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Subjectivity and certainty in epistemic modality: A study of Dutch epistemic modifiers

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... Meanings expressed by these linguistic resources of stance typically include both contentful and procedural aspects (Blakemore 1987;Traugott and Dasher 2002). These expressions invoke different values in the degree of commitment of the speaking self towards the information proffered, by assessing the validity of the communicated proposition on the basis of its evidential source or on the basis of the speaker/writer's judgements of differing degrees of certainty (Sanders and Spooren 1996;Mushin 2001;Marín-Arrese 2004, inter alia). At the same time, these expressions are also indexical of the speaker/writer's inter/subjective construal, that is, they evoke the speaker/writer's active consciousness in the discourse (Langacker 1991a(Langacker , 1991b(Langacker , 2000(Langacker , 2002, 2007a, 2007b). ...
... Drawing on Langacker's model, and on the basis of the distinction between the role of the subject of conception and that of the conceptualization, Sanders and Spooren (1996) argue that degree of subjectivity of the conceptualization is best viewed in terms of the degree to which the speaker/writer's active consciousness is foregrounded (high subjectivity: I think; semisubjective: may, must; non-subjective: It appears). Sanders (1999) observes that though the conceptualizer is objectified in evidential qualifications which explicitly designate the speaker/writer, these also maximally foreground the conceptualizer's estimations of the validity of the information, so that what is expressed by the sentence is in effect maximally subjectified. ...
... • The relation of subjectivity and intersubjectivity to the notion of responsibility (Lyons 1977;Sanders and Spooren 1996;Nuyts 2001; Marín-Arrese 2006b). As mentioned above, these linguistic resources not only reflect aspects of speaker/writer's stance toward the communicated proposition, but they also index the speaker/writer's viewpoint and degree to which they assume personal or shared responsibility for the information. ...
Chapter
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The introduction of the perspective or viewpoint of the speaker/writer involves the expression of their attitudes, assessments and value judgements with regard to the described situation and the communicated proposition. Linguistic resources for the expression of viewpoint choices include modal, evidential and attitudinal expressions, as well as expressions of speech and thought representation. In addition to their semantic content, these expressions are indexical of the speaker/writer's subjective construal of the event (Langacker 1991a, 1991b, 2002), and reflect the extent to which the speaker/writer assumes personal responsibility for their evaluation or whether the assessment is 'potentially' shared by others (Nuyts 2001). On the basis of these notions, my own proposal considers the interaction of two parameters: 'degree of salience and explicitness of the role of the conceptualizer' and 'personal vs. shared responsibility'. In this paper I present a model for the analysis of speaker/writer's subjectivity/intersubjectivity in discourse (Marín Arrese 2006, 2007a, 2007b, in press).
... Nevertheless, the voices of these remote sources can be heard in the referential choices by the journalist. At each of the numbered places, lexical choices can be linked to one of the sources: in cases 1-5 and 7, because of their typical designation from a particular source (expressing modality or evaluation, see Spooren 1996 andSanders 1999), or, in case 6, because the designation represents the visual recollection of a particular source by indicating a particular spatial viewpoint. ...
... The explanation is that sources' thoughts cannot be recorded, and hence have to be reconstructed 3 by the journalist (Sanders & Redeker 1993). As deliberations in the sources' consciousness may be evident from their speech and behaviour, the journalistic narrator can implicitly represent them, not by reconstructing thoughts, but by using linguistic expressions of perception, cognition, or emotion; in addition, verbal and adverbal expressions of modality are also considered indicative of implicit viewpoint, as they linguistically indicate evidential stance or evaluation (Sanders & Spooren 1996). The concept of responsibility helps to distinguish between the various types of embedding: which speaker-narrator or character-is responsible for which aspect of the text? ...
... Modal (must, may) and epistemic (appear, seem) verbs mix narrator's and character's responsibility; see Sanders and Spooren 1996 (She seemed to have been there). ...
Chapter
In this contribution, a mental space analysis model is presented to conceptualize and explain voice intertwining in journalistic texts. News text genres abound with clearly recognizable representations of source discourse, such as direct and indirect speech. In addition, blended representation types can be described, such as free indirect speech and implicit viewpoint, in which voices of journalist and source are less easy to discern. Comparison of various news texts concerned with a particular criminal case shows that news reports have a preference for direct or indirect speech and avoid the intertwined type of free indirect speech; by contrast, in feature stories and opinion contributions free indirect speech is not uncommon. Even free indirect thought, stemming from fictional genres, appears to be possible in these subgenres. Finally, blending of journalist and source voices is present in references to characters and events. Analysis of mental spaces attributed to sources in various news genres helps to explain how the intertwining of voices is established by linguistic form. Consequences for theory on functions and effects of source representation are discussed.
... Meanings expressed by linguistic resources of stance typically include both contentful and procedural aspects (Blakemore 1987; Traugott and Dasher 2002). Amongst other resources of epistemic stance, evidential expressions pertain to the sources of knowledge whereby the speaker validates the information in the communicated proposition, and epistemic modal expressions concern the speaker's estimation of the veracity of an event and the likelihood of its realization (Sanders and Spooren 1996; Mushin 2001; Plungian 2001; Aikhenvald 2004; Marín Arrese 2004, inter alia). Effective stance resources involve expressions of deonticity, assessments and attitudinals. ...
... The middle ground is that of evidential expressions not designating the speaker explicitly, which may be interpreted as invoking shared responsibility. As Sanders and Spooren (1996: 246) note, in the case of perceptual evidentials (it seems), 'the commitment to the validity of the information is shared or at least potentially shared by the speaker/listener and other participants' (non-subjective or intersubjective responsibility). Cognitive and communicative evidential expressions (That means, that suggests, ...), are similarly opaque in that they also leave open the possibility of potentially sharing the evaluation with other participants. ...
... Cornillie 2007, Aijmer 2009, Vliegen 2011, Mortelmans 2017, which are considered, rather uncontroversially, inferential evidentials (see, however, Lampert 2020 for criticism). Some scholars prefer to qualify them as appear verbs (Nuyts 1994, Sanders & Spooren 1996, Mortelmans 2002a or "dynamic appear verbs" (Miecnikowski 2018), rather than as seem verbs. ...
Research Proposal
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The workshop focuses on what we provisionally called 'turn out' verbs and constructions, such as 'turn out / prove' to in English, 's’avérer / se révéler' in French; 'blijken' in Dutch; 'resultar' in Spanish and Catalan; 'rivelarsi, emergersi, venire fuori, saltare fuori' in Italian; ispostaviti se, ispasti' in Serbian, etc. as used in examples (1)-(5), where they can all be translated by English ‘it turned out that’: (1) Après plusieurs essais, il s'est avéré que ce choix n'était pas judicieux. 'After several attempts, it turned out that this choice was not wise' (2) Al snel bleek dat er geen camping was. (nlTenTen20) ‘It quickly turned out that there was no campground.’ (3) Y resultó que la semilla no era tan buena como dijeron. (spTenTen18) ‘And it turned out that the seed was not as good as they said’ (4) Si è rivelato che non era né un aereo né un velivolo conosciuto. (itTenTen20) ‘It turned out that is was neither a plane nor a known aircraft. (5) Kada smo dosli tamo na lice mesta, ispostavilo se da ski pass za 6 dana košta […] 145€ (MacocuSerb) ‘When we arrived there on the spot, it turned out that the ski pass costed 145 euros.’ The semantics of these verbs is quite different from 'seem' verbs with which they often have been associated. 'Turn out verbs have been described in the literature as evidentials, miratives, 'discovery' verbs, 'appear' verbs, but their semantics remain to be described in detail together with the differences between the verbs within one and the same language and crosslinguistically. Contributions to the workshop at the SLE 2025 Conference in Bordeaux are expected by January 15th 2025.
... In this example, the host opens up a Source Viewpoint Space of the black customer by the use of direct speech, but the subjunctive mood ("should've replied") in the sentence expresses the host's actual expectation of the participant's speech and action in the here-and-now Base Space (cf. Sanders & Spooren, 1996): When faced with the unreasonable demand of the white manager and the brutal law enforcement of the police, the black customers should fight back appropriately against the unfair treatment rather than just give in. In this sense, in example (1), there is a viewpoint blend between the Base Space where the host is located and the Source Viewpoint Space of the black customers. ...
Article
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Drawing on Mental Spaces Theory and Conceptual Blending Theory in Cognitive Linguistics, we examine the interaction between speech and co-speech gestures in The Daily Show with Trevor Noah. Statistical analysis shows that viewpoint shift in the self-built multimodal corpus, generally following the pattern: Base Space->News Narrative Space(->Base space)->Source Viewpoint Space(+)(->Base space), is significantly related to the use of verbal markers and gestural types. Moreover, multimodal viewpoint shift in political talk shows can achieve such rhetorical functions as enhancing ironic effects, solidifying and highlighting opposing positions, and simplifying political issues. Since verbal markers and gestures can mobilize the audience’s embodied experience by primarily activating mental images and motor programs, we claim that mental simulation and perspective taking play a pivotal role in the cognitive processing of multimodal viewpoint shifts by promoting viewpoint alignment between the audience and the host.
... Studies of appearance constructions in English and other languages have relied on a variety of methodological approaches, including introspection (Cornillie, 2007), contrastive translation (Aijmer, 1997(Aijmer, , 2009Usonienė, 2000) and experimentation (Sanders & Spooren, 1996). The general focus has been on the identification and validation of the semantic correlates of each appearance construction, with little attention being paid to their functional collocation with framed proposition elements. ...
Article
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This paper deals with the English impersonal appearance construction (it seems/appears) and its relationship with the propositions over which it scopes. Attention focuses on four aspects: the presence/absence of explicit personalization via circumstantial element to me; the use of conjunctive, comparative or elided binder; the modal/temporal deicticity of the framed proposition; and the instantiation of these features across written and spoken modes of communication. These features are considered on account of prior studies assigning semantic correlates to their occurrence on the basis of qualitative analysis. The study applies log-linear analysis, a statistical technique that allows exploration of associations between two or more categorical variables, to test the degree of association between the four aspects mentioned. Three significant effects are included in the final model: a three-way interaction between mode of communication, binder choice and personalization, and two two-way associations between personalization and framed clause deicticity, and between binder choice and framed clause deicticity. The identified associations are discussed in the light of relevant literature and qualitative findings. The paper ends with concluding remarks and critical reflections on the use of log-linear analysis for the study of linguistic variation.
... The study of certainty and uncertainty in communication is related to more general topics concerning epistemicity (e.g., [34][35][36][37][38][39]), evidentiality (e.g., [35; 40-43]), mitigation (e.g., [44][45]), hedging (e.g., [46][47][48]), and more specifically epistemic stance (e.g., [49][50][51][52][53][54][55]). As described in details previously [30], we adopted the epistemic stance perspective on certainty and uncertainty since it focuses on the speakers/writers in the here and now of communication, i.e., on how they position themselves in terms of certainty and uncertainty with regard to the information they are conveying here and now, while communicating [56]. ...
Article
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Distinguishing certain and uncertain information is of crucial importance both in the scientific field in the strict sense and in the popular scientific domain. In this paper, by adopting an epistemic stance perspective on certainty and uncertainty, and a mixed procedure of analysis, which combines a bottom-up and a top-down approach, we perform a comparative study (both qualitative and quantitative) of the uncertainty linguistic markers (verbs, non-verbs, modal verbs, conditional clauses, uncertain questions, epistemic future) and their scope in three different corpora: a historical corpus of 80 biomedical articles from the British Medical Journal (BMJ) 1840–2007; a corpus of 12 biomedical articles from BMJ 2013, and a contemporary corpus of 12 scientific popular articles from Discover 2013. The variables under observation are time, structure (IMRaD vs no-IMRaD) and genre (scientific vs popular articles). We apply the Generalized Linear Models analysis in order to test whether there are statistically significant differences (1) in the amount of uncertainty among the different corpora, and (2) in the categories of uncertainty markers used by writers. The results of our analysis reveal that (1) in all corpora, the percentages of uncertainty are always much lower than that of certainty; (2) uncertainty progressively diminishes over time in biomedical articles (in conjunction with their structural changes–IMRaD–and to the increase of the BMJ Impact Factor); and (3) uncertainty is slightly higher in scientific popular articles (Discover 2013) as compared to the contemporary corpus of scientific articles (BMJ 2013). Nevertheless, in all corpora, modal verbs are the most used uncertainty markers. These results suggest that not only do scientific writers prefer to communicate their uncertainty with markers of possibility rather than those of subjectivity but also that science journalists prefer using a third-person subject followed by modal verbs rather than a first-person subject followed by mental verbs such as think or believe.
... On-screen texts were transcribed and static images downloaded and stored for analysis. Raw corpus data were filtered, and markers were manipulated by predefined evidential and epistemic categories (Palmer 2001;Sanders & Spooren, 1996), and by multimodal parameters (Kress and van Leeuwen, 2006;Martinec & Salway, 2005) for data analysis. Textual presentation markers were coded as sensory perception, sensory kinaesthetic or reported (quotative vs. hearsay) evidentials; multimodal presentation markers as represented participants (people vs. objects), their information mode (offer vs. demand), and representational meanings (narrative vs. conceptual). ...
Article
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Markers are important semiotic devices of tourism discourse in the creation of images of World Heritage Sites (WHS) as tourism attractions. However, they display information and explain its significance according to the discourses and social assumptions about heritage that govern their use. As alternative discourses emerge alongside mainstream tourism discourse, these introduce new dynamics in the use of markers, which may give rise to competing images of a same WHS attraction. This largely under-investigated issue is at the core of the present paper, which focuses on a multimodal discourse analysis of markers in sample web-based tourism and indigenous discourses. While the main aim is to unfold the evidential-type of information and the epistemic-type of evidential information markers provide of a same WHS across these discourses, the ultimate goal is to highlight the practical implications the quantitative and qualitative results of the study may have for ESP learners of tourism discourse.
... b) It must have required little to accomplish the small woman's death. (De Telegraaf, June 26, 1972) The second sentence in this excerpt (5b) combines retrospective information positioned at a point in time in the Intermediate Space (It required little), an act which is anchored in the News Narrative Space (to accomplish the death) and an epistemic conclusion (must have; see Sanders and Spooren 1996) combined with a remarkable referential expression for the elderly victim (small woman, in Dutch "vrouwtje"), both subjectively construed in the here-and-now Reality Space. Conceptualizing the latter requires blending the journalistic viewpoint in the present with viewpoints in the other two Spaces at the same time and representing intertwined voices between news source, judicial authority and journalist (Sanders 2010). ...
Article
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This article presents a Mental Space model for analyzing linguistic patterns in news narratives. The model was applied in a corpus study categorizing various linguistic markers of viewpoint transfers between the mental spaces that readers must conceptualize while processing news narratives: a Reality Space representing the journalist and reader’s projected here-and-now viewpoint; a News Narrative Space representing the newsworthy events from a there-and-then viewpoint; and an Intermediate Space representing the information of the news actors provided from a temporal viewpoint in-between the newsworthy events and the present. Viewpoint transfers and their markers were examined in a corpus of 100 Dutch crime news narratives published over a period of fifty years. The results reveal clear patterns, which indicate that both linguistic structures and narrative-based as well as genre-based inferences play a role in the processing of news narratives. The results furthermore clarify how these narratives have been gradually crystallizing into a genre over the past decades. These findings elucidate the complex yet fluent process of conceptually moving between mental spaces, thus advancing our understanding of the relation between the linguistic and the cognitive representation of narrative discourse.
... The deontic modal can be pointed out as another type of implicit viewpoint which activates the actor as subject of consciousness (Sanders and Spooren 1996). Figure 5 represents the simultaneous construal of implicit viewpoint back in time and temporal movement forward combined with another implicit viewpoint that enhances the subjectivity of the viewpoint in sentence 11. ...
Article
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This study examines the linguistic construal and cognitive representation of time and viewpoint in the genre of news narratives. We present a model of mental spaces that involves a News Space in which the deictic center is construed of the news actors at the time the newsworthy events took place, and a Reality Space in which the deictic here-and-now center of journalist and reader is construed. This model explains how the dynamic representation of narrative news discourse, characterized by shifts in time and viewpoint, is steered by linguistic devices. An analysis of Dutch news narratives shows that temporal adverbs such as “Yesterday” and shifts from present tense to past tense may signal a move forward in narrative time, to a viewpoint in the future relative to the narrative now-point, rather than backward. These atypical time shifts can be accounted for by presupposing an Intermediate Space located at a point in time between the News Space and the Reality Space where the progression of narrative time comes to a halt and experiences are rather relived than reported. The salience of the Intermediate Space may be signaled by quotative conditionals reflecting the viewpoints of implicitly quoted sources. These results clarify how tense and temporal deixis steer the linguistic construal of time and viewpoint in news narratives, and how time and viewpoint are closely linked in the cognitive representation of these narratives.
... In other languages, similar verbs are found, which very often also allow the double construction as in Spanish. On the English seem, see for example Aijmer (2009), who analyses instances of this verb in Swedish translations, and Kibbee (1995), who does the same for French; Usoniene (2003) makes a comparison between English and Lithuanian; Sanders & Spooren (1996), as well as Vliegen (2011), treat a number of epistemic modals in Dutch; Diewald (2001) discusses the development of the evidential scheinen in German. ...
Article
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Many studies on Spanish verbal periphrases either discuss the general features of the syntactic category or analyse the semantic and functional differences between specific members of that category. The present paper focusses on one particular periphrasis, parecer “to seem” + infinitive but, at the same time, takes into account a similar, impersonal construction with parecer. Adopting a constructionist, usage-based approach, data are drawn from a large diachronic corpus, which makes it possible to describe the interplay between the two competing constructions and identify different semantic and syntactic contexts that favoured the increase of the periphrasis in the 19th century at the cost of the impersonal construction. More generally, the paper addresses the relevance of studying individual constructions in the context of other semantically and/or formally related constructions, since a change in one particular area of the constructional landscape can have repercussions on other areas as well.
... 2 Koring thus seems to suggest that lijken when used without an explicit experiencer/conceptualizer is not an inferential, but a direct evidential marker, a position which seems untenable. An example like (7) clearly suggests that evidential lijken without an explicit experiencer is inferential 2. Sanders and Spooren (1996) focus on lijken's epistemic potential when writing that the verb expresses "a lower degree of certainty" (Sanders and Spooren 1996:243). as well, i.e. typically involves the making of an inference, which need not be based on perceptual evidence. ...
... La nostra 1 ricerca si fonda su due categorie nozionali largamente esplorate nella letteratura sulle lingue verbali. La prima è quella di modalità epistemica (Lyons, 1977;Palmer, 1986), una categoria indagata secondo diverse prospettive, che hanno dato luogo a differenti definizioni di epistemicità tra le quali l'atteggiamento del parlante nei confronti dell'affidabilità (reliability) dell'informazione (per esempio, Fitneva, 2001;Dendale & Tasmowski, 2001;González, 2005), il giudizio del parlante sulla probabilità (likelihood) della proposizione (per esempio, Nuyts, 2001;Cornillie, 2007) e inoltre l'impegno (commitment) del parlante nei confronti della verità del messaggio (per esempio, de Haan, 1999;Sanders & Spooren, 1996). Tutte queste definizioni possono essere riconcettualizzate nei termini di certezza e incertezza del parlante nei confronti dell'informazione che sta comunicando (Bongelli & Zuczkowski, 2008;Riccioni, Bongelli, & Zuczkowski, 2013). ...
Article
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The present study aims to expand the investigation on the communication of certainty and uncertainty in sign languages, focusing on dimensions already explored for verbal languages. In order to study the linguistic expressions through which Italian Sign Language (LIS) signers perform these specific communicative functions in spontaneous interactions, a corpus of conversational exchanges has been collected and analyzed. In the present paper the more relevant linguistic forms identified in the corpus to express certainty and uncertainty, with their functions and characteristics, are described.
... Epistemic modality also involves linguistic elements expressing speakers' attitudes to knowledge (Chafe 1986), such as (i) speakers' assumptions or assessment (see Goodwin & Goodwin 1992;Goodwin 2006), (ii) speakers' evaluation of possibilities (Lyons 1977;Nuyts 2001; see Labov & Waletzky 1967;Linde 1997;Conrad & Biber 2000;Hunston & Sinclair 2000;Macken-Horarik & Martin 2003) and, in most cases, (iii) speakers' confidence (or lack thereof) in the truth of the proposition expressed (Coates 1983). With regard to (iii), Sanders & Spooren (1996) note that epistemic markers differ with respect to their degree of certainty and subjectivity. For instance, for Krawczak (2014: 309), think and believe "make overt reference to the conceptualizer [i.e. ...
Article
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This study investigates the usage patterns of four near-synonymous mental predicates (believe, guess, suppose and think) across three Asian ESL (English as a Second Language) varieties as well as British and American Englishes. Using two multivariate techniques, multiple correspondence analysis and classification and regression tree analysis, the study shows the benefits of exploring cross-varietal variation through the lens of lexicalization patterns. The study also demonstrates that to make sense of semantic patterns it is crucial to account for extra-linguistic factors such as genre, as different ESL writers structure the meaning of believe, guess, suppose and think differently depending on their type of writing. Ultimately, in the broader context of the emancipation of ESL varieties, the results raise important questions about the developmental process of Asian Englishes and the place that semantic structure holds in this endeavor.
... All kinds of linguistic indicators, from referential expressions to connectives to subordinated clauses can only be appreciated äs processing indicators for readers or listeners in the context of the total discourse. And the picture in production is not different from that in understanding: it is only in the context of the text äs a whole that we can come to understand why Speakers and writers pause longer before uttering some sentences than in producing others; the hierarchical structure of discourse plays an important role here (Sanders et al. 1996, Schilperoord 1996). The crucial role of discourse is hardly surprising, since we communicate by means of discourse; "discourse is what makes us human" (Graesser et al 1997: 164). ...
... 1990 b= 1990; 1990 a should be: 1991b) (Lee 1993)? The fact that there appears to be a strong cross-linguistic connection between speaker commitment and information source to the extent that direct evidence generally evokes strong commitment, whereas indirect evidence (reported or inferred) pairs with weaker degrees of commitment (Givón 1982; see also Sanders and Spooren 1996), would support the latter position. In view of the relatively small amount of cognitive linguistic studies of evidential categories (see Floyd 1999 for a notable exception), 4 , we will not elaborate this issue any further. ...
Article
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From a diachronic perspective, the evolution of the English modals has been described in terms of progressive subjectification, whereby they are claimed to have acquired the status of (highly grammaticalized) "grounding predications," which, together with tense and person inflections, relate the complement to the speech situation (the ground). One of the main merits of a cognitive linguistic analysis of modality is its focus on semantics, which has resulted in a considerable number of fine-grained semantic (network) analyses of modal markers, both from a diachronic and a synchronic point of view. Moreover, Leonard Talmy's force dynamics has provided a schematic conceptual background, against which a number of different, but related, models of modal meaning have been developed. This article deals with modal verbs in cognitive linguistics and discusses polysemy versus monosemy, metaphor, metonymy, minimal shifts/partial sanctioning, root modality and epistemic modality, subjectification and "grounding predications," and mood in cognitive linguistics.
... Epistemicity, which refer to linguistic markers such as, for example, the adverbs sure, undoubtedly, certainly, perhaps, probably etc., has different definitions in literature, some authors referring to S/W's attitude regarding the reliability of the information (Dendale & Tasmowski 2001;González 2005), others to the judgment of the likelihood of the proposition (Nuyts 2001a(Nuyts , 2001bPlungian 2001;Cornillie 2007), and yet others to the commitment to the truth of the message (Sanders & Spooren 1996;De Haan 1999;González 2005). ...
Chapter
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The selected papers of this volume cover five main topics, namely ‘Certainty: The conceptual differential’; ‘(Un)Certainty as attitudinality’; ‘Dialogical exchange and speech acts’; ‘Onomasiology’; and ‘Applications in exegesis and religious discourse’. By examining the general theme of the communication of certainty and uncertainty from different scientific fields, theoretical approaches and perspectives, this compendium of state-of-the-art research papers provides both an interdisciplinary comparison of the latest investigations, methods and findings, and new advances and theoretical insights with a common focus on human communication.
... Het zijn de referenties gemaakt naar personen, objecten en gebeurtenissen die in dit fragment de signalen van broninformatie vormen. Op elk van de genummerde instanties worden lexicale keuzes gemaakt die toe te schrijven zijn aan één van de bronnen, hetzij omdat ze typerende (modaliteit of evaluatie uitdrukkende, zie Sanders & Spooren 1996en Sanders 1999 benamingen vormen vanuit deze bron (1-5 en 7), hetzij omdat de betreffende aanduiding het ruimtelijke gezichtspunt van een bron weergeeft (6). ...
Article
In journalistic text genres, clearly discernable representations of source text are ubiqituous, such as direct and indirect speech, but also mixed types of quotation such as free indirect speech and paraphrase can be found, in which the voices of journalist and source are much harder to tell apart. Analysis of various types of news texts about one and the same case shows that in news reports, direct or indirect speech are preferred while the mixed type free indirect speech is avoided; by contrast, this type is more frequent in background articles and opiniating news text. Even the free indirect thought - a mixed type rooted in fictive genres - appears to be possible in these subgenres. Mixing voices of source and journalist is also expressed in references to characters and events. Examples from the journalistic subgenres are compared with respect to the form and function of source representation and voice mixing. Analysis of the mental spaces that are attributed to sources in various news genres helps explaining how the mixing of voices is established.
... The link between evidentiality are subjectivity in discourse has long been claimed by authors working in the subjectivity and modality interface who have elabo rated on the idea that modality expressions express the subject's opinion or atti tude toward a proposition or a situation and that evidentiality is a "semantic field of attitude toward knowledge" (Smith 2003: 155). In general terms, subjectivity has been defined as the expression of the speaker's commitment to a proposition and his/her attitude and evaluation towards what is said or towards the situation, establishing a strong bond between epistemic modality and the speaker's stance (Traugott 1995, Sanders and Spooren 1996, 1997Sanders 1999, Nuyts 2001). In providing a definition of subjectivity, Nuyts (2001) suggests an evidential reading of subjectivity proposing two dimensions regarding the status of the evidence and the epistemic evaluation based on the evidence, one that considers the speaker as the uniquely responsible entity that assumes all the responsibility for the qualifications and conclusions drawn from the evaluation (i.e., subjectivity) and another where the evidence is accessible to both speaker and hearer and thus the responsibility for the evaluation and conclusion is shared (i.e., inter subjectivity). ...
Article
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From an interactional perspective, this paper explores the evidential and salient meanings of Spanish and Catalan pragmatic markers claro/clar and la verdad/veritat, focusing on their intersubjective nature. Salience is the prominence that speakers give to certain meanings of lexemes based on prior experience, familiarity or convention (Giora, 2003; Kecskes 2013). Intersubjectivity involves the sharing of responsibility and commitment to the validity of the information provided (Nuyts 2001). The working hypothesis is that these markers adopt a twofold cognitive-functional role depending on: (i) the nature of the interactional communicative context; (ii) the newness or givenness of the information. In a monologic segment, the speaker makes use of the evidentials to argue and share with the interlocutor his/her epistemological stance and perspective through an inferential reasoning process; the aim is persuasive and evaluative. In a dialogic segment, their role is that of truth-attesting and the negotiation of salient meaning.
... For instance,Bolinger 1972, Aijmer 1984, 1985, 1998, Stenström 1986, 2002, Ungerer 1988, Nevalainen 1991, Powell 1992, Sanders & Spooren 1996, Paradis 1997, 2000, Lorenz 2002, Schwenter & Traugott 2000 ...
... Nuyts 2001b, Plungian 2001, Cornillie 2007, others to the commitment to the truth of the message (e.g. Sanders and Spooren 1996, De Haan 1999, González 2005. According to our theoretical point of view, the above mentioned definitions can all be re-conceptualized in terms of the labels "Certainty" and "Uncertainty", in the sense that at the communicative level, i.e. when communication occurs, writer's attitude (regarding the reliability of the information) or judgment (of the likelihood of the proposition) or commitment (to the truth of the message) can only be one of Certainty or Uncertainty. ...
Conference Paper
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Uncertainty language permeates biomedical research and is fundamental for the computer interpretation of unstructured text. And yet, a coherent, cognitive-based theory to interpret Uncertainty language and guide Natural Language Processing is, to our knowledge, non-existing. The aim of our project was therefore to detect and annotate Uncertainty markers – which play a significant role in building knowledge or beliefs in readers’ minds – in a biomedical research corpus. Our corpus includes 80 manually annotated articles from the British Medical Journal randomly sampled from a 168-year period. Uncertainty markers have been classified according to a theoretical framework based on a combined linguistic and cognitive theory. The corpus was manually annotated according to such principles. We performed preliminary experiments to assess the manually annotated corpus and establish a baseline for the automatic detection of Uncertainty markers. The results of the experiments show that most of the Uncertainty markers can be recognized with good accuracy.
... Also, thanks to Fabian Beijer, Nina Bergmark, Anna Wärnsby and Beatrice Warren for help with this paper. 2 For instance , Bolinger 1972;Aijmer 1984Aijmer , 1985Coates 1987;Stenström 1986Stenström , 2002Ungerer 1988;Nevalainen 1991;Powell 1992;Sanders and Spooren 1996;Paradis 1997Paradis , 2000Cinque 1999;Lorenz 1999, Schewenter and Traugott 2000Tsujimura 2001. 3 In cognitive linguistics, semantics and pragmatics form a continuum where a fixed boundary is not specified (for a comparison between generative and cognitive models in this respect, see Paradis (forthcoming)). ...
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This paper identifies and explains the emergence of three different readings of really in the schematic domains of epistemic modality and/or degree. The different readings arise through the interaction between the ontological notion of [REALITY] and the construal of really in relation to the context. The readings are: really as a marker of evidentiality (truth attesting), of subjective emphasis and of degree (reinforcement). This paper questions the view that the readings of really are positionally/ syntactically motivated. Instead, it proposes that the motivating factors are semantic/ pragmatic in nature. The argument is that really is conditioned by the speaker's wish to qualify an expression epistemically with a judgement of truth as perceived by the speaker. This condition thus acts as a motivating force on the type of conceptual representations that really evokes and takes scope over as well as on the prosodic salience of really itself. It is shown that valence and intonation are the main clues to the interpretation of really on the occasion of use. 1. Background and major claims Research on the interpretation of adverbs such as really, just, only, rather, quite, apparently or absolutely shows that they are contextually sensitive and highly flexible. 2 This paper takes a closer look at really in order to account for its various interpretations. Stenström's (1986) work on really forms the starting-point for the investigation. The following examples are from Stenström (1986: 151), where she claims that the different readings of really are due to position and syntactic function: (1) this question is really surprising (2) this is a really surprising question (3) this is really a surprising question (4) this really is a surprising question (5) really this is a surprising question
... As for the term epistemicity, which refers to linguistic markers such as the adverbs sure, undoubtedly, certainly, perhaps, probably…, in literature there are a few slightly different definitions of it: some authors refer to the speaker's attitude regarding the reliability of the information (e.g.1213), others to the judgment of the likelihood of the proposition (e.g.567, [14]), others to the commitment to the truth of the message (e.g. [3], [13], [15]). In our opinion, at the communicative level, i.e. in the Here and Now of communication , the above mentioned definitions can all be reconceptualised in terms of the labels " Certainty " and " Uncertainty " . ...
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The present study aimed at analyzing the communication of Certainty and Uncertainty in a corpus of Italian political speeches (pre-election rallies and parliamentary speeches) broadcast on television. The qualitative and quantitative analysis of the corpus shows that 1) in both kinds of speech the communication of Certainty clearly prevails over the Uncertainty; 2) the latter, even if it is at a low level, is slightly higher in parliamentary speeches than in pre-election rallies; 3) in the whole corpus a contraposition constantly occurs also between Good/Evil and True/False: every speaker, regardless of his faction , describes his own party as positive and truthful (Good and True) and the opposition party as negative and untruthful (Evil and False).
... An equally wide range of studies has also been conducted into epistemicity (certainty and uncertainty) and here again, many different definitions and viewpoints have arisen. These include such notions as the speaker/writer's attitude regarding the reliability of the information (see for example, Fitneva 2001, Dendale, Tasmowski 2001, González 2005, the speaker/writer's judgment of the likelihood of the proposition (see for example, Nuyts 2001, Cornillie 2007, and, additionally, the speaker/writer's commitment to the truth of the message (see e.g., De Haan 1999, Sanders, Spooren 1996. All these definitions can be reconceptualized in terms of the speaker/writer's view of 'certainty' and 'uncertainty' regarding the information that is being communicated. ...
Article
Within the framework of KUB Theory (Bongelli and Zuczkowski 2008, Zuczkowski et al. 2011), information communicated verbally can ultimately be reduced to one of three categories: what the speaker knows (Known), what the speaker does not know (Unknown) and what the speaker believes (Believed). Dialogic communication can be considered as an exchange of information originating in one of these categories and directed towards another. The present study investigates the interaction of Known, Unknown and Believed information in the dialogues found in Chapter 10 of Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows. It demonstrates how these three categories of information can contribute to a reading of the plot and its progression, and also how aspects of the protagonists’ characters emerge through the language they use in their dialogic communication.
... I will come back to this in section 3, especially in the discussion of the intersubjective uses associated with 'epistemic' must.3 The high degree of epistemic certainty associated with must is often linked to the specific inferential nature of must, which typically presupposes strong evidence, from which a given claim imperatively follows (seeSanders and Spooren, 1996). For a critical view, seeCornillie (2009). ...
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This paper investigates the uses of epistemic must and its Dutch and German cognates moeten and müssen. Starting point is the observation that epistemic must occurs remarkably more often in English than its immediate counterparts in the two other languages. By means of a detailed comparison on the basis of a self-compiled English–Dutch–German translation corpus of fictional texts, this paper identifies the factors determining these frequency differences. First, it appears that English must covers a wider inferential ground than its Dutch and German counterparts, as it can also code highly subjective ‘conjectural’ inferences apart from the typical must-inferences based on observable evidence and general knowledge. Second, epistemic must is often used to appeal to the addressee, to invoke the addressee's sympathy among other things. Such intersubjective uses of epistemic must seem to be rare with the German and Dutch cognates. Third, general communicative preferences in English promote the use of hedging devices (like epistemic modal verbs), as they contribute to an indirect and addressee-oriented way of interaction that is more valued in English than in German.
... 41 The assumption that the epistemic operator B does not allow infor- mation within its scope to be extracted, is motivated by others. Sanders and Spooren (1996) observe that epistemic modifiers mark perspective (which leads to subjectivity in utterances containing those markers). Spooren (1989) argues that information from perspectivized contexts can not percolate to other contexts. ...
... 41 The assumption that the epistemic operator B does not allow infor- mation within its scope to be extracted, is motivated by others. Sanders and Spooren (1996) observe that epistemic modifiers mark perspective (which leads to subjectivity in utterances containing those markers). Spooren (1989) argues that information from perspectivized contexts can not percolate to other contexts. ...
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This article focuses on the problem of the categorization of the adverb sans doute as an epistemico-modal marker or an evidential marker. Starting from a critical appraisal of an analysis proposed by Bourmayan et Ashino, in which sans doute is considered fundamentally epistemico-modal, three hypotheses are presented, which depart from theirs. First, sans doute has as its main lexical element an inferential evidential value: it signals that the content qualified by the adverb is the result of a defeasible type of inference from clues/premises. Second, due to the defeasibility of the inference, the statement containing the adverb takes on, invariably, a pragmatic value of non-certainty, not lexically coded, however. Sans doute is thus not an epistemico-modal marker by itself in contemporary French. Third, the adverb combines these values with an epistemic value of what we call “posture of certainty”. Different from epistemic modality, which refers to an evaluation in terms of certainty, and/or to the epistemic cognitive state linked to that, posture of certainty refers to what can be called the tone or epistemic behavior of confidence the speaker shows. Sans doute therefore indicates without contradiction, a defeasible and, thus, uncertain hypothesis, presented with a tone of full confidence.
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Evidential markers have the function of indicating the source of information or evidence on which a statement is based. The aim of the present paper is to identify and disentangle the different evidential and epistemic meanings of the evidential adverb apparently through the lens of its translations into Swedish and other languages (German and French) in parallel corpora. The empirical findings from the translations show that apparently can cover many types of evidence and degrees of epistemic commitment. The evidential and epistemic modal meanings of apparently are separate but related to each other. The correspondences show that apparently has the evidential meanings inferential justification and hearsay (reportive justification). As shown by the correspondences, apparently can also have epistemic modal meanings indicating partial epistemic support. The correspondences of apparently as a seem-type verb used as a catenative have a hedging or downtoning function. The correspondences show that apparently can also situate an event in the domain of unreal or ‘what is apparent rather than real’. In terms of epistemic modality apparently has the meaning of neutral support where it represents epistemic meanings that can be characterized as completely uncertain or complete ignorance.
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Corpus-based contrastive and translation research are areas that keep evolving in the digital age, as the range of new corpus resources and tools expands, opening up to different approaches and application contexts. The current book contains a selection of papers which focus on corpora and translation research in the digital age, outlining some recent advances and explorations. After an introductory chapter which outlines language technologies applied to translation and interpreting with a view to identifying challenges and research opportunities, the first part of the book is devoted to current advances in the creation of new parallel corpora for under-researched areas, the development of tools to manage parallel corpora or as an alternative to parallel corpora, and new methodologies to improve existing translation memory systems. The contributions in the second part of the book address a number of cutting-edge linguistic issues in the area of contrastive discourse studies and translation analysis on the basis of comparable and parallel corpora in several languages such as English, German, Swedish, French, Italian, Spanish, Portuguese and Turkish, thus showcasing the richness of the linguistic diversity carried out in these recent investigations. Given the multiplicity of topics, methodologies and languages studied in the different chapters, the book will be of interest to a wide audience working in the fields of translation studies, contrastive linguistics and the automatic processing of language.
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This article aims to further test the cognitive claims of the so-called subjectivity account of causal events and their linguistic markers, causal connectives. We took Mandarin Chinese, a language that is typologically completely different from the usual western languages, as a case to provide evidence for this subjectivity account. Complementary to the commonly used corpora analyses, we employed crowdsourcing to tap native speakers’ intuitions about causal coherence, focusing on four result connectives kějiàn ‘therefore’, suǒyǐ ‘so’, yīncǐ ‘so/for this reason’ and yúshì ‘thereupon/as a result’. The analysis shows systematic differences regarding the use of connectives in relations that differ in terms of subjectivity, demonstrating that native speakers make use of subjectivity to encode and decode different types of causal relations in discourse. Moreover, our study evidences that a comprehensive model of subjectivity should include the epistemic dimension of certainty about the subjectivity scale that might be indicated by other linguistic elements. In-depth analyses of the test items revealed that the presence/absence of modality words in the result segments are related to different preferential patterns for the connectives. There is a trade-off between the epistemic dimension of certainty and the expression of subjectivity in the four connectives involved.
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Although previous work on viewpoint techniques has shown that viewpoint is ubiquitous in narrative discourse, approaches to identify and analyze the linguistic manifestations of viewpoint are currently scattered over different disciplines and dominated by qualitative methods. This article presents the ViewPoint Identification Procedure (VPIP), the first systematic method for the lexical identification of markers of perceptual, cognitive and emotional viewpoint in narrative discourse. Use of this step-wise procedure is facilitated by a large appendix of Dutch viewpoint markers. After the introduction of the procedure and discussion of some special cases, we demonstrate its application by discussing three types of narrative excerpts: a literary narrative, a news narrative, and an oral narrative. Applying the identification procedure to the full news narrative, we show that the VPIP can be reliably used to detect viewpoint markers in long stretches of narrative discourse. As such, the systematic identification of viewpoint has the potential to benefit both established viewpoint scholars and researchers from other fields interested in the analytical and experimental study of narrative and viewpoint. Such experimental studies could complement qualitative studies, ultimately advancing our theoretical understanding of the relation between the linguistic presentation and cognitive processing of viewpoint. Suggestions for elaboration of the VPIP, particularly in the realm of pragmatic viewpoint marking, are formulated in the final part of the paper.
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Politicians and other political speakers must engage in discursive work to construct themselves and the claims they offer as ‘reasons for action’ as credible. This is particularly the case when the action being proposed is high-stakes and/or when audiences are generally sceptical. The discursive means available to political speakers in this regard have been investigated in pragmatics, social psychology and critical discourse analysis. Broadly, two competing strategies can be identified: subjectification versus objectification. Both strategies function to elevate the epistemic status of the proposition advanced, thereby strengthening the justificatory case for action that it seeks to build. Subjectification strategies appeal to the personal authority of the speaker as a reason to believe the claim while objectification strategies appeal to third-party sources or other external evidentiary bases in support of the claim. In this study, we use experimental methods to compare empirically the effectiveness of these two alternative strategies. We do so in the context of political discourse seeking sanction for military action. Results show that, regardless of the credibility of the speaker, objectification strategies are more effective than subjectification strategies.
Article
This paper uncovers evidence for two linked levels of morphosyntactic change occurring in Canadian English. The more ordinary is a lexical replacement: with finite subordination after seem, the complementizer like has been overtaking all the alternatives ( as if, as though, that, and Ø ). On top of this, there is a broader syntactic change whereby the entire finite structure (now represented primarily by like ) is beginning to catch on at the expense of infinitival subordination after seem . Drawing on complementary evidence from British English and several partial precedents in the historical linguistics literature, I take this correlation to mean that like has reached sufficient rates among the finite strategy to have instigated the second level of change, to the point that it has ramifications for epistemic and evidential marking with the verb seem . I propose that the best model of these trajectories is a set of increasingly large envelopes of variation, one inside the next, and argue that the envelope might itself be an entity susceptible to change over time.
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After an introductory chapter that provides an overview to theoretical issues in tense, aspect, modality and evidentiality, this volume presents a variety of original contributions that are firmly empirically-grounded based on elicited or corpus data, while adopting different theoretical frameworks. Thus, some chapters rely on large diachronic corpora and provide new qualitative insight on the evolution of TAM systems through quantitative methods, while others carry out a collostructional analysis of past-tensed verbs using inferential statistics to explore the lexical grammar of verbs. A common goal is to uncover semantic regularities and variation in the TAM systems of the languages under study by taking a close look at context. Such a fine-grained approach contributes to our understanding of the TAM systems from a typological perspective. The focus on well-known Indo-European languages (e.g. French, German, English, Spanish) and also on less commonly studied languages (e.g. Hungarian, Estonian, Avar, Andi, Tagalog) provides a valuable cross-linguistic perspective.
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In German talk-in-interaction it can be observed that so-called loose appositions are frequently used as a grammatical resource for performing selfinitiated self-repairs in the domain of reference. In the current paper, it is argued that this kind of appositional pattern can be described as a grammatical construction which indicates that the incorporated grammatical elements give alternative ‘reference instructions’ for building up compatible conceptualizations of one and the same entity with respect to different epistemic domains. Thereby it offers the possibility to incrementally adjust the design of reference instructions to divergent knowledge states of the interlocutors. The use of appositional constructions is thus frequently linked to aspects of epistemic stance regarding a lack of common ground. Hence, it is argued that aspects of the local management of epistemic asymmetries can be considered part of the pragmatic specifications of the construction. These specifications are sometimes made explicit through the use of lexical markers like also ‘that is’ so that the extended pattern which contains such markers might be called a metapragmatic construction.
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The communication of the uncertainty of a scientific finding largely determines whether that information will be translated to practice. Unfortunately, our ability to study these phenomena is restricted since existing uncertainty corpora with a diachronic perspective are limited. We analysed a historical corpus through a random sample of 167 years (1840–2007) of articles published in the British Medical Journal. Randomization was stratified according to four distinct time periods. The Uncertainty Markers (UMs) and their linguistic scope were tagged in each full-text article in order to answer the following main questions: (1) which and how many lexical and morphosyntactic UMs are used by writers in order to communicate their own uncertainty? (2) How much uncertainty (UMs + their scope) is present in each article, in each period and in the whole corpus? (3) Is there any significant variation in the use of UMs and their scope along the 167-year span? Although the analysis revealed significant differences in two of the six categories of UMs (non-verbs and modal verbs in the conditional mood), the amount of certainty and uncertainty along the four periods revealed no significant variation. The manual identification was followed by an automatic detection, whose results showed that UMs and their scope were recognised with good accuracy.
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This volume seeks to advance and popularise the use of corpus-driven quantitative methods in the study of semantics. The first part presents state-of-the-art research in polysemy and synonymy from a Cognitive Linguistic perspective. The second part presents and explains in a didactic manner each of the statistical techniques used in the first part of the volume. A handbook both for linguists working with statistics in corpus research and for linguists in the fields of polysemy and synonymy.
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This book shows that the meaning of grammatical constructions often has more to do with the human cognitive capacity for taking other peoples' points of view than with describing the world. Treating pragmatics, semantics, and syntax in parallel and integrating insights from linguistics, psychology, and studies in animal behaviour, the book develops a new understanding of linguistic communication. In doing so it shows the continuity between language and animal communication and reveals the nature of human linguistic specialization. The book uses Dutch and English data from a wide variety of sources and considers the contributions of grammar to the coherence of discourse. It argues that important problems in semantics and syntax may be resolved if language is understood as an instrument for exerting influence and coordinating different perspectives. The grammatical phenomena the book discusses include negative expressions, the let alone construction, complementation constructions, and discourse connectives.
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This chapter introduces the field of polysemy and synonymy studies from a Cognitive Linguistic perspective. Firstly, the discussion explains and defines the object of research, showing that the study of semantic relations, traditionally restricted to the description of lexical semantics, needs to be extended to include all formal structures, including morpho-syntax. Secondly, given the theoretical assumptions of Cognitive Linguistics, it is argued that quantitative corpus-driven methods are essential for the description of semantic structures. Lastly, the chapter charts the development of Cognitive Semantic research in polysemy and synonymy and demonstrates how the current corpus-driven research in the field is inherently linked to the traditions of radial network analysis and prototype semantics. It is argued that instead of an empirical revolution (as has been suggested in recent commentaries), the current trends in the use of observational data are a natural extension of the Cognitive Semantic research tradition.
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This paper addresses two key issues in the study of discursive constructions: the strategic use of ‘justificatory support’ aimed at the legitimisation of assertions, and the mystification of responsibility for epistemic stance acts in the discourse. The paper argues that the use of epistemic stance resources contributes to the speaker's strategic aim of legitimising assertions, which plays an indirect role in the legitimisation of actions. An additional dimension of legitimisation is the inter/subjective anchoring of these stance acts, which by default index the speaker as conceptualiser, thus assigning responsibility and accountability for the validity of the communicated information. This paper explores these issues and presents results on the stancetaking patterns and the expression of subjectivity and intersubjectivity in the discourse of a parliamentary inquiry and a public inquiry.
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The communication of the uncertainty of a scientific finding largely determines whether that information will be translated to practice. Unfortunately, however, our ability to study these phenomena is restrained since existing uncertainty corpora are limited in their number of full text articles and in their provision of a historical perspective. We describe a historical corpus evaluating uncertainty markers through a random sample of 167 years (1840–2007) of articles published in the British Medical Journal. Randomization was stratified from four distinct time periods, namely 1840–1880, 1881–1920, 1921–1960, and 1961–2007. Each full-text article was tagged by a group of analysts associated with a physician. We describe extensive data on the distribution of each of these linguistic markers. Contrary to our initial hypothesis, the rates of uncertainty markers have remained surprisingly stable over the period studied in this project, except for the modal verbs in the simple present, which occur with a minor frequency in the first time period compared to the other three.
Article
Evidential expressions are generally treated in the literature as a type of epistemic modality. The speaker estimates the chances that an utterance has of being true and expresses his/her strength of commitment to the truth of the proposition expressed. Strictly speaking, the evidential marking involves the speaker's or writer's stance in relation to the source-of-information, whereas epistemic modals express the speaker's or writer's attitude regarding the reliability of the information as well as the commitment to the truth of the message. In both cases, there is an extended use of lexical and auxiliary modal verbs, adverbials, and epistemic modifiers (Givón 1982; Anderson 1986; Chafe 1986; Mithun 1986; Mayer 1990). This article approaches the Catalan evidential system in its broadest sense, taking both evidentiality marking and epistemic modality into consideration, and presents Catalan linguistic expressions of attitudes toward knowledge in general (Chafe 1986; Willet 1988). The first section deals with the issue of subjectivity, in relation to speaker's stance toward knowledge; the second section is devoted to the epistemic value of specific Catalan evidential expressions, following Chafe's classification. Since this is not a quantitative study, the examples provided aim to illustrate this semantic sub-field in Catalan, a minority language.
Article
The paper analyzes the role of evidentials such as epistemic muB ‘must’, offensichtlich/offenbar obviously’, sicherlich ‘surely’/‘certainly’ schein-‘seem’, and angeblich ‘supposedly’ within discourse semantics. It is shown that the evidentials under discussion can be distinguished via a small number of parameters. In appropriate contexts these distinctions may be neutralized. Moreover, the interaction with problems of non-monotonicity and perspectivization is investigated. The results are relevant to a “semantics of pretending”.
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Mental Spaces is the classic introduction to the study of mental spaces and conceptual projection, as revealed through the structure and use of language. It examines in detail the dynamic construction of connected domains as discourse unfolds. The discovery of mental space organization has modified our conception of language and thought: powerful and uniform accounts of superficially disparate phenomena have become available in the areas of reference, presupposition projection, counterfactual and analogical reasoning, metaphor and metonymy, and time and aspect in discourse. The present work lays the foundation for this research. It uncovers simple and general principles that lie behind the awesome complexity of everyday logic.
Chafe, Wallace 1986 Evidentiality in English conversation and academic writing Evidentiality: The Linguistic Coding of Epistemology
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Knowledge-based-observational: z 1 = 4.\l j /κ.001; ζ 2 = 2.52, p<.05; moet: knowledge-based-observational: z l =3.98, p<.001
  • Overtuigd
Overtuigd: Knowledge-based-observational: z 1 = 4.\l j /κ.001; ζ 2 = 2.52, p<.05; moet: knowledge-based-observational: z l =3.98, p<.001; z 2 = 2.38, p<.05; blijkt: knowledge-based-observational: z l =4.2Q,p <.001; z 2 = 2.52, p <.05.
The mean certainty scores d fer between the two analyses due to the fact that in the subject
A one-way ANOVA was used in a subject analysis (1) and an item analysis (2). The mean certainty scores d fer between the two analyses due to the fact that in the subject -10.1515/cogl.1996.7.3.241
Unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of Tflburg
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Sanders, Jose 1994 Perspective in narrative discourse. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of Tflburg. -10.1515/cogl.1996.7.3.241
Corpus-analytisch onderzoek naar de relatie tussen epistemische bepalingen en typen evidentie in natuurlijke taal [Corpus analytical study of the relation between epistemic modifiers and types of evidence in natural discourse
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Schoenmakers, Carolien 1993 Corpus-analytisch onderzoek naar de relatie tussen epistemische bepalingen en typen evidentie in natuurlijke taal [Corpus analytical study of the relation between epistemic modifiers and types of evidence in natural discourse].
Some aspects of the form and Interpretation of global contrastive coherence relations. Unpublished doctoral dissertation
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Spooren, Wilbert 1989 Some aspects of the form and Interpretation of global contrastive coherence relations. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of Nijmegen.
Utrecht: Oosthoek, Scheltema and Holkema, Willett, Thomas 1988 A cross-linguistic survey of the grammaticization of evidentiality
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Sweetser, Eve 1990 From Etymology to Pragmatics: Metaphorical and Cultural Aspects of Semantic Structure, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Uit den Boogaard, Pieter 1975 Woordfrequeniies in geschreven en gesproken Nederlands [Word frequencies in written and spoken Dutch]. Utrecht: Oosthoek, Scheltema and Holkema, Willett, Thomas 1988 A cross-linguistic survey of the grammaticization of evidentiality. Studies in Language 12(1), 51-97. -10.1515/cogl.1996.7.3.241