bibliography
compiled by McIlwaine (1996). It has very few en-
tries focusing on preservation in Africa. The most
recent bibliographies compiled by Alegbeleye
(2000) and the National Archives of the Nether-
lands and others (2001) also confi rm the dearth of
literature on preservation management in Africa.
However, the literature on preservation of li-
brary and archival materials has ”come to age”
in the North and the librarians in the developed
world have developed preservation practices that
have ”their own history, methods, subspecial-
ties, and philosophical schools” (Jordan 2000:4).
A number of studies on preservation have been
done in Europe and the United States of America
(Conway 1991; Feather and Eden 1997; Lowell
1986). While contributions from outside Africa are
acknowledged, we need to ask how and to what
extent should Africa’s preservation activities be
rooted in African realities or shaped by trends in
Europe and the United States of America.
We need to understand the appropriateness and
limitations of European and American preserva-
tion initiatives and adapt the ones applicable to
the African context. In fact, the western preserva-
tionists and conservators have started to realize
that the problems faced in other parts of the world
are different and ”often more complex than their
own” (National Archives of the Netherlands et al.
2001:49).
For instance, until recently there was agreement
among preservationists all over the world that sta-
ble temperatures of less than 70°F and a stable rel-
ative humidity between 30% and 50% were ideal
climatic conditions for the storage of documentary
materials. The Smithsonian scientists and other
experts have argued that the climatic conditions
that have always been perceived as suitable for
the storage of documents are not globally applica-
ble (Erhardt et al. 1995; Peters 1996; 1998). That in
itself underscores the need to analyse situation by
situation in order to establish appropriate preser-
vation conditions.
Therefore, research on issues related to preser-
vation of documents relevant to specifi c environ-
ments like this one is very crucial. That could lead
to a better understanding of opportunities and
problems facing the developing nations as well
as providing solutions to what is to be done, and
how resources should be used. In that light, this
study might be very important to libraries and
archives in eastern and southern Africa.
The most signifi cant part of the study is the sur-
vey results because the extent of environmental
management problems and challenges affecting li-
braries and archives in eastern and southern Afri-
ca has not been adequately addressed and evalu-
ated. In addition, if the recommendations of the
study were implemented they would lead to the im-
provement of the actual practice of the preserva-
tion of library materials and archives in eastern and
southern Africa. As Mazikana (1995:27) asserted,
the lack of research into preservation has remained
the main handicap to setting up sustainable pres-
ervation programmes and facilities in Africa.
Scope of the study and defi nition of terms
Although the remarks on environmental monitor-
ing and control made in this study might be gen-
eralized to many countries in Africa, they are
limited to the countries in east and southern Afri-
ca, namely, Angola, Botswana, Kenya, Lesotho,
Malawi, Mozambique, Namibia, South Africa,
Swaziland, Tanzania, Zambia, Zanzibar and Zim-
babwe. These countries are active members of
either the Standing Conference of Eastern, Central
and Southern African Library and Information As-
sociations (SCECSAL) or East and Southern Africa
Regional Branch of the International Council on
Archives (ESARBICA), two regional blocs that
are respectively concerned with the sustainable
management of libraries and archives in eastern
and southern Africa.
The focus of the study was national archival in-
stitutions and national libraries. Although nation-
al archives and national libraries both deal with
materials that include print, audio-visual and
electronic formats, they differ. National archives
mainly keep unpublished records that document
the activities of government. On the other hand,
national libraries keep published materials. In that
regard, national libraries are the primary resource
for a nation’s published heritage while national
archives are largely a resource for the unpublished
national documents. A cursory look at the mission
statements of national libraries and national ar-
chives underscores some of these differences.
However, there is convergence of professional
interests of librarians and archivists. They are
increasingly becoming engaged in collaborative
efforts in order to preserve the documentary herit-
age of their countries for the benefi t of present and
future generations. For instance, they realize that
they face many common concerns in monitoring
and controlling the environment. The conver-
gence of concerns of information professionals led
Gilliland-Swetland (2000) to conclude that a new
”metacommunity” was emerging in the informa-
tion management fi eld. It is in the light of such
developments that the ”metacommunity” should,
for instance, work hand in glove and develop
long-term solutions to environmental manage-
ment at cultural heritage institutions.
In recognition of the importance of collaboration
between libraries and archives, the Pan-African
Conference on the Preservation and Conservation
of Library and Archival Materials held in Nairobi
in 1993 emphasized the importance of ”a co-op-
erative approach to preservation and conservation
issues” and recommended that African librarians
156
Patrick Ngulube
and archivists should join hands and work to-
gether (Recommendations 1995:169). Even if the
materials and methodologies of archivists and
librarians vary, they share one important thing in
common: they both exist to preserve and provide
access to information contained in documents over
time (Feather and Eden 1997:53). In other words,
they are both guardians of the written heritage of
humankind and are concerned with the survival
of culture and scholarship.
Before wrapping up this section we need to
defi ne what we mean by environmental factors
in the context of libraries and archives. Scholars
are not agreed on what constitute environmental
factors when it comes to the preservation of archi-
val and library materials. To Applebaum (1991)
environmental factors include temperature, rela-
tive humidity, lighting, air quality, and mould and
pest control. Lull and Banks (1995), The National
Library of Australia (1996), Smith (2000) and Wil-
son (1995) concur with the essence of this charac-
terization of environmental factors. On the other
hand, the Society of American Archivists suggest
that environmental control should be defi ned as:
The process of creating and maintaining storage or display
conditions appropriate to protect materials from adverse
effects of temperature, humidity, air quality, light, and bio-
logical infestation, as well as human risks associated with
housekeeping procedures, security, and fi re and water
damage (Pearce-Moses 2004).
In line with the foregoing defi nitions this paper
posits that environmental factors that mainly affect
archives and libraries include biological agents,
temperature, relative humidity (RH), air quality
and light. Cunha and Cunha (1983:10, 62–63) and
Swartzburg (1995:77) support this assertion. The
investigation of environmental monitoring and
control in archives and libraries in eastern and
southern Africa was conducted in the context of
the variables that constitute environmental factors
listed above. The major questions were:
• To what extent is environmental control and monitor-
ing considered important by archivists and librarians in
eastern and southern Africa?
• What are the activities and strategies used in control-
ling and monitoring the environment by archivists and
librarians in eastern and southern Africa?
• What is the level of skills in controlling and monitoring
the environment in eastern and southern Africa?
• Do archives and libraries in eastern and southern Africa
collaborate with other institutions concerned with envi-
ronmental management in places were cultural materi-
als are kept?
• Are libraries doing better than archives in relation to
controlling and monitoring the environment?
• What recommendations on environmental control and
monitoring can be made?
Methodology: The research story
After the defi nition of the research problem,
which was to establish the extent to which envi-
ronmental management was practised at national
archives and national libraries in eastern and
southern Africa, the exploration of existing scien-
tifi c work provided very few useful insights. The
next logical step was to make a decision to carry
out an empirical investigation. The population of
the study were national archival institutions and
national libraries in eastern and southern Africa.
The units of analysis that consisted of thirteen
national archival institutions and twelve national
libraries were drawn from the IFLA (2004), SCEC-
SAL (2003) and ESARBICA (2004) websites. Infor-
mation on the existence of a national library in
Zanzibar was not found.
Ethical issues related to informed consent,
harm, deception, and confi dentiality were consid-
ered when conducting this research (see Cohen,
Manion & Morrison 2000: 246). In that regard, the
respondents to the questionnaires were told the
purpose of the study and how the collected data
was going to be used, and that their participation
was voluntary. The outcome of the research is not
likely to harm any of the respondents. In fact, if
the outcomes of the study were implemented they
would contribute to ”best” practices in environ-
mental management in national archives and na-
tional libraries in eastern and southern Africa.
The present study heavily relied on the quanti-
tative research approach and used questionnaires
directed to national archival institutions and na-
tional libraries in the eastern and southern Africa
as the key sources of empirical data. The study
used a cross-sectional survey research strategy
during July and August 2004.
Although, many studies advocate methodologi-
cal triangulation because it bridges issues of reli-
ability and validity; and strengthens confi dence in
157
Environmental Monitoring and Control at National Archives and Libraries
research fi ndings (Levine 2000), this study only
used questionnaires because it was not feasible to
carry out interviews or to make observations due
to logistical constraints. The method was deemed
to be appropriate because previous studies on
the preservation of documentary materials by
Akussah (2002), Clements (1987), Conway (1991),
Council of State Historical Records Coordinators
(1998), Feather and Eden (1997), Khayundi (1995),
Lowell (1986), Mazikana (1995), Ngulube (2004)
and Trinkaus-Randall (1990) successfully used
the quantitative approach with questionnaires as
major instruments for data collection.
Questionnaire and data collection
The design of the questionnaire was based on
some suggestions in the literature (Cohen, Manion
and Morrison 2000:248–250; Dillman 2000:32–148).
The questionnaire consisted of closed and open-
ended items. The questionnaires were pretested
before they were distributed by electronic mail
and through the conventional postal system.
In order to enhance the validity and reliabil-
ity of the results of the survey, the questionnaires
were administered using some of the ideas from
the Tailored Design Method [TDM] (Dillman
2000) The TDM model advocates the distribution
of a carefully constructed, respondent friendly
and pretested instrument, a personalized cover-
ing letter, inclusion of stamped return envelope
and multiple follow-up contacts encourage a high
response rate (Dillman 2000:149–153).
Response rates: The major concern in survey
research
The response rate for national archival institutions
was 11 (85%) and that of national libraries was
9 (75%). Authorities are not agreed on what
constitute an adequate response rate. According
to Neuman (2000:267) anything below 50% is
considered to be poor and over 90% as excellent.
However, Babbie and Mouton (2001:261) asserted
that a response rate of 50% is adequate for analysis
while responses of 60% and 70% are good and
very good respectively.
Previous researchers in the fi eld of preservation
achieved varying response rates. For instance,
Clements (1987) got a response rate of 49% when
he carried out an international study to assess the
state of the world patrimony. The response rates
for Akussah (2002) and Ngulube (2003) were 64%.
In that regard, the current study concluded that
the response rates of 75% and 95% from national
libraries and national archives respectively were
adequate for data analysis.
Results analysis and discussion
The previous sections gave the background to the
study and explained how the study was conducted,
that is, what was done in order to collect data to
achieve the objective of the study. The following
texts provide the analysis and interpretation of the
data obtained from the population of the study.
However, the survey data should be treated with
caution. The survey population was quite small
and some units of analysis did not respond.
The data that is presented in this section are not
associated with any particular library or archival
institution. To encourage full and frank participa-
tion, respondents were promised that their institu-
tional data would not be individually identifi able.
That partly explains why results are presented in
aggregate. The results are organised according to
the major questions that guided the research as
outlined in the section on the scope of the study
above.
Perception of climate control by archivists and
librarians in eastern and southern Africa
To begin with, respondents were asked to rate
the overall success of their environmental control
and monitoring programmes. The results are pre-
sented in Table 1.
Table 1. Level of success of climate control programmes
Archives Libraries
Fre-
quency
Percent
Fre-
quency
Percent
Very successful ––––
Moderately
successful
3 27.3 2 22.2
Of limited success 5 45.4 4 44.3
Unsuccessful 3 27.3 2 22.2
No opinion – – 1 11.1
Total 11 100 9 100
158
Patrick Ngulube
Their response to the question on the success of
their climate control programmes was infl uenced
by a number of factors as evident from the rea-
sons they gave when elaborating on the reasons
for their answers. Most of the respondents who
felt that their programmes were not successful
singled out lack of commitment and limited fund-
ing for preservation activities as the major factors
that infl uenced their answer. Eighteen (90%) at-
tributed the infectiveness of their programmes to
lack of key preservation personnel. Fifteen (75%)
of the respondents attributed their lack of success
in controlling the climate to the fact that in many
instances preservation policies were still being
developed and had not reached implementation
stage. It is evident from the results that climate
control needs urgent attention.
To ascertain the respondents’ perceptions about
the importance of activities related to climate con-
trol, they were further asked their degree of agree-
ment with certain variables that were considered
to be key to environmental monitoring and con-
trol on a Likert attitudinal scale and the raw scores
and the summated scales are summarized in Ta-
ble 2.
Their attitudes were measured according to
fi ve degrees of agreement and disagreement. Each
point on the scale carries a score. Responses indi-
cating the least favourable degree of agreement in
relation to activities related to climate control as-
signed the least score (1) and the most favourable
was given the highest score (5). The scale value for
each level of response were assigned as: strongly
agree = 5, agree = 4, undecided = 3, disagree = 2
159
Table 2. Summated scales on the attitude of the respondents towards activities related to climate control in libraries and
archives
Climate control activity Strongly agree Agree Undecided Disagree Strongly
disagree
Cumulative Score
54 3 2 1
Measuring and
documenting RH,
temperature and light
levels and air quality in
areas where collections
are held
75 (15) 20 (5) – – – 95
Having maintenance
programmes for
environmental control
equipment
25 (5) 48 (12) 3 (1) 4 (2) – 80
Establishing appropriate
environmental
conditions for different
materials in the
collections
100 (20) – – – – 100
Knowledge of
appropriate
environmental issues
100 (20) X – – – 100
Awareness of
environmental standards
70 (14) 24 (6) – – – 94
Regular use of
environmental
monitoring information
for planning
preservation programme
50 (10) 40 (10) – – – 90
Keeping records
of calibration and
maintenance of
all environmental
monitoring equipment
50 (10) 32 (8) 6 (2) – – 88
Keeping of all records
on environmental
monitoring and collating
them monthly
35 (7) 40 (10) 9 (3) – – 84
Environmental Monitoring and Control at National Archives and Libraries
and strongly disagree = 1 as indicated in the sec-
ond to the sixth column in Table 2. The raw scores
given in brackets were computed to yield a total
score for the attitude of the respondents to each
attribute.
With a total of twenty respondents the following
scores were revealing:
• 20x5 = 100: strongly agree that climate control and
monitoring is important;
• 20x3 = 60: a neutral attitude; and
• 20x1 = 20: strongly disagree that climate control
and monitoring is important.
That means that the cumulative score for any at-
tribute would fall between 20 and 100. If the score
happens to be above 60 it shows that librarians
and archivists in eastern and southern Africa think
that climate control and monitoring in areas hous-
ing collections is important and a score below 60
demonstrates that monitoring and controlling the
environment is not at all important while a score
of exactly 60 would be suggestive of a neutral atti-
tude. The fact that all the variables that were meas-
ured had cumulative scores above 60 is notable. It
is evident that archivists and records managers in
eastern and southern Africa regard environmental
monitoring and control as fundamental to their
management of heritage collections.
Activities and strategies used in controlling
and monitoring the environment
Regarding the current environmental management
activities and strategies in eastern and southern
Africa, fi ndings are discussed in relation to mis-
sion statements and funding, preservation policies,
standards for maintaining proper environmental
conditions, controlling and monitoring tempera-
ture, RH and light level, biological agents and air
quality.
Mission and funding for archives and libraries
The respondents were asked if they had mission
statements for their archives and libraries. Seven
(63.6%) of the national archival institutions had
mission statements whereas fi ve (55.6%) of the
national libraries reported having one. Libraries
and archives were at equilibrium when it came
to surveyed institutions that did not have mission
statements.
If a mission statement does not exist, plan-
ning for preservation becomes very diffi cult if
not impossible (Swartzburg 1995:30). In the end
preservation activities become characterized by a
hit and miss approach. The words of Lewis Caroll
through the Cheshire Cat in Alice in Wonderland
eloquently summarized the importance of mission
statements: ”If you don’t know where you are go-
ing, it doesn’t matter which way you go” (Chesh-
ire Cat 2001). The Book of Proverbs 29:18 in the
Bible also underscored the importance of having a
vision: ”Where there is no vision, the people per-
ish”. An institution with a clear mission statement
is likely to have a vision for dealing with various
aspects of preservation including environmental
management.
Only a third (33.3%) of the surveyed national
libraries had a specifi c vote for preservation ac-
tivities, and preservation expenditure as a per-
centage of their total annual budget was reported
to be between one and three percent. On the other
hand, four (36.4%) national archives had a specifi c
vote for preservation activities and the allocations
to preserving the holdings have slightly increased
over the years. However, dedicated funding lines
for preservation activities were very diffi cult to es-
tablish in six national libraries and seven national
archives. It was not clear as to how and to what
degree preservation was funded in most of these
institutions. Khayundi (1995:32) studied eastern
and southern Africa, excluding South Africa and
Namibia, and came to the same conclusion. The
visibility of preservation activities, in general and
environmental management in particular, may be
effectively achieved if there is a specifi c budget
dedicated to these activities.
Policies for environmental management in ar-
chives and libraries
Respondents were also asked to give details about
their preservation policies. According to Forde
(1997:165) preservation polices for cultural ma-
terials are indispensable tools for organisations
that are committed to facilitating the survival of
materials in their custody. Policies are important
because they set out goals to be achieved as well
as guidelines for implementing them.
Most libraries and archives that were surveyed
supported some forms of preservation activities,
although not all of their functions could be re-
160
Patrick Ngulube
garded as a formal programme based on a clearly
articulated policy. Three (27.3%) archival institu-
tions as compared to two (22.2%) libraries had
written preservation policies. The fact that only
a few institutions that were surveyed had written
and formalized preservation policies means that
most national libraries and archives had what Me-
nou (1991:50) referred to as de facto policies.
The problem with de facto policies is that they
tend to be conservative and uphold the status quo
rather than provide ”public intent of transforming
practice according to ideal values” Ranson (1995:
440). On the other hand, codifi ed and stipulated
or prescriptive policies facilitate a creative alloca-
tion of funds and staff, and specify other aspects
of implementation and monitoring. Lack of pres-
ervation policies was also highlighted in the UK
as a factor that hindered effective preservation
management (Feather & Eden 1997:27).
Although the existence of preservation poli-
cies does not guarantee their implementation, the
Pan-African Conference on the Preservation and
Conservation of Library and Archival Materials
strongly recommended that each country should
establish a committee to develop a national
preservation policy for implementation by gov-
ernment (Recommendations 1995:170). Granted,
without funding and personnel with expertise, the
implementation of preservation policies would be
extremely diffi cult, but all the same efforts must
be made to formulate policies that encompass all
activities that are fundamental to the preservation
of documentary materials into the future.
Role of standards in storage of collections
Determining the use of standards in environ-
mental management was important to the study.
Standards play an important role in the manage-
ment of libraries and archives. Standards address
aspects such as the who, what, when, where and
why of environmental control and monitoring.
British Standard (BS) 5454:2000 (British Standards
Institution 2000) and International Standards
Organisation (ISO) 5466 and 6051 (ISO 2003) are
example of a standards that cover aspects of pro-
tection of documentary materials. Ninety percent
of the respondents were not aware of the existence
of such standards. A recent survey of library and
archive collections in Welsh repositories revealed
that although there were many standards for the
preservation of archives and library materials they
were not well understood by many archivists and
librarians (Jones 2001).
Three (27.3%) national archival repositories and
one (11.1%) national library that were surveyed re-
ported that they adhered to storage standards, but
they did not give details of the standards. One li-
brary and two archival institutions said they had in-
fl uence over the formulation of national standards
pertaining to the preservation of their written her-
itage. Like their counterparts in some parts of the
developed world, national archives and libraries
in developing countries should take a strong lead-
ership role in the development and application of
standards that will ensure long-term access to, and
preservation of library materials and archives.
If we are to be fully confi dent about monitor-
ing and controlling the environment in which ar-
chives and library materials are stored we need to
know that our practices and procedures conform
to established standards. In that light Cox (1999:
12) concluded that:
The application of standards enables libraries and ar-
chives to carry out their functions consistently, and to
an agreed level of quality. Having a benchmark against
which performance can be measured helps to demonstrate
professionalism, accountability and effi ciency to staff, user
groups and funding bodies.
Temperature and relative humidity in archives
repositories and library stacks
The maintenance of proper temperature and rela-
tive humidity (RH) in archives and libraries stor-
age areas is very important, and it is of critical
importance in the preservation of documentary
materials because inappropriate temperature and
RH contribute signifi cantly to the deterioration of
materials (Peters 1998:42).
Respondents were asked to give details of the
strategies they used to control and monitor tem-
perature and RH. Three (27.3%) archival institu-
tions had a heating, ventilation and air condition-
ing (HVAC) system as compared to two (22.2%)
national libraries. Two archival institutions and
one national library reported that their HVAC sys-
tems had broken down some few years back. The
HVAC system was reported to be on at all times at
two archival institutions and one national library.
However, complete climate control provided by
HVAC systems are costly and diffi cult to install,
161
Environmental Monitoring and Control at National Archives and Libraries
expensive to operate and maintain (Kerschner and
Baker 2004), and the energy resources to keep an
air-conditioning system running are prohibitive for
most countries in sub Saharan Africa. As result
some authorities recommend passive climate con-
trol (Dean 2002; Giovannini 2000; Rowoldt 1998).
They advocate the design of buildings that have
‘natural’ methods of air-conditioning in order to
reduce the installation, energy and maintenance
costs.
The feasibility of constructing such buildings in
eastern and southern Africa where collections are
already housed in poorly designed structures re-
mains to be seen. In addition to climate responsive
buildings, librarians and archivists in eastern and
southern Africa should consider the use of micro-
environments, especially, for materials that are
susceptible to changes in relative humidity. Mi-
croenvironments or protective enclosures such as
folders, boxes, envelopes and polyester fi lm pro-
tect documents against rapid fl uctuations in tem-
perature and humidity, dust, light, atmospheric
pollutants and mechanical damage.
Furthermore, the survey results revealed that
environmental control and monitoring was not
widely practiced in libraries and national archives
in eastern and southern Africa. Three (27.3%) ar-
chives repositories and two (22.2%) national li-
braries monitored temperature and RH levels in
their repositories constantly. These institutions al-
so used environmental monitoring devices in their
repositories.
One institution reported that the monitoring
units were last calibrated two years ago and the
other institution was not aware as to when the
units were last calibrated. Four institutions used
a hygrothermograph for measuring temperature
and RH. On the other hand, only two (22.2%) archi-
val repositories and one (11.1%) library controlled
temperatures of between 16°C and 19°C in storage
area in accordance with the British Standard 5454:
2000 (British Standards Institution 2000). These in-
stitutions also had controlled RH of between 45%
and 55% with an allowance of fl uctuations of no
more than +/- 5% per 24. It was not clear from the
responses whether or not these institutions used
environmental monitoring information for plan-
ning their preservation programme.
Monitoring the environment where documen-
tary materials are kept appears to be a worldwide
problem. A study by the Council of State His-
torical Records Coordinators (COSHRC) in the US
concluded that nearly half of the repositories re-
ported that they had no humidity controls in their
storage areas (COSHRC 1998). In the case of the
Massachusetts libraries and records repositories,
Trinkaus-Randall (1990) revealed that 70% of the
institutions could not maintain a constant climate
throughout the whole year and most respondents
knew very little about the effects of the environ-
ment on their collections. Khayundi (1995:32–33)
found that few archival institutions in eastern and
southern Africa excluding South Africa and Na-
mibia had equipment to control and monitor RH
and temperature, although some environmental
control systems had broken down.
Light in library and archives storage areas
Over and above controlling temperature and RH,
archivists and librarians have to be concerned
with light sources and their levels in the repositor-
ies. Light accelerates the deterioration of library
and archival materials by acting as a catalyst in
their oxidation. Respondents were asked about
the sources of light in their repository and how
they controlled light levels.
The major sources of artifi cial light that the
respondent gave were fl uorescent lamps. Like
sunlight, fl uorescent lights emit UV light that
causes the deterioration of materials. Only fi ve
(45.5%) archives and two (22.2%) libraries con-
trolled natural light from the windows in their
storage areas. None of the surveyed institutions
took light level readings. Light levels should be
monitored in all areas housing collections. Blinds,
shutters, curtains and/or ultraviolet fi lters might
be used to reduce visible and ultraviolet light in
all areas housing collections (Dean 2002). Materi-
als particularly at risk from light damage, such
as photographs, newspapers, or manuscript inks
should be identifi ed, and their exposure to visible
and ultraviolet light should be minimised.
Control and monitoring of biological agents
The control of environmental factors has a posi-
tive impact on controlling biological factors such
as rodents, termites, silverfi sh, cockroaches, book-
lice and beetles. These biological agents can cause
162
Patrick Ngulube
signifi cant amounts of damage to materials. Seven
(63.6%) of the archival institutions and six (66.7%)
national libraries had observed damage to materi-
als caused by moulds and insects. Insects prefer
damp conditions to dry ones. On the other hand,
silverfi sh and booklice do not favour dry condi-
tions. In that regard, monitoring and controlling
the climate would greatly reduce insect infesta-
tions.
Particulate control and gaseous
contamination
Monitoring and controlling air quality is an essen-
tial part of environmental control programmes.
Poor indoor air quality can adversely affect li-
brary and archival materials. The two major types
of pollutants are gases and particulates. Burning
of fuels in power stations, factories, buildings and
automobiles lead to the emission of gaseous con-
taminants. Gaseous pollutants are a very serious
problem for paper and leather, which are particu-
larly vulnerable to damage caused by acid. Paper
becomes discoloured and brittle, and leather be-
comes weak and powdery when exposed to gases.
On the other side of the coin are total suspended
particulates (TSP) such as dust, soot and smoke
that damage materials. Although researchers
have not determined the exact level of gases that
cause deterioration of documentary materials, ac-
ceptable levels of environmental control could be
achieved (Farshchi 2002; Muller 2003).
Incoming air was fi ltered at four (36.4%) archi-
val institutions and two (22.2%) libraries. None
of the respondents monitored or measured the
level of pollutants in the air circulating in areas
where collections were housed. Monitors using
copper and silver sensors are effective in tracking
air quality in archives and libraries (Muller 2003).
Copper and silver react with harmful gases and
give reliable measurements of the level of reactiv-
ity in documentary storage areas. Reactivity moni-
toring is often preferred over direct gas monitor-
ing for environmental assessments (Muller 2003).
In fact, Dutch archives use reactivity monitoring
for detecting levels of pollutants in their repositor-
ies, and the Dutch standard is under review as an
ISO standard (Muller 2003). On the other hand, in-
stalling fi lters and screens can reduce particulates
to acceptable levels.
Level of skills in controlling and monitoring the
environment
Skills and knowledge of preservation techniques
and procedures are fundamental to controlling
the climate in places where collections are housed.
They were nine people with knowledge and skills
in preservation among the twenty institutions
that were surveyed. Six of them were found in the
libraries and the remainder was at the national
archives. The respondents were also asked their
level of expertise in environmental monitoring
and control.
The results revealed that expertise in climate
monitoring was limited, as 44.4% of the respond-
ents had no expertise in the area at all. It is very
diffi cult to escape the conclusion that there is a
critical shortage of staff with expertise to control
the climate in libraries and archival institutions in
eastern and southern Africa. The problem of lack
of expertise in preservation related matters is not
peculiar to eastern and southern Africa. A survey
carried out at the National Archives of Hungary
revealed that the majority of staff had very limited
and mostly out-of-date knowledge of preservation
problems and measures (Albrecht-Kunszeri 1999).
A study by COSHRC (1998) confi rmed that the
problem of lack of expertise in preservation was
also experienced from time to time in other parts
of the world. Ojo-Igbinoba (1993) discovered that
librarians in Sub Saharan Africa lacked expertise
in the preservation of library materials.
According to Lyall (1994:263) the level of
knowledge in a country is one of the four major
factors that determine the ability of any country to
develop a satisfactory preservation programme. It
is very unlikely that preservation efforts in gen-
eral, and environmental monitoring and control
in libraries and archives in particular can succeed
if the availability of resources is not supported by
the right expertise. Darling (1981:185), a preserva-
tion specialist argued that the real impediment to
having viable preservation programmes was not
entirely resources-based, but lack of preserva-
tion knowledge. According to Darling (1981:185–
186):
Financial constraints are serious and will become more
so; but until the preservation fi eld reaches the point at
which most people know what ought to be done, the lack
of money to do it on a scale appropriate to the need is not
terribly signifi cant.
163
Environmental Monitoring and Control at National Archives and Libraries
Knowledgeable and skilled staff is likely to ex-
pend scarce resources on projects that refl ect
the greatest needs. Lack of essential knowledge
and skills can be inimical to the preservation of
documentary materials and climate control. For
example, in Vietnam the poor physical conditions
in libraries and archives, and problems of dete-
riorating collections were reportedly exacerbated
by the well-meaning but uninformed activities of
untrained staff (Henchy 1998).
Collaboration in environmental management
activities
In many countries there are a number of institu-
tions such as libraries, art galleries, museums and
research laboratories that are involved in environ-
mental management activities at cultural institu-
tions. The importance of collaboration between
such cultural institutions was underscored in the
literature (Conway 1990:222; Manning 1998:115;
UNESCO 2000; Walters 1998:179).
Respondents were asked if they collaborated
with any such institutions in their countries,
regionally and internationally. Collaboration
seemed to be more pronounced at a regional and
international level than on a national basis. Their
collaboration with ESARBICA, International
Council on Archives (ICA), IFLA, Joint IFLA/ICA
Committee on Preservation in Africa (JICPA),
SCECSAL and United Nations Educational, Sci-
entifi c and Cultural Organisation (UNESCO) was
mainly confi ned to continuing education activities
such as conferences, seminars, workshops and in-
ternships. Collaboration at a local level was very
minimal with three national archives working
with three national libraries.
Libraries and archives are encouraged to
collaborate with institutions that preserve the
cultural heritage and those that research on is-
sues relating to preserving society’s collective
memory. Co-operative approaches to preserving
the priceless and irreplaceable cultural heritage
were strongly encouraged by ESARBICA (2001),
the IFLA Section on Conservation (Manning 1998:
115) and UNESCO (2000). The ability of librarians
and archivists to preserve the written heritage of
humankind mainly lies in building partnerships
and collaborating with professionals that share
their preservation concerns.
Comparison climate control actives in librar-
ies and archives
It is generally perceived in some circles that li-
brarians are ahead of archivists when it comes to
preserving documentary materials (Jordan 2000:
4). To Conway (1990:222), librarians in the United
Kingdom and United States have made ”unprec-
edented progress” in setting priorities, and devel-
oping and implementing nationwide preservation
strategies. In that regard, it has been pointed
out that archivists should learn from librarians
(Conway 1990:222). However, when it comes to
climate control, the results of the current study do
not strongly support the foregoing thesis. Table
3 illustrates that national libraries in eastern and
southern Africa seem to be lagging behind nation-
al archives in relation to using climate control as a
preventive preservation measure.
Table 3: Comparison of climate control activities in national
archives and national libraries
Climate control activity
National
Archives
National Librarie
Mission statements 7 (35%) 5 (25%)
Funding for preservation 4 (20%) 3 (15%)
Written policies 3 (15%) 2 (10%)
Using standards 3 (15%) 1 (5%)
HVAC systems 3 (15%) 2 (10%)
Monitoring temperature
and RH
3 (15%) 2 (10%)
Controlling natural light 5 (25%) 2 (10%)
Insect infestations 7 (35%) 6 (30%)
Filtering incoming air 4 (20%) 2 (10%)
Knowledge and skills in
preservation
6 (30%) 3 (15%)
Concluding remarks
Although many national archives and national
libraries lacked mission statements, written
preservation policies, appropriate environmental
standards and funding, they performed limited
environmental management activities. Librarians
and archivists considered environmental control
and monitoring to be one of the keys to safeguard-
ing their written heritage, although climate control
did not seem to be a core activity of many institu-
tions. The means of achieving the recommended
values of environmental control are inadequate in
many institutions in eastern and southern Africa.
Pollutants in libraries and archives received much
less attention.
Patrick Ngulube
164
The majority of the respondents rated their cli-
mate control strategies as being of limited success.
The level of expertise in dealing with environmen-
tal monitoring and control was very low. There
was very little collaboration between cultural her-
itage institutions and research laboratories within
countries. National archives seemed to be dealing
with environmental management better than na-
tional libraries in the region.
In a nutshell, library and archival documents
had the potential of being damaged due to in-
adequate environmental control and monitoring.
Incorporating preventive preservation strategies
such as climate control in their practices might
libraries and archival institutions in preserving
their national heritage. In addition to having tools
for controlling the climate in archives and librar-
ies repositories, institutions are encouraged to
have a systematic monitoring programme in or-
der to effectively manage the environment where
documents are stored. Monitoring is the most
dependable tool for decision-making and it holds
the most promise for providing conditions favour-
able to the long-term survival of the written herit-
age of humankind. In that regard, archivists and
librarians in eastern and southern Africa should
seriously consider using national standards, and
other standards such as BS 5454:2000 and ISO 5466
and 6051.
It is important to note that environmental con-
trol on its own might not be the total solution
to preserving documents that are deteriorating
due to acidity, technological obsolescence, media
instability, poor handing and use. In such cir-
cumstance, the answer to securing the national
documentary heritage may lie in deacidifi cation
and preserving content by substitution. Deacidifi -
cation processes only arrests further deterioration
but do not strengthen paper. Microfi lming and
digitization are the two widely used strategies for
dealing with the preservation problems posed by
deteriorating media (Ngulube 2002:119). The two
strategies can also be used to defl ect use from
original documents. It is noteworthy that until
feasible solutions to preserving long-term access
to digital documents are developed, microfi lming
will remain the most dominant preservation strat-
egy for librarians and archivists, especially, in the
developing countries where expensive digitiza-
tion projects are impeded by scarce resources and
scant research into digital preservation (Ngulube
2002; 2003). At the moment, digital conversion
seems to be attractive in relation to enhancing ac-
cess to documents.
Although, monitoring will not, in itself, solve
the diffi cult problem of climate management and
preservation, it is one of the most dependable
tools for decision-making. Libraries and archives
should be encouraged to consistently maintain
and implement agreed preservation standards. To
have a real effect on the proper management of the
climate in libraries and archives, librarians must
be provided with ongoing guidance and training.
It is also important to note that the rapid changes
in environmental management technologies re-
quire constant upgrading of knowledge and skills
among librarians and archivists.
It is very clear from the angle that was taken by
the current research that signifi cant research still
needs to be done using other research tools. It is
recommended that future studies should use the
triangulation approach in order to give a balanced
profi le of climate control in the region. However,
one thing that is clear is the need for archives and
libraries to include environmental management in
their preservation strategies so that the recorded
heritage in their custody would survive into the
future.
References
Akussah, H. 2002. Records Management and Preser-
vation in Government Ministries and Departments
in Ghana. African Journal of Library, Archives and
Information Science 12(2): 155–165.
Albrecht-Kunszeri, G. 1999. Setting up a Preserva-
tion Policy for Archives in Hungary: First Steps.
International Conference of the Round Table on
Archives XXXIV-CITRA Budapest 1999 on Access
to Information and Preservation issues. URL: http:
//www.ica.org/citra/citra.budapest.1999.eng/
kunszeri.rtf [viewed 10 October 2004].
Alegbeleye, GO. 2000. Preservation and Conservation
of Library and Archival Materials: A Selective Bibli-
ography Prepared by G. O Alegbeleye for the JICPA.
Ibadan: JICPA.
Applebaum, B. 1991. Guide to Environmental Protec-
tion of Collections. Madison, CT: Sound View Press.
Babbie, E. and Mouton, J. 2001. The Practice of Social
Research. South African Edition. Cape Town: Oxford
University Press Southern Africa.
British Standards Institution. 2000. BS 5454 British
Standard Recommendations for Storage and Exhibi-
tion of Archival Documents London: BSI.
Environmental Monitoring and Control at National Archives and Libraries
165
Cheshire Cat. 2001. The Cheshire Cat. URL: http://
www.ruthannzaroff.com/wonderland/ [viewed 12
February 2003].
Chida, M. 1994. Preservation Management in Tropi-
cal Countries: A Challenging Responsibility and
Limited Resources: The Case of Zimbabwe National
Archives. ESARBICA Journal: Journal of the Eastern
and Southern Africa Regional Branch of the Interna-
tional Council on Archives 14: 22–36.
Clements, DWG. 1987. Preservation and Conservation
of Library and Archival Documents: A UNESCO/
IFLA/ICA Enquiry into the Current State of the
World’s Patrimony. Paris: UNESCO. (PGI-87/WS/
15).
Cohen, L., Manion, L. and Morrison, K. 2000. Research
Methods in Education. 5
th
ed. London & New York:
RoutledgeFalmer.
Conway, P. L. 1990. Archival Preservation Practice in a
Nationwide Context. The American Archivist 53(2):
204–222.
Conway, PL. 1991. Archival Preservation in the United
States and the Role of Information Sources (Preser-
vation). PhD Thesis. Michigan: The University of
Michigan.
Council of State Historical Records Coordinators
(COSHRC). 1998. Where History Begins: A Report on
Historical Records Repositories in the United States.
URL: http://www.archives.gov/nhprc [viewed 10
July 2002].
Cox, H. 1999. The Application and Use of Standards in
the Care and Management of Libraries and Archives.
NPO Preservation Guidance Management Series,
London: National Preservation Offi ce.
Cunha, GM. and Cunha, DG. 1983. Library and Ar-
chives Conservation: 1980s and Beyond. Volume 1.
Metuchen, NJ: The Scarecrow Press, Inc.
Darling, P. 1981. Creativity v. Despair: The Challenge of
Preservation Management. Library Trends 30(Fall):
179–188.
Dean, JF. 2002. Environment and Passive Climate Con-
trol Chiefl y in Tropical Climates. Paper Read at the
68
th
IFLA Council and General Conference, Glasgow,
August 18–24, 2002. URL: http://www.ifl a.org/IV/
ifl a68/papers/120-158e.pdf [viewed 21 February
2000].
De Beer, F. 1999. A Proposed Philosophico-Ethical
Approach to the Information Era. Mousaion 17(2):
2–16.
Dillman, DA. 2000. Mail and Internet Surveys: The
Tailored Design Method. 2
nd
ed. New York: John Wi-
ley.
Erhardt, D., Mecklenburg, MF., Tumosa, CS. and
McCormick-Goodhart, M. 1995. The Determina-
tion of Allowable RH Fluctuations. URL: http://
palimpsest.stanford.edu/waac/ [viewed 21 Febru-
ary 2000].
ESARBICA. 2001. Minutes of the ESARBICA Executive
Board Meeting Held at the Meikles Hotel, Harare,
Zimbabwe, 23–24 July 2001.
ESARBICA. 2004. Archival Institutions. URL: http://
www.geocities.com/esarbica/inst.html [viewed 10
October 2004].
Farshchi, M. 2002. Library Archival Facilities – A Cool
Place. Engineered Systems Magazine. URL: http://
www.esmagazine.com/ [viewed 6 November
2004].
Feather, J. and Eden, P. 1997. National Preservation Pol-
icy: Policies and Practices in Archives and Records
Offi ces. British Library Research and Innovation Re-
port No. 43. West Yorkshire: British Library Board.
Fenn, K. and Muir, A. 2003. Preservation Management
in Private Subscription Libraries in the United King-
dom. Library Management 24(4/5): 204–215.
Forde, H. 1997. Preservation Policies – Who Needs
Them? Journal of the Society of Archivists 18(2):
165–174.
Forde, H. 2002. Overview of Collections Information
and Advice in the Archives Domain. Council on
Library and Information Resources. URL: http://
www.clir.org/pubs/reports/pub89/contents.html
[viewed 10 October 2004].
Gilliland-Swetland, A. 2000. Enduring Paradigm, New
Opportunities: The Value of the Archival Perspective
in the Digital Environment. Council on Library and
Information Resources. URL: http://www.clir.org/
pubs/reports/pub89/contents.html [viewed 10 Oc-
tober 2004].
Giovannini, A. 2000. Architecture and Preservation:
Fighting the Same Battle. International Preservation
News 22–23: 5–18.
Hedstrom, M. n. d. Digital Preservation: A Time Bomb
for Digital Libraries. URL: http://www.uky.edu/
~kiernan/DL/hedstrom.html [viewed 12 October
2004].
Henchy, J. 1998. Preservation and Archives in Vietnam.
Washington, DC: Council on Library and Informa-
tion Resources. URL: http://www.clir.org/pubs/
reports/henchy/ [viewed 10 June 2002].
International Federation of Library Associations and
Institutions (IFLA). 2004. National Libraries of the
World: Address List. URL: http://www.ifl a.org/
VI/2/p2/national-libraries.htm [viewed 12 October
2004].
ISO. 2003. The ISO Standards Glossary. URL: http://
www.standardsglossary.com/ [viewed 11 Novem-
ber 2004].
Jones, R. 2001. The Future of Our Recorded Past: A Sur-
vey of Library and Archive Collections in Welsh Re-
positories [A Report Commissioned by the Library
and Information Services Council (Wales)] URL:
http://www.wales.gov.uk/ [viewed 11 November
2004].
Patrick Ngulube
166
Jordan, SK. 2000. A Review of the Preservation Lit-
erature, 1993–1998: The Coming of Age. Library
Resources and Technical Services 44 (1): 4–21.
Kenenouvong, O. 2002. Country Paper: Laos. The Re-
gional Training Workshop on the Preservation of
and Access to Documentary Heritage in Asia and the
Pacifi c, Cheongju City, the Republic of Korea, 5–8
June 2002. URL: http://www.culturelink.or.kr/doc/
[viewed 12 October 2004].
Kerschner, RL and J. Baker. 2004. Practical Climate Con-
trol: A Selected, Annotated Bibliography. URL: http:
//palimpsest.stanford.edu/byauth/kerschner/
ccbiblio.html [viewed 11 October 2004].
Kemoni, HN. 1996. Preservation and Conservation
of Archive Materials: The Case of Kenya. African
Journal of Library, Archives and Information Science
6(1): 46–51.
Khayundi, FE. 1995. An Overview of Preservation and
Conservation Programmes in Eastern and Southern
Africa. In: Arnoult, J., Kremp, V & Musembi, M.
(eds). Proceedings of the Pan-African Conference on
the Preservation and Conservation of Library and
Archival Materials, held in Nairobi on June 21–25,
1993. The Hague: IFLA: 31–36.
Kufa, JC. 1998. A Pilot Project on Preservation Aware-
ness Training in the University of Botswana Library.
Restaurator 19(2). URL: http://www.saur.de/
[viewed 12 May 2001].
Levine, SJ. 2000. Writing and Presenting Your Thesis
or Dissertation. URL: http://www.anrecs.msu.edu/
dissthes/guide.htm [viewed 14 November 2000].
Lowell, H P. 1986. Preservation Needs in State Archives.
Albany, NY: NAGARA.
Lull, WP and Banks, PN. 1995. Conservation Environ-
ment Guidelines for Libraries and Archives. Ottawa:
Canadian Council of Archives.
Lyall, J. 1994. Developing and Managing Preservation
Programmes in South East Asian and Pacifi c Re-
gions. IFLA Journal 20(3): 262–275.
Manning, RW. 1998. The IFLA Section on Conservation:
Library Preservation and Conservation in the 1990s.
In: Whiffi n, JI. And Havermans, J. Library Preserva-
tion and Conservation in the 90s: Proceedings of the
Satellite Meeting of the IFLA Section on Preservation
and Conservation, Budapest, August 15–17, 1995.
Müchen: Saur: 114–116.
Matangira, V. 2003. Audiovisual Archiving in The Third
World – Problems and Perspectives: An Analysis of
Audiovisual Archiving in the East And Southern
African Regional Branch of the International Coun-
cil on Archives (ESARBICA) Region. ESARBICA
Journal: Journal of the Eastern and Southern Africa
Regional Branch of the International Council on Ar-
chives 22: 43–49.
Matwale, GM. 1995. A Review of Problems Related
to the Establishment of Effective Conservation
Programmes for Library and Archives Materials in
Kenya. In: Arnoult, J., Kremp, V and Musembi, M.
(eds). Proceedings of the Pan-African Conference on
the Preservation and Conservation of Library and
Archival Materials, held in Nairobi on June 21–25,
1993. The Hague: IFLA: 49–54.
Mazikana, PC. 1992. Survey of Archival Situation in
Africa. Paris: UNESCO (Restricted Report).
Mazikana, PC. 1995. An Evaluation of Preservation and
Conservation Programmes and Facilities in Africa.
In: Arnoult, J., Kremp, V and Musembi, M. (eds).
Proceedings of the Pan-African Conference on the
Preservation and Conservation of Library and Ar-
chival Materials, Nairobi, Kenya, 21–25 June 1993.
The Hague: IFLA: 21–29.
McIlwaine, JH. 1996. Writings on African Archives.
London: Hans Zell Publishers.
Menou, M. J. 1991. National Information Policy in
the Less Developed Countries: An Educational
Perspective. International Library Review 23: 49–
64.
Moyo, C. 2001.Preservation versus Access: The User
and Archives. ESARBICA Journal: Journal of the
Eastern and Southern Africa Regional Branch of the
International Council on Archives 21: 105–113.
Muller, C. 2003. Air Quality Guidelines for Muse-
ums, Archives, and Libraries. Indoor Air Quality
in Museums and Historical Properties (IAQ 2003),
5
th
International Conference, University of East
Anglia, Norwich, April 28–29, 2003. URL: http:
//www.iaq.dk/iap/iaq2003/2003_21.htm [viewed
6 November 2004].
Murray, K. 2002. Preservation Education and Training
for South African Library and Archive Professionals
and Students. MBibl. Cape Town: University of Cape
Town.
National Archives of the Netherlands., Teygeler, R., de
Bruin, G., Wassink, B. W. and van Zanen, B. 2001.
Preservation of Archives in Tropical Climates: An
Annotated Bibliography. Comma: International
Journal on Archives 3/4: 33–257. Also available at
URL: http://palimpsest.stanford.edu/byauth/
teygeler/tropical.pdf [viewed 20 October 2004].
National Library of Australia. 1996. Library Preserva-
tion Glossary. URL: http://www.nla.gov.au/chg/
gloss.html [viewed 10 October 2004].
Neuman, WL. 2000. Social Research Methods: Qualita-
tive and Quantitative Approaches. Boston, MA: Al-
lyn and Bacon.
Ngulube, P. 2002. Preservation Reformatting Strategies
in Selected Sub Saharan African Archival Institu-
tions. African Journal of Library, Archives and Informa-
tion Science 12(2): 117–132.
Ngulube, P. 2003. Preservation and Access to Public
Records and Archives in South Africa. PhD Disserta-
tion. Pietermaritzburg: University of Natal.
Environmental Monitoring and Control at National Archives and Libraries
167
Ngulube, P. 2004. Implications of Technological Ad-
vances for Access to the Cultural Heritage of Se-
lected Countries in sub Saharan Africa. Government
Information Quarterly: An International Journal of
Information Technology Management, Policies, and
Practices 21(2): 143–155.
Ojo-Igbinoba, ME. 1993. The Practice of Conservation
of Library Materials in Sub-Saharan Africa. Indiana:
African Studies Programme.
Pearce-Moses, R. 2004. A Glossary of Archi-
val and Records Terminology. URL: http://
www.archivists.org/glossary/ [viewed 21 October
2004].
Peters, D. 1996. Our Environment Ruined? Environmen-
tal Control Reconsidered as a Strategy for Conserva-
tion. Journal of Conservation and Museum Studies
No. 1. URL: http://www.ucl.ac.uk/archaeology/
conservation/jcms/ [viewed 11 October 2004].
Peters, D. 1998. Oxidation at the wet/dry Interface in
the Deterioration of Paper in Library and Archival
Collections. PhD Dissertation. Pietermaritzburg:
University of Natal.
Porck, H. and Teygeler, R. 2000. Preservation Science
Survey. An Overview of Recent Developments in
Research on the Conservation of Selected Analog
Library and Archival Materials. Washington, DC:
Council on Library and Information Resources.
URL: http://www.clir.org/pubs/reports/pub95/
contents.html [viewed 10 May 2001].
Ranson, S. 1995. Theorising Education Policy. Journal
of Education Policy 10(4): 449–455.
Recommendations. 1995. In: Arnoult, J., Kremp, V and
Musembi, M (eds). Proceedings of the Pan-African
Conference on the Preservation and Conservation of
Library and Archival Materials, held in Nairobi on
June 21–25, 1993. The Hague: IFLA: 169–170.
Rosenberg, D. 1995. Everyday Care of Books in Librar-
ies. In: Arnoult, J., Kremp, V and Musembi, M. (eds).
Proceedings of the Pan-African Conference on the
Preservation and Conservation of Library and Archi-
val Materials, Nairobi, Kenya, 21–25 June 1993. The
Hague: IFLA: 77–87.
Rowoldt, S. 1998. Going Archivally Green: Implications
of Doing it Naturally in Southern African Archives
and Libraries. South African Journal of Library and
Information Science 66(4): 141–147.
SCECSAL. 2003. SCECSAL: Brief History. URL: http:
//www.geocities.com/scecsal/shist.html [viewed
10 October 2004].
Smith, W. 2000. Preservation glossary – libraries and
archives. URL: http://www.alia.org.au/~wsmith/
glossary.htm#Encapsulation [viewed 10 September
2004].
Swartzburg, SG. 1995. Preserving Library Materials: A
Manual. 2
nd
ed. London: The Scarecrow Press.
Trinkaus-Randall, G. 1990. Preliminary Analysis of the
Massachusetts Preservation Needs Assessment Sur-
vey. Boston: Massachusetts Board of Library Com-
missioners.
UNESCO. 2000. Safeguarding Our Documentary Herit-
age. URL: http://webworld.unesco.org/ [viewed 28
December 2000].
Walters, TO. 1998. Special Collections Repositories at
Association of Research Libraries Institutions: A
Study of Current Practices in Preservation Manage-
ment. The American Archivist 61(1): 158–186.
Wilson, DW. 1988. Documenting and Preserving
Our National Heritage Through the National Ar-
chives. Paper Read at Midwest Research Institute’s
Midcontinent Perspectives Lecture Series, Kansas
City, Missouri, October 4, 1988. URL: http://
www.umkc.edu/whmckc/PUBLICATIONS/MCP/
MCPPDF/Wilson-10-4-88.pdf [viewed 13 October
2004].
Wilson, WK. 1995. Environmental Guidelines for the
Storage of Paper Records. NISO Technical Report:
1. Bethesda, MD: National Information Standards
Organization.
Editorial history:
paper received 21 November 2004;
fi nal version received 18 January 2005;
accepted 3 August 2005.
Patrick Ngulube
168
